PROTECTIVE RELAYING FOR TRANSMISSION AND

DISTRIBUTION LINES
(Basic concept, terminology functions of CTs & PTs, important types of relays etc, with
reference to transmission & distribution system protection).
- Er. Y.S.Jadaun,
Chief Engineer, U.P.S.E.B.
1.0
INTRODUCTION
The power system equipment employed in generation, transmission and distribution
of electrical power is prone to accidents, some of which can be very disastrous. Such
accidents are inevitable due to deterioration of insulation, lightning stroks, entry of birds and
rodents into the equipment and human error in system operation. The capital investment put
in a power system is large. To save this equipment from abnormal system running conditions
and breakdowns generally known a faults and to ensure satisfactory operation of power
supply system, constant watch is required to be had on the equipment and running
conditions. On development of abnormal conditions / faults a very quick assessment /
analysis of condition and remedial action is required to be taken so much so that it generally
becomes humanly impossible to do so before taking place of damage to equipment /
property and life. As such, special equipment referred as protective Gear equipment is
required to be employed to sense the trouble and disconnect the faulty equipment section
from the rest of the system in time to minimize the trouble.
The power supply system consists of generating stations, transmission lines,
substations, distribution lines, distribution substations and the distribution mains etc.
Different relays / schemes are employed for the various equipment used in the power system
based on principles most suited to the particular circumstances. The scope of the present
assignment is to discuss the protection relays schemes and related subject as applied to the
transmission & distribution lines and substations.
2.0

TYPES OF FAULTS
The types of faults can be broadly classified into (i) three phase, (ii) double phase to ground
(iii) phase to phase (iv) phase to ground and (v) three phase to ground majority of faults are
phase to ground in general.

3.0

ESSENTIAL OF PROTECTION
3.1
The protection is required to be reliable to ensure safety of equipment, property and
life and proper functioning of the unfaulted system. There are many components in a
protection in operative or mal operative. Though complete reliability is
impossible to achieve but it can be increased to great extent by taking following
measures:
(i)
Use of very good quality relays.
(ii)
Appropriate application
(iii)
Proper application of CTs & PTs.
(iv)
Proper maintenance and frequent & regular checking and testing.
(v)
Employing well trained staff to handle the equipment.
(vi)
Use of ferrules & numbering to Identify wires / cables and terminals to
ensure proper handling during maintenance / testing.
(vii) Proper &.C. supply arrangement and its frequent maintenance.

(viii)
(ix)
(x)
(xi)
3.2

Analysis of trippings and takings appropriate measures such as changing the

settings as demanded by the situation".
Supervision of PT, CT supplies and trip healthy circuits.
Maintaining proper environment e.g. temperature, moisture etc.
Proper coordination of protective gear schemes.

Selectivity
Overlapping zones of protection are arranged to ensure protection of each & every
part of the system. While proper selectivity on the part of these overlapping zones /
protection schemes may ensure proper functioning of the power system, improper
selectivity may cause unnecessary plant outage. The schemes are classified into two
on this basis:(i)
Unit System:
(Such as differential protection)
These are absolutely selective.
(ii)

Non Unit Systems (Such as over current)

These are relatively selective.

Some of the points which may increase selectivity if taken care are:(a)
(b)
(c)

Proper application of C.Ts., P.Ts. and protection schemes.

Ensuring desired operating characteristics.
Proper co-ordination of overlapping zones.

3.3

Speed of Operation:The protection should operate quickly to limit the extent of damage. Fast clearance
of fault improves systems stability also. But, this should not be at the cost of
selectivity as in that case mal -trippings will take place causing unnecessary and
frequent supply interruptions and at times, deteriorate the system stability as well.

3.4

Sensitivity
Sensitivity, is a measure of impedance presented by protection to the current and
voltage transformers. If this current high, the ratio & phase angle errors of instrument
transformer will increases and the effective settings of protection will go up. The
protection should be sensitive enough to ensure its reliable operation under minimum
fault conditions and stable during maximum load / through fault condition.

