Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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//WT-745
\"'Copy No.
.r
277
ro:.F1NS
AtOMIC
SUPPORT AGENCY
Projact 4.5
OCULAR EFFFCTS OF THEitAdA:&.. RAlJIATlON FROM
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1960
WT-745
This document consists of 76 pages
No.
277
r
OPERATION UPSHOT-KNOTHOLE
Project 4.5
ATOMIC
DETONATIOr~
- FLASHBLINDNESS
.......
by
....
....
..
.....
I
::." .'I'~ . .
; ).'.:
,_i_~_..:--
RESTR!CTED DATA
__J
peroo. I. prohlblled.
Project of
.. ..
....
t,
,
ABSTRACT
PART I
"CRIiT
1"TII"[8 "AT A
... ..
Reasonably good central vis~,-on (20/IJ) under reduced lllumination (1.57 Nlt)* retur~ei in approximatelY 154 sCC e
c. PeriJ;1eral v~ ....;:.~., ~..,tl1rned in an average of 160 89C und81" 0.001
Nit lllDinance \ '\ppro:rlmately tlJat ot iliCionless night sky) and in an
average of 249 sec under 0.00001 Nit of l'DII1nance (slightlY less than
moonless night &7 with overcast).
It is conclu,:ied that filters of the type used protect almost all
individuals from reti.nal burns under the conditions of the ~r1ment
and allow perfol"lll&.nc~ of typical visual. tasks required of a pilot f~
ing the aircraft \11 J~in 20 to 60 sec following the flash (If the atomic
c!etonati'ln.
b.
..
,1
PART II
....
...
.
"
...
...
.....
When the 8ye observes an atomic fireball, tho energy rncei ved in the
retinal image per wit time and area depends on tle relative opening of
the eye (pupillary diameter divided by focal len~th) and the energy
emitted by the fireball per unit area. Due to t~.e concentration of
energy in the image formed on the retina, skin burns and retinal bums
follow different laws. As a result of this concentration retinal lesions are produced at distance,;; many times greater than those for mn!mal skin burns.
In comparison with the skin the central part of the retinal l~ge
gets a higher percentage of its total radiation at an ~arl1er time
The energy (per unit area and time) EIIlitted by an atomic fireball
bas an earlY peak before 1/1000 of a second. Human ar:l anllual eye protective reflexe~ come too late for this first peak.
In order to determine the burn injury processos to the dark adapted
rabbit eye and their possible correlat.ion with thoEe which occur in
humans, 700 pigmenteci rabbits were exposed to six pred&wn atomic blasts
at diatances varying from 2 to 42t miles. Dark adap~ed rabblt eyes suffered ret1.na1 burns at distances up to 42t miles; 350 of the 700 rabbits
placed in the field received retinal injuries. It WI! found that retinal damage varied with the banb kilotonnage and d1m1nis.'1ed vi th the
distance of the animals from the flash.
Pathologic findings in the' expo sed pigmented rabbit eyes correlated
well with clinical obaervations and shoved characteristic coagulation
necrosis with or without JDfAjrr tissue and cell destru.\:tion in the retina
and choroid. ~losive generation of steam in some cases caused rupture
of the retinal elem~nts with hemorrhage into the vit~ou~.
Four cases of acc~dental atomic chorioretinaJ burns have occurred in
humans. These indi rtduals vit3ved the flash at distances varyi:lg from 2
to 10 miles from ground zero. ClInically the lesions resemble those
occurring in rabbits at co~sponding distances and are supporting evidence for predictions made in the laboratory. Permanent 3cotomata havt;
resulted in these ind.i.vidus.ls.
Si'AE'-
l!StRiC'!88A'A
'
..
PREFACE
PART I
This is the third report in the serie5 on flash blindness. The
first was a study of the effectc produced by atomic detonations during
daylight operations. '!his was reported as Flash Blindness, WT-J41,
Project 4.3, Opera'ti.on BUSTER. The second study vas reported as Flash
Blindness, W'r-5JO, Project 4.5, Operation SNAPPER. This vas a study of
the nighttime problem; howver, it vas interrupted because tw of the
test subjects incurred retinal burns. This third study repre8ents a
continuation of tho interrupted project. Its p~ pvse is to give opere.tional units an estimate of the length or time perEX>nn6l \d 11 be unable
to see well enough to carry out their assigned duties if they a:re unexpectedly exposed to an atomic flash.
It is emphasized that these experiments were devised to obtain an
estimate of the usefulness of a specific filter combination in eye dAzzle protection. They were not intended to obtain bs.sic data or. dazzle
effects and cannot be so interpreted.
.. - .
....
PART II
The study here reported vas done in four parts and is not ,et entirely "ompleted. The first portion will consider the physical factors
involved in the effect of these facturs on the eyer This will include
the determination of the threshold energy required to produce a lesion
in the retina by the vawlengths involved. The s~ond portion will gin
the results obtained in an experiment us!.ng 700 rabbits 1n six atomic
detonations in Nevada during UPSOOT-OOTOOL t~st8 in 1953. The third
portion will be a report vf four human C.S6S of chorioretinal b\trn~ produced by atomic flash. The fourth portion will be eo brief 8l.1J1m1ltion or
the pathological findings in the retinal burns.
....
....
I"l!
ACKNOWLEOOMEN'l' 5
The Project Officer desires to expra8S appreciation to Crew Training Air Force for cooperation in furnishing teet subjects from Nellis
Air F(lroe Base for these studies and for the assistance of Col Jack
Bristow, Ophthalmolog18t ell. Nellis, who examined the 811bjects and aesisted in the tests.
To Lt Col E. A. Pinson, the Director of Program 4, apprecial.~ on is
expressed for administrative assistance, techrucal guidance, and for
procurement of supplies and transportation.
The st8.tistic:U e'\-aluation of the expermmtal results and the perfO!'m&llce of certain other computations vere done by Mr. David Rubenstein,
Department of Biometrics, School of Aviation Medicine.
All phot~graph9 wre taken by Sergeants Kahn! tz, Burnap and Seal,
who alao gave much of their time in many other varied tasks.
Finally, much credit is due to personnel of the School of Aviation
Medicine who conducted the testing, acted as subjects in a fev
instances, and traveled back and forth to the Nevada Proving Grounds
in order that this work could be accomplished without interfering with
their heavy dut_ 38 at the School. ~ee1al credit is due to Lt Col John
R. Grun1-fell., Jr., and to Lt A. D. Ruedemann, Jr.
... ..
S6ER'J
REST.fey!" eAT A
00 NT mrs
t,
iBSl'RACT
PRWACE
A.COOWLEIXJUB1' S
II
13
ILLUSTRATIDHS
. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TA1I.ES
PART I
CHAPl'm 1
INTR:)IU;TlON
1.1
ObjectIve
13
1.2
Backgt~und
and Tbeory
13
13
CHAP'UR 2
2.1
2.2
2.3
IN Sl'RtIUl'rrA.TION
Te.t1ng
.. . . .
3.1
3.2
~nt
Shot Data
PIl)C EOORES
4.2
Daaign
4.1
15
The Trailer
::lb'.ltter!
Result.
