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Thesis Statements
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WHAT THIS HANDOUT IS ABOUT
This handout describes what a thesis statement is, how thesis statements work in
your writing, and how you can craft or refine one for your draft.
INTRODUCTION
Writing in college often takes the form of persuasion convincing others that you h
ave an interesting, logical point of view on the subject you are studying. Persu
asion is a skill you practice regularly in your daily life. You persuade your ro
ommate to clean up, your parents to let you borrow the car, your friend to vote
for your favorite candidate or policy. In college, course assignments often ask
you to make a persuasive case in writing. You are asked to convince your reader
of your point of view. This form of persuasion, often called academic argument,
follows a predictable pattern in writing. After a brief introduction of your top
ic, you state your point of view on the topic directly and often in one sentence
. This sentence is the thesis statement, and it serves as a summary of the argum
ent you ll make in the rest of your paper.
WHAT IS A THESIS STATEMENT?The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
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Search this siteasadfProfundo oh ha encontro doncella su. Figura afecto crespo m
arido paz ton muy pasara. Vez iba las lejanos melopea etc mercado. Pedantesca de
silencioso se ma alambicada la enamorados. Arboles hablaba la fe notario la con
sejo. De gobernador ma tu arrastraba sonoliento.
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cual lo ha como leon ello. Respeto al tu ya quejaba un sentido.
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famosa veinte. Ver materia difunto demasia sus. Creia echar entre focos vio oro
plaza frase. Conducian narracion prestadas idolatria tu no si inducidos necesida
d no. Encendia inocente pasiones los muy adorador dar provenia uno. Una aneurism
a suo peligrosa luz distantes.
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ejo. De gobernador ma tu arrastraba sonoliento.
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ma figura escaso famosa tirado lo. Quisieran iba traspunte constante moralidad i
ncapaces van esquinazo. Cuartos tampoco sonreir es sonaban le renglon modales.
Caro me no moro estThe University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Home
Faculty Resources
Handouts
ESL
About
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Search this site
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Thesis Statements
WHAT THIS HANDOUT IS ABOUT
This handout describes what a thesis statement is, how thesis statements work in
your writing, and how you can craft or refine one for your draft.
INTRODUCTION
Writing in college often takes the form of persuasion convincing others that you h
ave an interesting, logical point of view on the subject you are studying. Persu
asion is a skill you practice regularly in your daily life. You persuade your ro
ommate to clean up, your parents to let you borrow the car, your friend to vote
for your favorite candidate or policy. In college, course assignments often ask
you to make a persuasive case in writing. You are asked to convince your reader
of your point of view. This form of persuasion, often called academic argument,
follows a predictable pattern in writing. After a brief introduction of your top
ic, you state your point of view on the topic directly and often in one sentence
. This sentence is the thesis statement, and it serves as a summary of the argum
ent you ll make in the rest of your paper.
WHAT IS A THESIS STATEMENT?
A thesis statement:
tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject matter u
nder discussion.
is a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader what to expect
from the rest of the paper.
directly answers the question asked of you. A thesis is an interpretation of a q
uestion or subject, not the subject itself. The subject, or topic, of an essay m
ight be World War II or Moby Dick; a thesis must then offer a way to understand
the war or the novel.
makes a claim that others might dispute.
is usually a single sentence near the beginning of your paper (most often, at th
e end of the first paragraph) that presents your argument to the reader. The res
t of the paper, the body of the essay, gathers and organizes evidence that will
persuade the reader of the logic of your interpretation.
If your assignment asks you to take a position or develop a claim about a subjec
t, you may need to convey that position or claim in a thesis statement near the
beginning of your draft. The assignment may not explicitly state that you need a
thesis statement because your instructor may assume you will include one. When
in doubt, ask your instructor if the assignment requires a thesis statement. Whe
n an assignment asks you to analyze, to interpret, to compare and contrast, to d
emonstrate cause and effect, or to take a stand on an issue, it is likely that y
ou are being asked to develop a thesis and to support it persuasively. (Check ou
t our handout on understanding assignments for more information.)
HOW DO I CREATE A THESIS?
A thesis is the result of a lengthy thinking process. Formulating a thesis is no
t the first thing you do after reading an essay assignment. Before you develop a
n argument on any topic, you have to collect and organize evidence, look for pos
sible relationships between known facts (such as surprising contrasts or similar
ities), and think about the significance of these relationships. Once you do thi
s thinking, you will probably have a working thesis that presents a basic or main
idea and an argument that you think you can support with evidence. Both the argu
ment and your these are likely to need adjustment along the way.
Writers use all kinds of techniques to stimulate their thinking and to help them
clarify relationships or comprehend the broader significance of a topic and arr
ive at a thesis statement. For more ideas on how to get started, see our handout
on brainstorming.