3.5

Zones of Protection:
Zone of protection is the part of system protected by a certain protection scheme.
These zones are arranged to overlap each other to avoid blind spots and ensure
complete protection. The zone boundaries generally correspond to the locations of
CT& Where the CTs are located on both the side of C.Bs., the zones naturally
overlap but otherwise blind spots occur. This problem is overcome by some of zone
provision.

Fig:1 Location of C.T

CZ= Circuit Protection zone, BZ= Bus Bar Protection Zone, F= Fault.
In case (c) fig.l fault F is not covered in circuit protection and therefore it is taken care of by
covering it in Bus protection scheme.
3.6

Primary and Backup Relaying

The primary and back - up protections are the first and second lines of defense. The
best form of back - up protection is whom both the A.C and D.C supplies are
separate. But a compromise may have to be sought from practicability and /or
economic view points.
The cause of failure of primary protections may be:
(i)
Fai lure/faulty C.T. &P.T. supply to relay,
(ii)
D.C. trip supply failure / fault,
Failure of protection relay itself,
Failure of trip - circuit,
Failure of circuit breaker.
Therefore, duplicate arrangement can ensure protection though back - up. But it is
costly & at times impracticable on other counts. Hence the following may be
adopted:
(i)
Use of separate C.T.
(ii)
Supervision of P.T. supply
(iii)
Separate trip supply circuits having separate fuses and if possible separate
trip coils and supervision of trip circuits.
(iv)
Use of back - up protection based on different principle to primary one.

3.7

Relay Contacts:
These are classified in to:(i)
Self reset
(ii)
Hand or electrically reset.
(iii)
Normally open or make contact;
(iv)
Normally closed or break contact.
The hand or electrically reset contacts are used whore either a maintained impulse is
designed or a lock out condition is necessary.
The contacts may be delayed operative on

(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Pickup
drop out
both at pick up and drop out

3.8

Relay Operation Indicators

These are: (i)
Mecteiieaily operated.
(ii)
Electrically operated: These can be :(a) Series connected.
(b) Shunt connected.

3.9

Internal Connections of Relay Contact Systems

These are several methods. Some of the common ones are:
(i)
Series sealing.
(ii)
Shunt reinforcing.
(iii)
Shunt repeat.
(iv)
Shunt sealing,

3.10

Trip Circuit Supervision

Several methods are used to indicate the healthy condition of trip circuit.

4.0
4.1

TYPES OF RELAYS (ELECTRO - MAGNETIC)

Attracted Armature Type
These are very simple (Fig.2) and therefore widely used.
They work as 'yes* or 'no' 'magnitude' and 'ratios' relays and are used generally as
auxiliary, over current, under current over voltage, under voltage and impedance
measuring relays.

Fig.2 Attaracted Armature Type Relays

The relays have either a hinged armature or plunger type construction and are governed by
equation: F
F
I

= (KI K1)
= Force
K = Constant,
= RMS value of current and

= Restraining force.

K1
constant
k
The relay operation is influenced by (i)
Ampere - turns developed by relay operating coil,
(ii)
Size of air gap between core and armature,
(iii)
Restraining force on the armatureUnder threshold condition:

These are inherently instantaneous, but small time delays of the order of 100 ms can be
easily produced by magnetic damping. Slugs (bends of conducting material such as copper)
are provided at armature and or at the "heel" end of the relay so as to achieve delay in build
up of flux and its decay to enable delay at pick - up and at drop out respectively.
4.2

Induction Disc Type

These have either shaded pole or watt - metric type electro - magnets and discs. These work
on Ferraris principle (a torque is produced by two fluxed with phase displacement between
them which is proportional to the produce of their magnitudes and phase displacement).
T K 1 2 Sin
If 1 and 2 are produce by I1 & I2 of the same main current I and fixed by shading
arrangement, then it Follows that:
Torque = K I2
K1 decreases with increase of current due to magnetic saturation. This phenomenon is made
use of to obtain "Definite Minimum Time" in Time / current characteristic.