4.1.1 St.at,1. t1 oa.l Dl.ta
4.1.2 Ther..l ~i.::.=+'i
D18CUU1on
24
2.4
2.4
25
R!!TII!T!15
..
15
15
15
..
.;;
??
13
OAiI
........
CHAPl'!R 5 CONCLUSIONS
5.1
Cont"luaione
"
'"
..
INTRO.I::JlXTION
..
..
26
. 26
27
27
.. .
27
Baekground
6.2
, 27
6 2.. 1 The Litarature
27
" ..
6.2.2 Cbaraaterlstlca or Light '" e 28
6.2.3 Phya1cal Fa~tor!l " , 28
CHAPTER 7 INSfIllJ.imTAT!ON ..
35
..
6.1
Objective
..
and Theory
to
It
8.1
8.2
..
..
.
8 .. 3
Rabbits .
Patbologica..".. Findings
8.2.1 Material ..
8.2.2 Tecblrlque
8.2.3 J.t,r~bology
6l
t;
"
.. ..
c
to
6l
CHAPTER 9
9.1
9.2
.,
It
to
Dia:ussion
Conclu8ion~
IEFIN IT IONS
BIlL IOGPAPHI
<l'
<"
6l
t;.
CHAPTm 8 RESm.TS
!;
It
It
It
8-
37
.,
" ,
., . .,
to
.. "
~
1;
37
37
37
39
39
45
51
51
64
..
ill
..
"
10
SEERET
A~STRle'1!8
65
66
8Al:.l
~.-
ILLUSTRATIONS
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
6.1
Sbutwr MechaniSt
17
18
19
20
21
6.3
7.1
7.2
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
Cnorioretinal
~esion
31
34
35
36
38
38
40
41
4243
43
4J.,
" 44
'iiAET
RESTR'CTED "AT'"
8.1.3
,(
I
48
49
49
TAlLES
~.1 Shot Data and Distance ~ 0
6.1 Estimated Threshold Distances tor Cborioretinal Lesions
fro. a Bom1 nsl Atomic Bomb 0
9.1 Estimated Threshold Distances tor Choriorotinal Lesions
t.rom Nominal
.,
......
.
.. .
...
...
.
......
..
...
.. ... .
Atomic ~bI
23
33
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
1.2
,!elt!'
1t!"ItICl!D BATA
60
60
61
61
62
62
63
PARr I
FLiSHltIlflifas
CBAPrPR 1
IHTBOImTION
1.1 OBJEtTIVE
This research vas conducted to determine to wbat degree the flash
of an atomic detonation impairs the vision and reduces the efficiency
of militar)T p~lOnnel during night operations. Observations vere made
which were ~.ntended to raveal the evolution, degree, and duration of
the reduced vision.. An atte!dpt was made to evaluate the efficacy of a
filter designed to protect against retinal bums and flash blindness
and also designed to permit performance of visual tasks such as ar<J
~qu1red of aircraft pilots.
1.2
1.2.1
~1me
S'taation
Nighttime
~",tuation
di.vidua1 has pupils which are more or less widel1' dilated, depending on
the amount of light to which the eye 1s being exposed prior to detonation and the amount of ill\lldnation involved in the vil\.&l task at
hand. There are essentially t\lO types of night vision tasks which are
of interest to the Serv1C6S. One of th6se is the si tuatlon 1n which an
individual itt looking at illuminated dials
red lighted) aboard
ship, as pilot of an aircraft or driver of a tank. He may be exposed
<uaual.lJ'
13
_-
mas
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~
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o
00
.
0
o
o
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14
5"115'
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'flAT A
CHAPI'ER 2
INSTRUMOOAT:ON
2.1
THE TRAILER
Since all of the detonations took place within JO min prior to official sunrise and a considerable amount of il1um1nat 1 vn from the sun
was present, it was necestl8l7 to use 80me means of exposing the eyes
while the subject was dark adapted and had the normal dilated pupils
that go with the night-seeing situation. This is, of course, necessary
in order to obtain useful information applicable to night operational
conditions. A light-tight trailer was used to house the observers 80
that dark conditions could be silllulated (Fig. 2.1).
2.2
SHt1l'TERS
Along the side of the trailer were 12 ports fitted with shutter
dAvices for exposing the eyes of the observers. The shutters were constructed in such a manner that the left eye only was expo sed to the
flash, while the right eye vas used to fix the position of the eyes by
regarding a luminous fixation object. The shutter-opening mechanism vas
in! tiated by means of a minus 1 sec signal (lent out by the Control
Point (1 ms accuracy). A built-in delay opened the shutter at an average
of ll 3 ms before time zero. The shutter remained open for I sec.
Mechanians were calibrated before, during, and after each test. Shutter
mechanians worked satisfactorily during all teats (Figs. 2.2 and 2.3).
2.3
TESI'ING
15
-"'AiT
AESTRICf!rJ DATA
.. .
,
..
..
9[tl!1
RESTRicTED bAiA
17
S5'A'T
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Fig. 2.3
td
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---
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Fig. ;;'.4
Aircraft Instrt.lllents Used in the Instrument Ree.d1r,g Task - The red flood lighting and the individual inlftr\JlDent lighting sources are visible. Altimeter and gyro compass vere selected
ooC4use readings could be changed by the examiner and because they represent the typical instrument reading task of pilots
.... '.
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Battery of Hyktceeter. and Adaptometer. - Theae vere uaed to plot the ret.w.'"l'l of dark adaptation, both of the central and peripheral visual functions
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21
SSC.HiT
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSS!ON
4.1
RESULTS
4.1.1
statist~cal
Data
rata tor this project were obtained from rive detonations. There
19 subjects u88d with a total or 55 teat observations. or these,
vere
39 vers tests on red ligbted instruments or the aircratt type and 16
......
...
ware tests ot mesopic and ecotopic viedon. The results of' these tests
are BUllll8rls6d in Table 7.1 to 7.4, and th81 indicate that the reoov8l"1 ot useful v'_aion tor reading red lighted instruments w,s very
rapid. The average time to the tirst corr~ct rfIIld1 ng vas 18.4 sec. !hie
time varied but little tor bomb& ot various si,es. It ldll be noted O!l
the taDles that th~8e tests were conducted in ysry clear air conditioDa.
Reruts might not be the aame if' haze or J1ftering weather conditions
prevailed.
Nyktometer testa snowed that recovery ot resaonablJ- good mesopic
vision (acu1t.1 0.5 or 20/40) oc('urr&d on the aven.bft in ;'53 sec (nnge
47 to 420 sec).
The adaptometer tests indicated that recovery or sec-topic vi "ton
to d1atinguJ.sh light at 0.001 Nit luminance occurred in an average ot
152.8 see (range ot 45 to 250 sec). Visual acuity ot 0.01 at this
luminance returned on an average of 160.7 sec (rauge at 50 to 255 sea).
At a lUlll1nMce ot 0.00001 Nit, the ability t() distinguish torm returned
in an avm-age ot 226.3 sec (range 100 + to 300 sec), and vi sual acnl1ty
or 0.01 in an average ot 248.9 sec (rango of 105 to :330 sec).