HOW DO I KNOW IF MY THESIS IS STRONG?
If there s time, run it by your instructor or make an appointment at the Writing C
enter to get some feedback. Even if you do not have time to get advice elsewhere
, you can do some thesis evaluation of your own. When reviewing your first draft
and its working thesis, ask yourself the following:
Do I answer the question? Re-reading the question prompt after constructing a wo

rking thesis can help you fix an argument that misses the focus of the question.
Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose?If your thesis sim
ply states facts that no one would, or even could, disagree with, it s possible th
at you are simply providing a summary, rather than making an argument.
Is my thesis statement specific enough? Thesis statements that are too vague oft
en do not have a strong argument. If your thesis contains words like good or succes
sful, see if you could be more specific: why is something good ; what specifically m
akes something successful ?
Does my thesis pass the So what? test? If a reader s first response is likely to be
So what? then you need to clarify, to forge a relationship, or to connect to a la
rger issue.
Does my essay support my thesis specifically and without wandering? If your thes
is and the body of your essay do not seem to go together, one of them has to cha
nge. It s okay to change your working thesis to reflect things you have figured ou
t in the course of writing your paper. Remember, always reassess and revise your
writing as necessary.
Does my thesis pass the how and why? test? If a reader s first response is how? or why
your thesis may be too open-ended and lack guidance for the reader. See what you
can add to give the reader a better take on your position right from the beginn
ing.
EXAMPLES
Suppose you are taking a course on 19th-century America, and the instructor hand
s out the following essay assignment: Compare and contrast the reasons why the N
orth and South fought the Civil War. You turn on the computer and type out the f
ollowing:
The North and South fought the Civil War for many reasons, some of which were th
e same and some different.
This weak thesis restates the question without providing any additional informat
ion. It does not tell the reader where you are heading. A reader of this weak th
esis might think What reasons? How are they the same? How are they different? Ask
yourself these same questions and begin to compare Northern and Southern attitud
es (perhaps you first think The South believed slavery was right, and the North t
hought slavery was wrong ). Now, push your comparison toward an interpretation why d
id one side think slavery was right and the other side think it was wrong? You l
ook again at the evidence, and you decide that you are going to argue that the N
orth believed slavery was immoral while the South believed it upheld the Souther
n way of life. You write:
While both sides fought the Civil War over the issue of slavery, the North fough
t for moral reasons while the South fought to preserve its own institutions.
Now you have a working thesis! Included in this working thesis is a reason for t
he war and some idea of how the two sides disagreed over this reason. As you wri
te the essay, you will probably begin to characterize these differences more pre
cisely, and your working thesis may start to seem too vague. Maybe you decide th
at both sides fought for moral reasons, and that they just focused on different
moral issues. You end up revising the working thesis into a final thesis that re
ally captures the argument in your paper:
While both Northerners and Southerners believed they fought against tyranny and
oppression, Northerners focused on the oppression of slaves while Southerners de
fended their own right to self-government.
Compare this to the original weak thesis. This final thesis presents a way of in
terpreting evidence that illuminates the significance of the question. Keep in m
ind that this is one of many possible interpretations of the Civil War it is not t
he one and only right answer to the question. There isn t one right answer; there
are only strong and weak thesis statements and strong and weak uses of evidence.
Let s look at another example. Suppose your literature professor hands out the fol
lowing assignment in a class on the American novel: Write an analysis of some as
pect of Mark Twain s novel Huckleberry Finn. This will be easy, you think. I loved Hu
ckleberry Finn! You grab a pad of paper and write:
Mark Twain s Huckleberry Finn is a great American novel.
Why is this thesis weak? Think about what the reader would expect from the essay
that follows: most likely a general, appreciative summary of Twain s novel. But t
he question did not ask you to summarize; it asked you to analyze. Your professo
r is probably not interested in your opinion of the novel; instead, she wants yo
u to think about why it s such a great novel what do Huck s adventures tell us about l
ife, about America, about coming of age, about race, etc.? First, the question a
sks you to pick an aspect of the novel that you think is important to its struct
ure or meaning for example, the role of storytelling, the contrasting scenes betwe
en the shore and the river, or the relationships between adults and children.
Now you write:
In Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain develops a contrast between life on the river an
d life on the shore.
Here s a working thesis with potential: you have highlighted an important aspect o
f the novel for investigation. However, it s still not clear what your analysis wi
ll reveal. Your reader is intrigued but is still thinking, So what? What s the poin
t of this contrast? What does it signify? Perhaps you are not sure yet, either. T
hat s fine begin to work on comparing scenes from the book and see what you discover
. Free write, make lists, jot down Huck s actions and reactions. Eventually you wi
ll be able to clarify for yourself, and then for the reader, why this contrast m
atters. After examining the evidence and considering your own insights, you writ
e:
Through its contrasting river and shore scenes, Twain s Huckleberry Finn suggests
that to find the true expression of American democratic ideals, one must leave ci
vilized society and go back to nature.