Fig:3 Induction Disc Type Relay

4.3

Induction Cup Type

These relays (Fig.4) are extensions of induction disc type relays. They are used for very high
speed operation along - with polarization and / or differential winding as required.

4.4

Reactance and MHO Relays

Reactance and MHO type relays ate produced by manipulating current and voltage coil
arrangement and relative phase displacement angles between the various fluxes. The induction cup
relays can be made to measure pure reactance or impedance.

4.5

Balanced Beam Type

These are similar to attracted armature type. Now a- days they are superseded by more
sophisticated induction disc and induction cup type relays. The limitations of these relays were
poor reset / operate ratio, susceptibility to phase displacement between the two energizing
quantities.

4.6

Moving Coil Type

Polarized D.C. moving coil relays are amongst most sensitive and are widely used for sensitive
and accurate measurement. They are used for distance and differential protections. Being
inherently suitable for D.C. only, they are used in CT / P.T circuiteries with rectifier arrangement.
These relays are however more expensive then the induction cup type.

(a) Rotary Moving Coil

(b) Axlally Moving Coil

Fig: 5 Moving Coil Relays

4.7

Polarized Moving Iron Type

This is also an extension of attracted armature type with a difference that it is polarized and more
sensitive. They are inverse of moving coil type as the coil here is stationary and iron armature is
movable. Stationary coil arrangement affords ample winding space and a robust relay there by
permitting very high with stand to pickup ratio.

5.0

TYPES OF PROTECTIONS AND USE

The following types of protections are employed on transmission / distribution systems:
5.1

Over Current Protection Using:

(i)
Instantaneous over current
(ii)
Inverse time over current.
(iii)
IDMT over current,
(iv)
Directional over current
(v)
Current balance,
(vi)
Power Balance relays.

6.0

5.2

High Speed Distance Protection - Using distance Relay with:

(i)
Impedance,
(ii)
Modified impedance,
(iii)
Reactance,
(iv)
MHO,
(v)
Offset MHO and
(vi)
Some special characteristics.

5.3

Pilot Wire Protections

(i)
Wire pilot.
(ii)
Carrier pilot,
(iii)
Microwave pilot protections.

SECONDARY SYSTEM PROTECTION

The secondary substations ( 66kV & Below) generally vampires a row in coming and outgoing
lines with step - down transformers. The 66 kV and 33 kV (Also 37.5 kV tc.) sides are generally
controlled by minimum oil and bulk oil circuit breakers if the capacity of transformers is 5 MVA
or more otherwise ruses are generally employed. The 11 kV side is controlled through 11 kV
switchgear.
Various makes of 1 IkV switchgears in use in UPSEB are:
(a) English Electric, (b) G.E.C. (c) B.I.C.O. (d) Cromptons & Greeves (e) N.G.E.F. (F) Jyoti
(g) Siemens, (h) Switchgear & (j) B.H.E.L. (k) Reyrol (l) South wales corp. (m) Voltas
(n) Ferguson & Pailen .
The trip principles used are generally three:
(i)
Trip coils operable directly from C.T. secondary current.
(ii)
Trip coils operable from secondary current through relay - Called series trip .
(iii)
Trip coils operable from D.C. ( 24, 110V etc.) battery through relay contacts -called shunt
trip.
In case (i) the tripping takes place when the current flows in trip coils exceeds the setting value
forcing the plunger there by to move which strikes the tripping - rod -mechanism.
In case (ii) current, when in excess of set value , causes the relay disc to rotate , on closing of relay
contacts, the instantaneous unit is energized opening there by the crip coil shorting contacts. This
allows the fault current to flow through the trip coil and operate the mechanism. The trip coil
ratings are 5 A and 2 or 1A for over current & Earth fault cases respectively.
The trip circuit is operated from D.C battery through current relay in cases (iii) the trip coils are of
5A & 2 or J A for over current & earth fault cases.
The over current and earth fault relays used may have ratings as below :-

6.1

Case (ii)
(a)
O/C
(i) Current setting: 50% to 200% adjustable in 7 equal steps of 25%
(ii) Time settings: O to 3 sec at 10 times current setting,
(b)
E/F
(i) Current settings: 10% to 40% adjustable in 7 equal steps of 5% .
(ii) Time setting: 0 to 3 sec at 10 times current setting.