4.1.2
Th~
Eftects
5i.CAiT
1!!JRICl EO OA i A~
.-.~
.- .
have an extremely darkly pigmented f~~due and energy striking the pigment layer of his retina would be absorbed wi thin a very thin layer of
tissue. Hib injury occurred during the participation in the detonation
of the largest of the bombs and the trailer was located nearer (7 miles)
to ground zero than in any of the previous shots. The signifance of
such a retinal burn is discussed in the other section of this report
concerned with atomic chorioretinal burna.
4.2
DISCUSSION
. ..
_.
,
..
.,
. .
8
25
5i'.ii'
AE"AJ"E. I/JTA
.-
_ _ _ _ _ __
-.~-7'''''
"
CHAPTm 5
CONCLUSIONS
5.1 CONCLUSIONS
. -.
.. ..
.. ....
,
26
,,-_._----
"', ~-"'"--.-.,,--JJII
PART II
OCllLAR mEeTS OF THmMAL RADIATION FROM ATOMIC DETONATION
ClI>RIORETINAL BORN S
CHAPTm 6
lNTRODIDTION
6.1
OBJ~TlVE
, .. -...
The Literature
The advent of the atomic bomb has produced new problems for the
ophthalmologist and it has inten3ified some of the old ones. The neutron
radiation problElll 1s completely new. The gamma radiation problEm is an
expanded version of the roentgen ray and radi\Dll emanation problEm. The
radiant energy released at detonation of an atomic bomb in the form of
infrared and vis:ble light is again a physical agent with which opthalmologistIJ are familiar because it produces the vell-koovn eclipse burn
of the retina. It is the same infrared and visible light which produces
the atomic chorioret1nal ~lrnS which are the subject of this presentation. Eclipse blindness vi';.h its tn>lcal macular burns has been reported
by Birch-Hirschfeld (12), (13), (14), (15), Ve~hoefr, Bell and Walker
(124), Alexanavr (1), Aubaret (3), Lundagaard and Ronne (83), McCulloch
(85), Rosen (105), !bwer (121), Zade (138), (139), (140), Jess (67),
(68), (69) l and DIS.lV others. Excellent reviews have be~~: published by
Lauber (76), Birch-H1rschfelt (14), Verhoefr, Bell and Walker (124) and
Irvine (65).
27
SE6RET
''Y.
I[ST.,e,e! lATA
~(-'-,j. . . .~'-
- -. .,
. ---
---
---
--"
......
... ,..
...
...
....
.',
While the components of light from the sun and from the atomic
bomb flash whIch produce the damage are the same (visible light and
infrared), there. are 8011e rather marked differences between them. The
eclipse burn ill almost always macular; the atomic burn is usually not
macular unless BOme fixation point has been provided g1 ving the location or the bomb. The eclipse burn is incurred through a very snall
pupil, hence an a~ciable period of tiJne is required to heat tissue
suffiCiently to damage it. During this period the vascular system of
the 818 can dilla1pate some of tbi9 heat. In the atcmic burn most of
the energy ill d~'l1V8red 80 rapidly as to be almost instantaneous, thus
giving DO opportunity for vascular dissipation and very little for di&sipation bf conduction. In addition, it llA'1 well be delivered through
the videq dilated pupil occurring at night. This vide open ]n..'Pil vill
acb1t roughly 50 times the energy passed by the 1III&11e&t pupil in the
88IIle period ot t1mel 80, while the mechwan is the same, there are
d1tterencea which warrant careful consideration.
The extremely high intensity of radiation from tha atomic flach
has been reCQgn1zed fM~ the earliest tests. As a result, the eyes of
practi~ all observers at atomic detonations have been care.fuJ.ly
protected by very dense filterA required by the test organization of the
Atomic ,Energy COIDission. Tbe .. e filters transmit less than 0.01 of 1
per cent ot the risible light falling on thElll. A few indi v1duals who
have exposed their eyes in experiments and a few accidental.ly exposed
eyes bave sustained atomic chorioretinal btL~s. The literature reveals
no report of ouch a burn except for a single case of bila tara! central
scotomata incurred in the Hiroshima atomic explosion, (Oyama and
Sasald. (99)). The main reason tor the paucity ot burns in the Hiro shw
incident 1s apparent - detonation in bright sunlight with pupils of the
observers comrtrictad to snall size. There were other factors also,
including size of the bomb.
Atomic chorioret1nal burns are a real hazard from a national
defense and civilir.n defense standpoint and the factors governing the
production ot these lesions should be; known to ophthalmologists.
6.2.3
~sical
Factors
28
S'ClLiT
--~-..-
--
A['TIIC:'~b
--.........-.-_-'""--
- ...
OA i A
...........
29
R[SfRITEQ QATA
-,,~
.....
for 6100o K. The initial image on the retina subsequently receives the
sum of tris radiation eDftrgy for each unit area.
Ring-shaped zones around this initial image (corresponding to "the
enlarging fireball.) receive less energy per unit area and radiation of
different spectral quality (relatively more "reddish" than the initial
radiation). If air absorption in the illlnediate vicinity of the fireball. is considered, but air absorption on long paths of air is neglected,
the J.rradiation of the rin~shaped zones of the image of the fireball
can be given approximately in per cent of the irradiation which the ~en
tral part of the image (corresponding to a fireball of 1370 an at 0.1
ms = millisecond) would receive during 3 sec. The central image would
have received at 100 ms 38 per cent, at 150 ms 40 per cent. A zone corresponding to a fireball of 2740 em radius would have received at 100
ms 2.8 per cent, at 150 ms 5.5 per cent. The zones corresponding to
r':'..-eballa of 4110 em, 5500 em, 6850 em and 8250 em would have received
at 100 ms 1.7 per cent and at 150 ms 4.3 per cent. It is easily seen
that at distances at which such zones can optically be resolved, the
central zone will determine the threshold distance for damage.
The initial high radiant emittance and high temperature radiation is of special interest for several reasons. It can be assumed
that an eye will react to the flash with closure of the lids. In man
this reflex has a minimtID latency of 5; ms (Brunn, Fall, f.'.atthes, 1941
(24); rt9l'athewohl and Strughold, 1953 (54, with an average nearer 100
ms. In rabbits the average lid closing time was found to be 284 ms.
About 35 per cent of the total energy emission of the central
part of the fireball. (radius 1370 em) arrives at the eye during the
first millisecond, (Fig. 6.2). For this part, the closure of the lids
as well as the pupil.J.Ary reflex have too much latency to be of any protecti ve value. *
The transmission of the eye is asSUtled to be similar to the data
in Fig. 6.3. This Cl1rV8 is a composite of data from Ludvigh and
McCarthy, 1938 (84), froAll 400 P. to 640 J.l and the data of Roggfmbau and
Wetthauer, 1927 (103) for \l8.velengths longe." than 640 millimicrons.
The latter data were recomputed for the thickness of the media of
average human eye according to :isting, Helmholtz, and Gullstrand. it
ws extrapolated into the ultraviolet takinb into con:rlderation Kinsey's
(70) data on rabbits. rata or the absorption of the pigme:tt layer were
not available for this -study.