6.2

Case (iii)
(a)
0/C
(i) Current setting: 50% to 200% adjustable in 7 equal steps of 25% .
(ii) Time setting: 50% to 200% atjfustabie in 7 equal steps of 25% .
(b)
E/F
(i) Current setting: 10% to 40% adjustable in 5 equal steps .
(ii) Time setting: 0 to 3 sec t 10 times current setting.
The above relays have adjustable inverse time current characteristic with a definite
minimum time. The starting and operating currents are of the order of 103 to 105% and
13% of current setting respectively.

7.0

RELAY APPLICATION
7.1
Non - directional Over Current and Earth Fault
These relays are used either as main or back - up protections.
(i)
IDMT Relays:
Limits of accuracy as set by IS: 3231 is shown in shows application to a
sectional radial feeder. It seems mat with assumed relay settings and
tolerances as per, the minimum permissible time grading interval for
successive locations works out to 0.5 seconds. This implies that with large
number of sections and increased fault levels , the clearance time towards
source will be considerable with good quality relays (such as EE CDG 11)
the time intervals can be reduced to 0.35 to 0.4 seconds.
(ii)

Combined IDMT & High Set Instantaneous

Adding of high set Instantaneous relay is advantageous on long lines with
small source impedance and on transformer feeders as it make possible to
reduce the tripping time under the maximum short circuit conditions. This
would allow shortening of grading time between successive breakers. The
effect is to reduce operating time to 0.01 sec in shaded areas. While
selecting over current unit setting, care has to be taken of "transient over
reach" defined as:
A-B
100 %
A

transient over reach

Where A = pick up current in steady state r.m.s amps,

B = Steady state equivalent r.m.s current just sufficient to operate
the relay when the current is fully offset

CAO 17 has transient over teacn from 3% to 5%, Transient over reach is not of much importance in case
of applications on transformers and transformer feeders,
(iii)
Definite Time Over Current
They are preferably where system fault current various widely (due to change in source
impedance). There being relatively small change in time with variation fault current, the grading of
several relays in series is easier & surer.
These relays are also preferred on locations where high transient peaks of current are experienced
in routine e.g. group of motors starting simultaneously and. direct on line.
The following points need attention:
(a)
The relay should have required setting range & transient over reach.

It should have high drop off to pick up ratio (say 80% to 90%) where it can see
faults of adjoining section.

It should have a continues thermal rating not less than rated current of the circuit
and a short time setting not less than maximum system fault current seen by the
relay for a duration equal to the maximum time delay setting possible on the relay.
7.2

Directional Over Current And Earth Fault

Directional features improve selectivity. Directional features can be introduced in ali the relays
discussed under 7.1 above. This should be used where:
Instantaneous protection is used and maximum back feed current is more than 80% of the
maximum for end current.

Maximum Back feed current is more than 25% of minimum for end current and time over
current units are used.

Pick up a desired below about twice the full load current, and the loan current is in the
directional unit non-trip direction.
These can be used on a bank of parallel operating transformer in the absence of unit protection.
This protection first for main or bank up on interconnected or ring main as (Fig.15).

8.0

RELAY SETTING CALCULATIONS

8.1
Time Setting Multipliers (TMS)
Time is dependent on value of T.MS available and location from source. However, it is not
kept zero to avoid spurious tripping due to vibration and for allowing safer contact gap.
Sequential setting intervals between the relays can be kept as 0.4 sec.
T.M.S for inverse time relay

T
TM

Where, T
= Required time of operation of relay.
Tm
= Time obtained from relay characteristics curve at T.M.S = I & plug setting
Multiplier (P.S.M) equivalent to maximum fault current. e,g.: If = 3000A, Relay setting
corresponding to primary current = 150A
Then; P.S.M. =

3000
20
150

From standard curves of IDT relay;

TM = 2.2 see, If required time setting = 1.1 sec,

Then; T.S.M

8.2

1.1
0.5
2.2

Current And Time Grading

8.2.1

Current Grading
As for example: As there is sufficient margin in the C.T ratio of C.Bs (3) & (4) a 100%
setting is possible and may be selected. The pick-up values of these will then be 500 &
200 A respectively.
Breaker (2) has full load current of 87 Amps. & C.T ratio 75/5 amps. We can select a
125% setting. It gives 94 amps allowing a small margin of overload.
Breaker (l) covering meter would be of normal pattern with a pick up of 105% and based
upon a C.T ratio of 150/5 would represent a primary current settings of 157 amp.
As most of the relays are on 6.6 kV side, we choose 6.6 kV as voltage base. On this basis
157 amp at 415 V are equal to 9,8 amps.
It is noticed that there is ample current grading even considering pick up errors of 1.05 to
1.3 times relay setting,
Relay 1: Pickup at 9.8 A.
Relay 2: Pick up between 941.05 to 941.3 = 100 to 125A.
Relay 3: Pick up between 2201.05 to 2001.3 = 210 to 250A.
Relay 4: Pick up between 5001.05 to 5001.3 = 520 to 650A.
(Relay 4 is with dual characteristics to cater for faults close to bus-bar second setting at
40% in which case pick-up will be 520 0.4 to 6500.4 = 210 to 260 Amp.)

If we add an instantaneous element to relay 1, its current setting must be chosen for value
above starting current of motor which is 6 times here and so setting of 8 times Hill load will be o.k.
If we add an instantaneous element to (2), the choice will depend upon maximum short circuit
current on L.V side of transformer so as not to reflected on H.V side. If through fault current is say
1300A, a setting of 1600A is o.k.
8.2.2

Time Grading
(a)
The time setting of relay (1) and fuse are not adjustable and these can be plotted
from manufacturers curve.
(b)
Pick-up time & current setting of relay (2) is greater than setting of relay (l). The
relay (2) can be set at lowest T.M.S ie.0.1. A curve can be plotted by noting time of
operation at various fault currents.
(c)
Pick-up setting of relay (3) is200A (100% setting chosen); P.S.M at 1600 Amp
(Cut-off value of relay (2)

1600
8
200

From standard curves, time setting on T.M.S of 1.0 at 8 times P.S.M is 3.5 sec. Allowing
discriminating interval of 0.4 sec. to operating times of relay (2) at 1600 Amp. (which is 0.24 from
standard curves); T.M.S of relay(3)
0.24 0.4
0.19
3.3

Now relay pick up range is 210 to 260 amp. at T.A1S 0.19 and, at twice the current
= 400 amp, operating time = 0.19 sec at 10X200 = 200 amp. Relay operating time From curve on
sec, and at 20200 = 4000 amps it is 0.42 sec, so a curve can be plotted for relay (3)
Maximum short circuit currents = 2900 amps & P.M.S. =

2900
= 14.5, from standard curves,
200

time setting on a T.M.S of 1.0 at 14.5 times plug setting = 2.5 sec.
T.M.S of relay (4) =

9.0

9.1

Where 0.48 = operating time of relay (3) at 2900 amp. A curve can be drawn now.
Similarly a curve can be drawn for lower setting of Relay (3)
Similarly a curve can be drawn for lower setting of Relay (4)
LINE PROTECTION BY DISTANCE RELAYS
Distance relay schemes offer considerable economic and technical advantages. This form of
protection is simple to supply and is of high speed class. These can be used both primary and back
up protection,
Principle of Distance Relaying
The relay compares local current and voltage in corresponding phase or suitable components of
them. For a fault the end of impedance Z, the line drop will be 1Z. It follows that the voltage
current ratio will be