For the animal experiments a8 well as for those human eyes in
which accidental damage occurred, refractive error must be considered.
The enlJl.rgement of the; image radius is at:-proxb..ately proportional to
the pupillary radiuB and to the shift of the image from the reti~a.
In htmlllr. beings it can be assumed for the lar~e ms.jori ty ~hat correct
focusini; occurs either by emmetropia, 8.CCOImk riation, or correction of
refracti ve errors. The strain of rabbi ts t:.sed in tte FFSHCT-K~~OTHVL':
eXpt1ruent 5 had abcmt 2.5 diopters manifest hyperopia. For pr!1ctical
-
T'r.e r;::.liu~time and temperature data quoted tere il5.~ obtained from
UfectB of Atom~c__~~OT-6._!?~ \4 7 ). For rea30n~ of expedience, in
;-:----b~li-....v i-o-n- 0 f t"i"
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80
ct
""~x
~ 10 6
ct
J",
lAJ
20
10 :r-!
o L._-,300
j.
50C
'" .!. .
700
J. .....
1..
900
.L
.j
'..L.__
1100
-L..._.
.L~
10
..
--,
0.001 SEC.
0.25 SEC.
TIME
Fig. b.l
J()(),lJ()(jOK,
Pha6~9
3 SEC.
AFTER EXPLOSION
,'
.........
S' , II [ T
~A,
,.
fur1.ng the 0.03 sec exposure 0.0143 gm cal/an2 \18.8 received at the
ccrn3a. TIle as&unption vas made :hat 4D per cent* of this energy was
transnitted through the media of the eye and that all energy transn!tted
through the media and a 5 :mn pupil W8 concentrated j.n the 1 DI!1 diameter
image. The relation of the area of tb,; pupil to that of the image is
25/1. After applying the factors 0.4 and 25 the energy l'eceived per un! t
area of the retiI".A 1s computed as 0.14 gm cal/cm2 That is far les8 than
the ener~' F~r unit area for the mln.1mal skin leaion and less than reported formerly for eclipse blindness (Eccles and rlynn (46)).
Table b.1 is an estimate 'Jf distances from atomic exploaicns for
0.1 gil c&.1/cm2 in the central 1.mage on the retina which corresponds to
the initial firt:ball (If 1370 ell. No exact data about the Rp8ctral tran:tmission of air during different weather ~ond1tl.ons are a~. .ailable. The
t<ltal air trantlJ1ission data given 1n Effects of Atomic Weapons..L ..!.950 (47)
were used. For the human eye a daylight pupil of 4 mm diameter and t1 night
pupil of 8 llII1 diameter were used fer computation. The time interval vas
from 6%plosion to 0.15 sec. For the rabbit at night tvice the re:ati ve
opening of the human eye and the t1..rae interval from explosion to 0.25 sec
vas taken.
TABLE 6.1 - EatUr.3.ted Threshold Distances for Chorioretinal
Lesions from a Nominal Atomic oowb
i
t===
EXceptionally
Clear Air
=4=
.-::::=f=:
Human Eye
te.y
Night
25
12
74'5
31
16
40
20
10
13
10
Clear Air
Light fu.ze
1.9
t
I
I
~
i
===1
50
24
17
12
..
4
I
Night
f'
r~l.e
_ _ ~_..J,. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~ _ _ _ _ _ _
...J
'::1e high initial irradianc6 c,f the retLli i.ms.ge hag interesting
consequences. If about 35 per cent of the tctal dosage of the central
image arrives in O.()Ol. tree, there is scarcely time to dissipate this
energy by concr.lciioi1. The S8.i7le number of calories arri'ling during a
lont:er interval of time rttises the temperatu...-re les3 because OOr:18 energy
is diSSipated durin..g the heatir"-,. If, ~le to &'1ort dista.nce from the
fireb6.ll t the teeperature in the pigment layer reach~B more tt.8.n. boiling
umpe.rature and there is in~lr!'icient til:e fcr [;Mt dissip&tion (as
du.-ing :.he first m11lisecollu) .. . e.xplo sien of the bcili .g pit;ment epithelil.lIl is the necessary c')nsequer:::-9. Tlss'-o'e ~e exceedL:r the
0ri~inal h'1ll.ge in si.:t8 is then ~..Q be eA~cted.
Furthe.rrnore, it is U)
A
~'13111sBion
and 7L.
33
.~------~- .
data f'rcm
rere~nce8
:03
,.--------------_.
-.
_ ...
1.0
z
.-- -
0.80
~ 0.60
'i
r.J)
Z
<l0.40
a::
~
O.20
.0 400
500
60'-O~-I..10-0~800
900
1080
'100
1200
\300
~400
1500
1600
vo.AVELENGTH ..~
Fig. 6.3
34
-~",,;
'. ,-r'iit8
CHAPTER 7
INSl'RtJo1FlrrATION
While colJiputatione and threshold determinations ind1.cated that
chorloret1nal burns c..',uld be &XP8cted to a distance IIOre than 45 miles
as pl"edict.ed by Roae (104) l i t vas felt lleces8llry to verify thGs8 P"'""
dictions b:v actual exper1~~ntation. For this reason 700 pigmented
r."bbits were obtained. Thea~ were i l l male rabbits veighlng betveen
4 and 6 lb. It vaa essential to util!.r') pigmented rabbits because th"
pig:mEInt in their fundi absorbs radiant energy in the same manner as
<i:>es a htD&Il. These rebh1ts vera exposed (one time each) during six
diffeTe."'t atomic detonations at the Neva.....J. Proving Grounds. Shots ~
ticipe.ted in occurred on 7 March, 2.4 ~ch, 18 April, 25 April, 19 May,
and 4 June. They \:'er-e all detonated 5 mir before dawn under very clt-U
atmospheric condi tiona.
,.
.
r'fl:~~
i --,
....
.
..
: 19.
:"'.1} or',;ot.of-:r&pt
0
~xpo sure .tX1X8S, "s,.mera 1l.l1C Y.,o tct:'..l..e-~trlc
Tir;,ing DevicG a8 Used IAn-ir~ At~c :ests (~ cbc&: ~t
vi e~ hIe)
~
35
...
--.
---
--~-
~ --
-- -- ..........
~'}.,
,
Fig. 7.2
.
.
...
36
RFSUL'tS
8.1 RABBITS
The typic;al tresh lesion in the rabbit eye as seen vi th the ('phthalmo80ope is almost perfectly round, sharpely circumscribed and C~n
sists of a central and periTJheral zone. In an:lmals 8X!JOsed ne&:r the
detonation flash (tdthin approximately 6 miles) {:one sees a deep central
bole vi th gll stening vhi te base whieh appears to be 8clera (see Fig.
8.1). Elevated volcano-like margins border tbis area. There mayor
may not be ba~orrhage an~or coagulated debris exuding from the hole.
Surrounding the central hole is a 'halo' of dirty gray color, often
twice the diameter of the hole. At greater distances troll the flash the
central area no longer appears to be a hole but 1.8 rather a yellowishvbi te plaque, (see Fig. 8 .2) vbile the 'balo' als> diJDinishes in size
with increasing distance until at the middle and p.xtreme distances it
disappear~ completely, whereas the plaque persists (see Fig. B.3).