9.2

0.48 0.4
0.35 sec
2.5

V
V
Z . For an internal fault
is less than Z. Since Z is proportional to
I
I

line length between the relay and the fault, it is also measure of distance to fault.
Relay Characteristics
(i)
Impedance Relay
This is simplest form of distance relay and respond only to the magnitudes of the
impedance given by applied voltage and current. The characteristic is a circle with radius
Z on R-Z diagram. This relay as well as others to be described here may take various
forms eg. A balanced beam relay, an induction disc relay , a transducer relay, a moving coil
relay and so on.
(ii)
Directional Relay
These are not strictly depend on impedance for operation but belong to the same family
and they are dependent on the phase angle between V & I. On R-Z
diagram the characteristic is a straight line through origin.

(a) Directional

(b) Plain Impedance

Fig: 6 Characteristic of Impedance Relays

(c) Angle Impedance

(iii)

(iv)
(v)

MHO Relay
These combine the feature (i) and (ii) above. The operation depends upon both the
magnitude and phase angle of impressed impedance. The characteristic is a circle passing
through origin on R-K. diagram.
Offset MHO Relay
It is modified form of (iii) above and have the characteristic does not pass through origin.
Ohm Relay
These have straight line characteristic on polar diagram and operate when the ratio

V
I

gives value of complex impedance which lie on side of this characteristic.

(vi)
9.3

Reactance Relay
It is special case of (v) and has a polar characteristic as straight line to the resistance axis.

Application Of Distance Relay

(i)
Impedance With Directional
Impedance relay is non-directional so a directional unit is required along with to make the
scheme directionally selective. The relay can operate for terminal faults except for a three
phase One in which case the operation becomes uncertain. The difficulty also exists in
relation to susceptibility of relays to system power swings. Further, under external fault
condition. On an interconnected system it is possible for a sudden reversal of current to
take place when one C.B opens on a double circuit line and unless the timings of the
directional and impedance relays are properly coordinated, a spurious tripping may take
place. In this case both the directional and impedance relays require slow operating and
fast resetting times.
If only one impedance and one directional relay is used and switching is employed to
obtain zone II and zone III by means of timer than starting must be by means of directional
relays. A directional relay is liable to operate under normal load conditions and therefore
such an arrangement is not very satisfactory.
(ii)
(iii)

Impedance With MHO

This scheme is less prove to normal loads and power swings. However, some problems
are encountered as regards directional control as discussed earlier.
Reactance with MHO
The difficulties here are also similar to the ones discussed above. The use or reactance
relay is particularly suited to short lines having high source to line impedance ratio since it
can operate down to a lower voltage on account of the fact that reactance relay obtains its
polarization input from system current and not the voltage. The reach of relay does not
vary with fault resistance theoretically. However when fault resistance are comparable, the
reach of the relay is modified by the value of the load and its p.f and it may either overreach or under-reach. Also, when the fault current is being fed from both ends of a line
with two current not in phase, the fault resistance will appear as complex impedance. Tthis
will positive on higher source angle side relay, causing the relay to under reach and
negative on the lower source angle side causing this relay to over reach.

(iv)

MHO With Offset MHO

Being inherently directional, the use of MHO relay avoids use of separate directional relay
and therefore the difficulties associated with it. The reach point varies with the fault angle
as the impedance measurement is not constant at all angles.
Hence, those are better suited to power swings and heavy load conditions limitation for
terminal fault is there unless special measure is provided such as "memory" circuit. Arc
resistance causes under reach.

(a) Reactance Relay

(b) Conductance Relay

Fig: 7 Various Relay Characteristic

(c) MHO Relay

The ellipticalisation of MHO characteristic improves of the scheme on

power swings and heavily loaded lines, but worsens the response to fault resistance.
This scheme has found wide application due its better over 11 performance.
(v)

Starting Relay
The primary function is to control the timing relay for extending reach to second and other
zones (Fig:8). They also provide directional discrimination when used with nondirectional relay. This means that a variety of combinations can be had eg.
(a)
Directional arc with impedance measuring relays.
(b)
O/C with MHO measuring relays.
(c)
MHO with any distance relay including reactance type etc.