The ramainder of the retina appears entirely normal. Not all distances
were utilized on all ehots, and cameras and photoelectric equipnent
were not 3\ailable for each station. In addition the photoelectric
device failed to trip the shutters at some stations.. hom 5 to 50
rabbits were exposed at various stations. The rabbits shown photographically to have closed eyes at tbe time of detonation were eliminated
frI,)lIl statistical consideratione
On at least one of the shots chorioret.ieal burns were produced in 100 per ~ent of the proven exposed
animals at each of the following di&Unces in lliles: 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
10, 12, 13, 14, and 27. Tables 9.1 through9.7 show statistical data
pert.aining to results of clinical e:DJI!i nation of rabbits for eacb shot.
37
SECRET
.- -
1&&&&"'8 8ATA
="=-=-..1:<-
__
z
...
.
,
.......
..
..
... .. .
0 ......
.
... ......
.. ...
..... ......
..
..
,' .,
..
....
38
Si,niT
Ill!!' lit I ED
B~TA
Technique
39
...... -.,
.~,
~:...-w
A - _ _ .. '----...
.,
...,.
-------
,.~
'
... ..
"
"
......
(0-717)
.. ....
., ...
.....
. ..
"'RET
R!!lIIC f!D DA I A
- _..... -" .
,. .
~..
. ,.,..._.t._
....~
, , , ,
,
, I ,, ,, "
,, , ,, ,, "
, ,, ,
, , , "
,, ", \ 1,'
,, ,
I
I
D
I
I
\
I
I
"
I
I
""
6.5 mm4
Fig. 8.4
. 1
41
SE'AIiT
A'iTAI"'8 8AlA
-+,_
__
If _"'f_~_,-_ _ _ _ _ _ _--_ _ _ _
= _-_._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
'
....
.
.'." ...
'
. ,......
'
I.'"
. ' ...
,,
..
"
Fig. 8.5
Top: Early Stage of Atc~~c Chorioretinal Lesion (larger discif0~ leaion of Fig. 8,4)
Bottom: Microscopic section vertically cut throuch larger
lesion coagulation r.ecrosis vith I!lB.jor tissue and cell dest~c
tioD in choroid and retina. :.xudation and hemorrhaee in Uquifled center of lesion. Bulging a.'1d rupt~ of retina. Artificial
detachment of retina, MagnifIcation to scale of retinal picture.
H&E, x 50 (USAF #842-Cll).
42
~";l['
ReSIRictED
nATA
.
.....
_------~--~===-~-=~~------...:.-r--'
.
,~
,. ... ,1.
;
I'
Fig. 8.6
. .. .
.,.' .
"
Fig. -S.7
'
Slep ET
_ i~~----------------~.
' ..,
.-.
'-
Fig. 8.8
......
"
"
,
>
" to.
...,-.
. .<\..
.~-
:}-,
-.-~-.[
Fig. 8.9
-~
S"AT
HE'll'C i ED DA i A
'-_.
Fire~lls,
Archives vi Ophthalnolo!,y.)
45
2~~11I16i1':'
....
_.. -- ... -
" ... TA
(ReJX>rt in press,
,,
., .
"'.;.
,~..J..
L. . / .
Fig. 8.11
-:...... Qat.A
... :c
S~""':'"
~V
-""'er
')~ ;.JQ,JO
:-""7"
a.....L'"
.... t-,:
AdVEL"iCf'd
,.,
..
_: ..~1,",
- Jt".J...J
.,,1
_A
.I,!,,,...,_~.~
n"""--",,iJi..,.l',.
(':"".~.(,~""'f'4.. 1
_ i .. _~~V.g\J""'~.x,_
';;~""P0-""'e
--4t.A."
-~:...;.,.I.
jcar.LficaC0~
fA
",,--
'.'.
b.l.
~',
:;~""'i.-'Y
-A-O..I.~.
cf choroid
n~""".,""""
t-..... \ v~~~.
;1 ..
......
T p~O""
... ,
:....-e.,L Q
~,,...,
S"'''''''
1\
............ -.,
Wbe ~ulAted
r,!,,-.~
ChO,....,~4
.. 1
,,"-4
~ v ..... ~
.- -- a;,*
::(""Db~...... ~1ro1,
.. ~
-<
a.........,
....
\...,1
cau~ir"t~
\. o'J,.""___ ..
]:>{
-e"~"d
.J,..~
!J.~
""'''55",1<1
\"'V
'0 ............
exposure.
._""",,_~
..
...~,,,;
.f
, .,
FiG .. 0.13
.'
'l"'
\
"
~j~". -~
It
/
..
\
Fig. 8.14
\1,
/'
....
.. .
......
to<
~.
.,
....
~
i'lg. 8.15
49
'.
. . ..
.. .
.....
..........
.. ...
...
. ..
""
"
....
I.r
.
...,
.
'
,,
.'
., .....
,.. "
I........
.: ~ :
...
...
-.'
...
50
.-t'9'...,. . ,
.-
CHAPTER 9
9.1
DISCUSSION
51
SEER"
...
........
......
"
.'"
.....
..
o
......
I.-
1 : :
o
..
....
I
"
...
o
'.
.0'
~.
,to
,.
. '........
,
..
,
.
'" .
.. :::."
..
".. .
"
"
tI ,
..
."
.,
..
52
.... 8.E'
lIP.,
44
cuuz;
TABLl:. 9.1 -
r---i
Vieibili ty
Di stance
------- ---r=--
I~sur e Period
after ime Zero
(s c)
i,
Nomir~l
Atomic Bombs
2mm
8mm
4mm
mi
km
mi
kIn
36
45
23
28
50
59
31
37
64
73
II
40
47
v,,15
18
11
14
25
)0
16
23
18
32
37
20
23
0.15
3
12
15
17
20
_.. --------.---
mi
.-~--.-~
: ?<. :::
U .. 1; V = 4f..) kID
= 25
mi
---
kIn
0.15
3
i
= O. ~;
V = 20 krn -:
12 mt
k -: 0.1.. ;
v = lu
kID -: 6 mi
VI
,-, : k 1 1;'_)_:
~
~
0.15
3
I 9
I
11
2_~_1____ ~015~ ~
10
12
21
13
24
15
16
18
10
12
6
7
13
15
Est.imated maximum distances at which a 20 KT equivalent (nominal) atomic bomb would cause a chorioretlnal bUrn. The distances given with 0.15 sec are to be applied when the lid reflex is prompt. The
distances given with 3 sec are to be applied when the fireball is vieweu during its existence.
The siz~ of the lesion is not given because this depends not only Qn distance but on biological
variables such as chorioretinal pigmentation.. The lesions contain areas of different types and degrees
of damage and their relations to yield, bein6 dependent on several variables, c..mnot be ~stablished from
our preRent infonmation.
k is the attenuation coeffiCient per kilom~~er; V is visibility. The ~able is computed for average
human eyes uaine Gullztrand's data of the eye and UDder the &8SU1I!ption that 'J.l cal/cm2 applied during
Umcs on the order of magnitude of a sec or tenths of a sec produce a minimal burn.
I
I
9ubjects viewed the bomb flash through the filter system described in
the text.
A.
r-----------------~------.------------------------~
Subject
w. K.
C. M.
a. s.
D.
L.
R.
E.
C.
20
17
C.
W.
B.
H.
G.
20
25
25
12
20
AV3rage
B.
19.9 nee
ReCOTe'7 time in seconds of mesopic vision measured on the
nylctomet..ar:
Subject
Visual Acuity 0.1
Visual Acuity 0.5 (20/40)
~------------------~----
J. K.
G. p.
C. C.
53
55
28
W. F"
92-
Averag"
C.
176
*1/5
158
420
**
58 s"e
248 sec
,- L
... .
*
**
175 seconds is the time required to read 0.4 acuity, 0.5 reading
not possible even at 8 minutes.
175 reading not included in this average.
':iR"
I"'t.e i to
OX tl
iT
,c
~ot
2, 24 Mar 1953
Subjects viewed the bomb flash through the filter system described in
the text.
Recovery of ability to read red floodlighted and internally red
ligbted instruments in protected individuals:
A.
Subject
W. K.
M.
C.
R.
D.
L.
R.
40
22
21
21
20
15
25
8
s.
C.
W.
B.
E. H.
C. G.
Average
B.
21.5 sec
.-------------------~----------------------~
I
J. K.
77
G. p.
20
15
35
36.5 sec
C. C.
W. F.
Average
56
100
* 125
** 138
sec
C.
LumLnance 0.001
Distinguish
~ Subject~Llght
J. K.
G. p.
C. C.
L .. W~_I
**
--
Nit~uminance O~OOOOI
Nit
Visual Acui tl
OCstinguish r Visual Acui ty
~___=:::f==' __ ~~t
~--~
I
4:21
1:05
4:22
1: 10
2:40
):05
3:0()
5:10
1: ~5
I
3:30
I 5: 15
i
1___.___
- ___L~4:_00___~
PI ...r .
I.
4:56
1:40;
55
I.
---.~,--.,
A.
Subject
Re~very
~====================F=
W. K.
J. F.
15
12
16
9
25
19
20
F. H.
C. Me
R.
s.
D. S.
L. W.
R. B.
Average
15.1 sec
B.
Subject
J. K.
G. P.
C. c.
W. F.
10
11
15
89
65
85
*60
12
** 79.6
. .
......
Average
Visu~
-1
C.
J. n.. I
G. P.
c. c.
~. F.
:.... :
Time in Sec
*
**
I
I
3:00
0:50
0;45
1:40
1: 50
1:45
-----r
LtIIlinance 0.00001 Ni~
1
I
I
!
I
__ --.l.-_ _ _ _ . _ _---'-
Distinguish
Light
--:-
t
1
-_
3:00,
I
2:25
Visual Acuity \
0.01
_ i
I
I
=1
3:10
2:.3J
-------~---
"'A liT
II E' ,'U @, e; 6 0 A , J\
.
'
the text.
A.
=======4=+===-
.-..c-.c
-------l
=:.-------cc-=--=
10
14
====-4
I
!
27
25
12
6
23
16.7
Average
B.
sec
r
I Subject ===ii=V=i_:-c-:::su:U Acuity O~+~V~"''''-l-A~~ t!_O~(20t'40)l
t::===
J. K.
55
- (No 0.5 reading possible)
G. P.
~
V
C.
58
225
[
I
II .. F.
17
170
I
I
I
Average
36
;
147
I
___
._____----1-______________________
.J
l
I
C.
r-----
~------
-------------------------T
---.- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
I
i -LU}!iIUIlce
0.001 Nit
Luminance G.OOOOl
- - - - - - - .. -,----------------+.--- -------------------,
-'--.
, I
'
Nit;
I
I
i
Distinguish I Visual Acuity 1
DistinguiciJ i ViS1.ul heui ty
.
i Subjoctl Light
:
0.01
fLight!
0.01
!
~.:.-.
==---=4=.:0==---
, J. K.
G. P.
C. c.
,
L.
w.
F.
____
--r=-~'--=o=-__"_'=_=__c-_cc.c::c-=_cc:c_==_==
1: 50
1:04
1:~
3:50
1:20
_____
~.
______
2: 00
3:50
1:31
-..L
1.
57
- =ccJ=-..=.
--
3: 50
4:50
4: 00
4:25
4:4Jj
2:1b
2:19
======1
......
..
TABLE 9.6 - Recovery Time, Shot 8, 19 May 1953
Subjects viewed the bomb flash t!lrough the filter system described in
the text.
-=
A.
-------T--.--.-----~~------------~
I D1stan~e
Shots
7.5
li.O
16.2
24.5
14.0
23.0
B.O
43.4
Average
~._
18.4
50
27.0
__~
* 16.4
_________---'
r--------T"'
Shot
----------.......,.---- --
58 ~ec
36 sec
1.2 sec**
36 sec
24B sec
138 Bec
~2-~:--~C - :==--~
1
2-
5
7
Average
35.5 sec
- - - ----- - C.
19.9
21. 5
15.1
16.7
50
SO
50
50
-==+-=
***
AverB.e
---------~
80
~c
147
sec
-.=
153 sec
----
- ... _ - - - - - - - - - - -
r------~--
Shot
-_._-
------.----~--
Luminance 0.001 ~i t
ViBtiAl
Light
Acuity C.Ol
_
b_md~c~ C'..!OOQ2J~t~__ .
DistiI'--6~sh
ViSUAl
Disti~~Bb
t:,:::.:::-:~ -=.~-~--=-~
::::t_.~.:.__====_=_ _____=_=____==....:...=.._~--=:...
1
2
**
H.
-:-::----=--:~-:---::::--==--..:t='-=-=--===-~---
209.~
218.0
r'9.o
170.7
ill.7*
12 .l'J
....
-------.--- --------
___~~~~ __
~~~~1_<2.C'~
-_ --=t-=:"- - ___ .______
________________
272.5
"""'.'"'~
: ..........
~L}~.\,..
0-
-.
316.8
242. ,
170.0
219.~
132.8
O,,~
:he ti.":l6 r~uired. to rN\:-:: r;.)t}-flD2 ili. ;; '_i:.'-: bter:-.ally 11.Itlnir.a ted instr~r.t s VtlS ::;:p..",m:red.
I!.iicates aver&f-:e OOB8d Cr'. ~es~ th&r_ ~ sub:ec~s.
Thi~ f~glL~ i~ ill:(x,t:.bt.edly"CI:s::h'n<b::; belov the ~r.}e av<.'r:-~:e,
si:;.ce on eacb sht)t. OC:lt' i"_~,"i~\~.~ failec ..~c r~r: t[-,. ,-.s ",-[5:.
Subjects vie\o'Bd thl} Lc~b flHsh t[;!"'C~r: :he !ilt.e~ .:r~. .5:e::
deecribed in tr,e t....~:~
59
..'
0[l
Per cent
Animals with
Retinal Burns**
GZ)
5
5
5
5
6
7
8
5 .