Fig.8 Three Step MHO Distance Relay Block

(vi)

Special Characteristics
Complex characteristics relay such as hyperbolic, rectangular, elliptical,
combination of various other characteristics etc are available and may be used under
various situations.

(a) Offset MHO

(b) Elliptical
Fig: 9 Some Other Characteristic

Special characteristics are produced by manipulation of electrical quantities

Fig: 10 Schematic Voltage S1 and S2

= Line Voltage
IL = Line Current
Ma = Amplitude Comparator
Mp = Phase Angle Comparator
S1 & S2 = Derived Signals
C = Comparator.
VL

(c) Rectangular

Table: Derivative Voltages S1 and S2

S.No

Distance
Scheme

Amplitude Comparator
Operating
Quantity

Restraining Quantity

Directional

Plain
Impedance

Angle
Impedance

Reactance

Conductance

MHO

IL

Offset MHO

IL

VL
nLL
ZR

Elliptical
(3 input)

IL

VL Z R' I L
V Z R'' I L
L
2a
2a

IL

VL
ZR

IL

IL

VL
ZR

VL
ZR

IL

VL
ZR

VL
ZR

IL

VL
ZR

VL
XR

IL

VL
R

VL
R

IL

VL
ZR

Phase Angle Comparator

Operating Quantity

Restraining
Quantity

ILZR

VL

I L Z R VL

I L Z R VL

I L Z R VL

ILZR

I L Z R VL Sin

ILZR

I L Z R VL Cos

ILZR

I L Z R VL

VL

I L Z R VLCos (

(VL nI L Z R )

10.0

DISTANCE SCHEMES USED IN U.P.S.E.B

(i)
ASEA Make RYZEB and RYZOE
(ii)
Brown Beveri Make L3 WYAS + L6 f and L3WYS +L6 f
(iii)
Siemens Make R3Z24, R2Z24a, R1Z25.
(iv)
English. Electric Make SSRR3V, MM3V, MM3t, RR3V.
(v)
Static Relays of various makes.

11.0

CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
These are used to provide proportional currents for protection schemes at the same time
isolating the primary -and secondary circuits electricity. These are required to give fairly

proportional reproduction of secondary currents over a large value of primary currents. In a

C.T input tc .To C.T approximates to a current source and therefore primary winding
impedance can be neglected,
C.Ts can be two types viz.; High reactance or low reactance type. The first one is wousid
primary type and the second one toroidal type.
The exciting current depends upon core material used and amount of flux required for a
certain burden. This may be obtained directly from magnetizing characteristic since the
secondary e.m.f and therefore the flux developed is proportional to the product of secondary
current and burden impedance. The core material used in CTs are
(i)
(ii)

Hot rolled silicon steel and cold rolled silicon steel.

Nickel iron alloy. The knee point occurs at high flux density in case of (i) and (ii) and
are used for protection C.T and at low flux density in case (iii) and this is used for
C.T in metering / instrumentation.

A C.T is required to develop a voltage of magnitude

I f RCT RL RR

where: If
RCT
RL
RR

= fault current.k
= C.T secondary resistance.
= Load resistance
= Impedance1 of the relaying scheme at current If through it.

This method is O.K. If operating time of the relay is more than 0. 1 sec. But with
fast protections operating in transient and subtransient impedance regions,

X
ratio, is to be
R

taken in to consideration to ta'ke in to account the effect of saturation of C.T.