5
10
10
, 9
10
10
15
5
15
I~-ll~'
12
Animals)
4
l-klvle
Still
Still
Still
lob vie
5
4
Jobvie
12
9
7
5
3
5
6
5
7
8
6
Movie
It>vie
100 - 100
60 - 75
50 - ?
60 - 100
I
'II
50
47
53
40
- "1
- 58
- 86
89~J
-
rs;:uonl
of
I'
r -~-r
J
i 4
I
I 6
7
8
9
10
III
5
5
I'
5
10
10
10
15
I
r
I NoneT----14
I
None
i
I None I
:;
MJvie I
l-bvie I
None
Still
None
S!.!ll
4
8
lJ
l~__J~rJJ!~J _~_ _J
80 - ?
i 100 - 100
I
,
I 100 - 100
I 100 - 100
I
7
,'8
8
__
fiJ - 75
60 - ?
70 - 87
8CJ - ?
53 - 89
5EeRET
RESTIU(;T!D DAtA
~Station I No.
I(miles
Non&
Nove
Still
5
5
10
10
15
15
I ~
10
11
12
13
I
Iii!
7
14
15
~~_J ~6
~~~h
60 - ?
3
3
8
8
12
5
8
8
12
13
II
fIj - 75
w -
[
'
~ : ;5
II
(J) - '":
None
I None
I Still
Still
Still
1
Still
?
60 - ?
80 - 100
80 - 100
80 - 100
33 - 3g
:~:~~Jn~~_Ln _J)~ :;
I
I
0;--1
3
4
5
6
7
8
,9
I 10
I~ __ j
*
**
_1_
-- - - -- - -
10
10
10
10
10
15
15
I
20,
R;:t.ina1 Bw:-ns
Retinal Burns**
__ _
'I
Pla~ed I
(No. of
IAnima~~) _
--+---~
None
None
None
None
Still
Still
Still
Still
6
8
10
15
8
7
8
6
8
10
,14
30
80
70
80
J__ I
I
1
?
?
?
. .
fr - 100
53 - 100
67 - 100
70 - 93
n_._ .. l
61
...
I
TABLE 9.13 -
ReSU 1tA
of
tat10n No.
Camera l-Pr~ve~-T No. of Animals I Pe~ cent of
(miles
Animals Coverage Expo surest
with
An1..als with
from
Placed
(No. of Retinal Burns I Retinal Burns
Extended
kWnals)
I
~)
,I
10-.3
10
18.5
25
15
I 15
~~:~
. ...
,
i;
I
I
Still
None
Still
---~---l
~;.iii i
L 42 5 L~J_ Non~~_
I
10
II
8
7
_1~_2
=t=
I
I
80 - 100
53 - ?
46 - 70
I ~j:
;00
______1_~_ -_~
*.
. ..
!!tftET
AIii'JAIT!rJ
BA'"
!MilesjNO.
- -.-----.----
of INo. of
*Percen'tage
! An.L:lla1s 1 An1.m.U.e
IPlaced '. vitl! i . - - - - , - - - :
I Retinal,
i
I
Burns I I i
2
I
I
1
.J:'
I----~---__r---
~rr-i-t~~T~~-t~ -~ :-~130--~l--'
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
e;
: 25
'25
25
,30
i
I
4fJ
50
W
55
45
)0
14
15
35
15
16
15
17 i 20
18.5 I 15
23
30
25
10
: 25a
20
25b
20.
25c
15
I
!
1
~~:;: i~
22
20
21
17
26
32
4D
)0
22
21
21
7
9
8
1
1
1
1
7
~ l_~g ---L~_
___
1-----T---~---r---I
100/100 I80
I
i100/1001100/1oo W
1'10
I fiJ/75
lDO/100 60
80
50
I ~/75 f:AJ/1OO
60/100, W
, 40
53/100
5C
70/ 87
f:XJ/75
67/100 70
141/58
80
60
'\70/93
i53/89 53/89 i 60
1 55/ 91
)40/86
50/8) i 80/100 I
I 65/87
I 80/100
I
\45/64 180/100
I
II
i
I
75
80/100
55
57
72
45
45
53
3
10
53
3
II
10/12
I
I5 I
,'i
- L __
5
40
46/70
i i i ' W100
1__.____L ___
I
I
t
~~
~J3~ __ L__._.~~
. .'
..
. :
100
100
87
83
100
87
84
89
90
93
3B
i
I
I
Ii
I
-~--.,.-
Numbers preceding" slAshes" represent per cent o burns before camera a.."lB.lysif.' of station.
Numbers following slashes indicate per cent :If burns after CtlIN!lra e.naly'sis.
,.
.. c=-:-l
82
62
33
47
47
'I
67
I33/38
I'
57'
53
I
63
I
i Average
~~ ~==1
<N
82
-'='=-=::1===
180/100 IlOO/lOO
\60775
. - - . , - - - - - - -..... --
------~-.
12
70
100
_._--.-
..
9 ']
CONCLUSIONS
.
1
'
..
..,
.
.
... ..
"
"
I,
I,
1
J
DEFINIT :LONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
me~sure
6. Nyktometer - An instrument designed to determine the rate of recovery of mesopic visual acuity following glare.
7.
8.
9.
Re~ Il~~~rn9.~~
10.
li.
. .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.
2.
l-iuench. med.
Arch. Ophthalm.
4.
"eclipse blindness" with obstruction of a retinal artery and hemorrhage into the
vitreous. T~s. Amer. Ophthalm. Soc. 21:70, 1901.
".
llft++ ........
...... -
-~ ,
--. - .
T_.l,.----
~.LJ
..... J
-~ - v..
a.u "'--UJ C
'---
oJ.]
1"1 _ _ .. 4
........
we.."
(1~'-""'ht
.-'Wl.L.1.g
Am. J. Ophthal.
:
'.'
0.
Berliner, M. L. Cyt,ologic
6:740, 1931.
9.
..
.Letina.
Arch. Opthal.
10.
11.
12.
13.
13irch-Hir~Jchfeld, A.
AUt~edkil.k.
28 :324,
ry
l.-..
"1
rr.' -1:1
r~)c',!,('
I d,
It.
l)(:b(~r-
"\ r
16.
17.
18.
24, 1912.
19.
20.
21.
22.
Br&unscLW'eig, Ueber Schaediguneen der AUGen infolge der 2onne ..finsternis vom 17, Arril. Vereln. AUf.;en.lerzte Provo Sachsen. hef.
Klin. Hbl. Augenheilk 50: 758, 1912.
23.
Beobachtu:~g
Brixa, ,T. =1ne Ver~enderI1'1~ des Aw;es durch Bli t;;, schla{:. KHn. MbL
1k I:..c.,
')(). '7c,n
'0
./'7, 1 c.'
---,......;.
A\l"1p~\"el'
b,,-,ru,
r:.
t~J. t
24.
25.
Bue t tner,
20.
~~()nrad
19~~,.
~tcmic
B)!'lo.
....'
"'-.'
S,) lure.
JJ.
l!
:1.
Cullins, I'. -
Augenhellk.
32.
2():~,
Cordes, Y. C.
Jormenb1endur,~.