The C.T are classified according to the allowable percentage errors in secondary current
reproduction. The classification as per the Indian standards (IS: 2705 are given in the
following tables 1 and 2.
12.0

VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS
The V.Ts are used to provide proportional voltage in secondary circuit at the same time
isolating secondary circuit from the primary electrically.
The V.Ts are required to maintain protection accuracy between 5% of rated voltage and the
highest possible system voltage depending upon the system being effectively earthed and
non- effectively earthed.
A secondary winding is connected in broken or open delta for use in earth fault protection
whenever such a protection is required to be used. In that case two windings may be required
to be had in the V.T., the second winding connected in broken delta.
TABLE-1: LIMITS OF ERRORS FOR PROTECTION C.T

Accuracy
Class

Current Errors at Phase Displacement

Related
Primary rated Primary Current
Current
Percent
Minutes
1
+ 60
3

5
+

Composite Errors at
Rated Accuracy Limit
Primary Current
Percent
5
10
15

TABLE-II: ACCURACY CLASS FOR METERING CTs

(a)
(b)
(0
(d)
(e)
(f)

13.0

Application
Precision testing or as a standard for testing laboratory current
transformers.
For laboratory and test work in conjunction with high accuracy
indicating instruments integrating meters and also for standard
for testing of industrial current transformers.
For precision industrial metering
For commercial and industrial metering
For use with indicating and graphic watt meters and ammeters
For purposes where the ratio of mass importance, foe eg
ammeters there approximate values are required.

Class of Accuracy
0.1
0.2
0.5
0.5 or 1
1 or 3
3 or 5

RECENT TRENDS
Before 1980s electric magnetic relays have been in use universally, through static relays had
come in existence much earlier. The power system having electromagnetic and static relays still
continue to have them. It is because mainly of two reasons, viz
(i)
The protection systems using electromagnetic and static relays are functioning in a very
good manner,
(ii)
Replacement of these systems, which are very large in number, involves huge cost apart from
extensive work required in carrying out of the same. However where ever replacement is
called for, the same is being done in line with the current technology. 1980's saw a trend
towards use of individual solid state relays in place of electromagnetic ones for each
protective function.
With the introduction of microprocessor based multifunction digital protective relays in 1980's,
the trend has changed and this technology is being preferred now a days in place of use of "solid
state relays.

13.1

Advantages of Microprocessor Based Protective Relay (MPR)

(i)

(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)

(vi)

13.2

Self Monitoring: These arc "watch dog timers" to continuously monitor their
own operating status. Any potential malfunctioning is immediately identified and
reported to the distributed Computer Control System (DCS)/ Programmable Logic
Controller (PLC). A protective relaying system is required to operate only in case of
abnormal condition of running of power system / equipment and therefore, any
malfunctioning of earlier types could be detected only on routine testing or on its failing
to operate when it was required to operate. The self monitoring feature of MPR make is
much advantageous,
Communication: The digital relays are provided with serial data parts based on established
protocols compatible with the DCS / PLC communication protocol used at the plant. This
allows these relays to use digital communication scheme to communicate to plant control system.
Multiple Protective Functions: The older relays required an individual relay for each
protective function. The digital relays provide multiple protective functions in one relay
there by reducing panel space and wiring costs,
Self- Calibration: Digital relays are provided with self- calibration routine which
can be initiated by selecting relay calibration mode in soft ware programming of the
relay.
Programmable Set points: Defining zones of protection for each primary and backup
relay, calculating settings, performing co-ordination analysis etc needed experienced
engineers for application of previous type relay systems.
In case of MPR this is a simpler job since digital relay uses widows based soft
ware programmed which provides tutorials and recommended set points for each
protective relay function based on system characteristics. Most of the soft ware
programmers also provide graphic display worksheets showing time current
characteristics of the relays in the form of graph to simplify co-ordination amongst multi
protective functions contained in one relay.
Event Storage: 8 to 10 selected wave forms can be stored by digital relays on an
oscillograph record. This will show the condition of each of the selected wave
forms before and after the protective relay has operated. This information is
valuable as it helps determining the reason of operation of relay and cause of
tripping.
.

Application Possibilities and Preferences

Use of MPR is fast gaining acceptance especially in new plant and systems on account of
the various advantages associated with it. Use of these is also being made in cases of
renovation,, modernization and remote control of the old/worn out power stations/power
systems, However, their use-in. existing systems is not finding .many acceptances due-, to
cost and other implications, particularly in " developing countries. It appears that it will take
quite some tirne in charge over and till such time old systems will continue to run concurrently
with the MPRs.