CbI. prakt.
1896.
A type of
foveo18.~ula.r
U. S. Navy.
33,
wuerzentralskotom Mer.
Cordes, F. C.
Eclipse :-atln1tie.
1948.
3,(,.
35.
Corrus, R.
Corda, R.
36.
.37.
38.
39.
40.
fuane, A.
Sor~enfinsternis
fufour, M.
rorr.
Trana.
Heroia1'.opsie.
~~.
~bbit.
Amer.
u~d
eieh
drer.Ande~
1882:330.
42.
43.
!..4.
Drummond,
reslllv !)f
':'b"
47.
48.
Publication8. 1920.
I
, I
....'.j-
5(.,.
F~J.i
fir.:jterrL:s.
DtRCh. med.
'..i:::::~.r.
~.
}~J,
t't:'!. '",:,
:..:n' ..,\1;.nel:-
1.
51.
52.
53.
Ga1enua,
54.
~rathE:\IOhl.
S. J. and ::. Strw,ho1d. t-btoric responses of the
eyes when exposed to light flas1es of hi i ;: . .::1 ~,ensl ty :lnd short
dur5.tion. J. of Avn ~d 24,;.GC-2CI7, JUi; lQ53.
55.
0n the Causes of
t,
ner
~ymptoms.
56.
Gonz~lves,
Paiva.
~tomic Explos1o~s.
57.
'58.
Haas, J. Zur Frage del' lliuerschaedigu:-;gen l'..9.ch Sc:;.:-:enfin3ter;-,':sbeo bach t U:~ben. =nfi',4;. Dis s. ruer-z bl.:,r t:' 191L.
57,
Ea"l-mE.,n,
:"'J~~
~~.
1922.
61.
~irscr.,
t:.2.
~irscr:,
::.
....................~.-,
I
c4.
t;5"
\'
".:l sa.-:u
:~:"!le,
~;
"'"
~,.,
......t"400-
>ll~or,
~~.
c9
. !ttil[l
67.
68.
69.
72..
Arch. Atlgenhellk.
l~:203,
1920.
71..
Dtach.
~d.
66.
Arch.
Acta Op}1tb~lm.
Examination of 47 Patients.
73.
74.
Kutscher, C. F.
"
1946.
75.
Lasarew and Petrow. Drei Faelle von Lochbi1dung in der Macula nach
Sonnenblenmuig und ein gleieher Fall traumat1schen Ursprungs.
Westn. Oftalm. p. 565, 1912.
7h.
Th~se de Bordeaux,
77.
Lescarret,
1901.
78.
Lijo, Pavia .T. and Lac~ru., R. fueula. &!all hole due to phototraumat~0n.
Considerations on two cases. Arch. de Oft. de Buenos
Aires, 18:496, 1943.
'/9.
HO.
81.
Lodge, W. O.
701, 1921.
d2.
Eclipse Blindness.
70
SEER!'
Ophthalm.
1ti23iiiC'EO DAIA
b3.
r.. Y. and H. :{oenrle, D5.~ i~(:su]:.a'.,e einer C8L'eir:schaftlichen ForscfJ\l!iG ueber Scotoma helieclip:..icum '.Jb.ehl"er.d der
.rIns t er ni s vo!'} 1'7 t r.prl
~
'1 ....
'Q12 ,Jp.l
i' ~.'
1_'~
~\...
S onnen~
c.naJJ
... Jt~s ..Y ope.ulagen,
R.ef. i:lin. M'J1. t\u;enheili:. 42:27, 1913.
84.
85.
L1.l:"'dsgaard, t:.
McCu1J~ch,
Journ.
30~r
radiation.
A~er.
86.
87.
l-1agaw'ly, Drei Faelle von Zentralsko t,o~ bei Beoba::h tunE der 0onnenfinster-nis, August. Cbl. prcikt. AugerJ1eilk. 13:32, 1839.
68.
l~je",ski, r~.
Scotexna
89.
Mijewski, 1:.
Bli tz schlag.
~.
heliop1egicum~
A. study
Post.
;genverletzungen dUl-..:.,h
l. .
~9f1a
91.
92.
93.
94.
Neuendorff, Ar Bei trag zur Frage der Schaeriicung des Auges dlJ.!"ch
Sonnenblendung. Diss. GreifB~. 1913.
95.
%.
(J."
so;",!,~
eye injuries.
Post8Ts.riuate Lee-
Nd1. Tschr.
9'/..
0"
98.
l.ver)
71
S[eR!T
..._Wilt.,.,.,.,
RfS.ltltKU Q AY 4
.
..
..
..... ....
~
99~
100.
GJ~I)H., i\~
n.::d T" Sa.aaU. A Cl\6e 01. burn 01" tohe cornea. and retlna
by 9.tomic bomb.. Ga!1ka FJ.nsho Iho 40: 177, 1946, as qUI.Jted in
"Survey of A-bomb rrurvivors in JaptU'. (COglUl, Margin, Kimw, ll..irl).
Olahausen,
Ent~ptische Untarouchu.~
. .
...
102.
10).
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
Sena, Jose A. and F. C. Cerboni. 1'.a.cu1.ar Chang1s ';a..u.eJ by Observation of Solar Eclipse. Senann ~d~ 54:Ll9-I.29) 19/7.
110.
Ill.
Siegfried,
112.
113.
Snell. S... Ccr.tre1 scotoma. from Exposure to the Direct Rays of the
;\lL OphthaJ.:n. Rev. (Aul) J! 72. 1884.
114.
Snell, S.
Jtsch.
~ed.
So:nnenf:1n~ternis.
~tching
115.
~nnenfinatdrnl~.
Snell, S.
U. S.
en
Sonnenfin~t9::-nl~
.....
116"
117.
118.
16. ConbT.
Sonnenblendung~
119.
Sulzer, D. V~.5r Fe, A 11 e von Retlna..lJlrfekt1o~ durcb dirskte Beobachtung der Ellipse .. Klin. Mbl. Augenheilk. 21:129, 1883.
120~
121.
retinlti~ro
2:217-221
a l'observation
Arch.
V1tebi8~
... .-
.3::3, 4t 1906"
127..
128.
1912.
.. ....
.
...
129.
130.
Werdenbe.-g, E. Blendungsretini tis Mob Sonnenfinsternis 000 bachtung. Z. A~:genheilk. 30:273, 413, 498, 1913.
131.
Whi~head,
A.n1ms]
Tissue. Stain
73
.......
132. Windler, R. Augenachaedi~gen durcb Beobachtung 1er Sonnenfinsternis 8lIl 17; ;~,pril 1912. Inaug. Diss. Tuebingen.
'.
134.. Wright, R. E.
1923.
EcllfJs8 AIlblyopia.
of'
Amer.
R~
Wurdemann, H. V. and W.
to Flash
Eclipse ablyopia.
137.
138.
Zade, M.
Muench. med.
......
...
. ..
.,.
139.
: '.0.
141. Zipes, J. E.
142.
~..i..rm,
1905.
UJ.
Zorab, E. C.
1946.
~.
.
......
74
welt!!'
ItESillCiED DAiA
J. G.
30:82-84,