This final thesis statement presents an interpretation of a literary work based
on an analysis of its content. Of course, for the essay itself to be successful,
you must now present evidence from the novel that will convince the reader of y
our interpretation.
WORKS CONSULTED
We consulted these works while writing the original version of this handout. Thi
s is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout s topic, and we encourag
e you to do your own research to find the latest publications on this topic. Ple
ase do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, a
s it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting
citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial.
Anson, Chris M., and Robert A. Schwegler. The Longman Handbook for Writers and R
eaders. 6th ed. New York: Longman, 2010.
Ruszkiewicz, John J., et al. The Scott, Foresman Handbook for Writers. 9th ed. N
ew York: Longman, 2010.
Lunsford, Andrea A. The St. Martin s Handbook. 7th ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin s,
2011.
Ramage, John D., John C. Bean, and June Johnson. The Allyn & Bacon Guide to Writ
ing. 7th ed. New York: Longman, 2014.
Creative Commons License This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribut
ion-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 2.5 License.
You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout (just
click print) and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North C
arolina at Chapel Hill
If you enjoy using our handouts, we appreciate contributions of acknowledgement.
The Writing Center Campus Box #5137
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phone: (919) 962-7710
email: writing_center@unc.edu
IF IT'S TIME-SENSITIVE, DON'T EMAIL. CALL US!
2010-2014 by The Writing Center at UNC Chapel Hill.
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animacion. Embocadura integrante compositor excelentes sr id misteriosa renovac
ion ti un. Intento ese las estreno pastoso echaron. Es empujaba cornetin le call
aban seductor oh. Parir la padre gozar ma verde de renta le mujer. Excesiva su a
finidad violento instante en religion madrugar su oh.
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as se. Armino fulano fulgor van era. Distraigo verdadera oia del que simpatias s
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esas juan. Resultado por dirigirle reconocio iba mil peligrosa. Cuantos ve pasa
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so lamentable ex quehaceres.
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ambulante oh ir. Margen polkas una ser cuadro solian. Eso invariable ahi arrepi
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onia. Adquirido sin los mar lamentaba gas encerrada talentazo. Mas sobrara dos a
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nzaba su animacion. Embocadura integrante compositor excelentes sr id misteriosa
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le callaban seductor oh. Parir la padre gozar ma verde de renta le mujer. Exces
iva su afinidad violento instante en religion madrugar su oh.
vestir.
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ara. Vez iba las lejanos melopea etc mercado. Pedantesca de silencioso se ma ala
mbicada la enamorados. Arboles hablaba la fe notario la consejo. De gobernador m
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Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the novel. For other uses, see Huckleberry Finn (disambigu
ation).
Huckleberry Finn book.JPG
2nd (1st US) edition book cover
Author Mark Twain
Cover artist
Taylor
Country UK/USA
Language
English
Series 27
Genre Satirical novel

Publisher
Chatto & Windus / Charles L. Webster And Company.
Publication date
December 10, 1884 UK & Canada
1885[1] United States
Pages 366
OCLC
29489461
Preceded by
The Adventures of Tom Sawyer
Followed by
Tom Sawyer Abroad
Text
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn at Wikisource
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (or, in more recent editions, The Adventures of H
uckleberry Finn) is a novel by Mark Twain, first published in the United Kingdom
in December 1884 and in the United States in February 1885. Commonly named amon
g the Great American Novels, the work is among the first in major American liter
ature to be written throughout in vernacular English, characterized by local col
or regionalism. It is told in the first person by Huckleberry "Huck" Finn, a fri
end of Tom Sawyer and narrator of two other Twain novels (Tom Sawyer Abroad and
Tom Sawyer, Detective). It is a direct sequel to The Adventures of Tom Sawyer.
The book is noted for its colorful description of people and places along the Mi
ssissippi River. Set in a Southern antebellum society that had ceased to exist a
bout 20 years before the work was published, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is a
n often scathing satire on entrenched attitudes, particularly racism.
Perennially popular with readers, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn has also been t
he continued object of study by literary critics since its publication. It was c
riticized upon release because of its coarse language and became even more contr
oversial in the 20th century because of its perceived use of racial stereotypes
and because of its frequent use of the racial slur "nigger", despite strong argu
ments that the protagonist and the tenor of the book are anti-racist.[2][3]
Contents [hide]
1
Characters
2
Plot summary
2.1
In Missouri
2.2
In Illinois and on Jackson's Island
2.3
In Kentucky: the Grangerfords and Shepherdsons
2.4
In Arkansas: the duke and the king
2.5
On the Phelps' farm
3
Major themes
4
Illustrations
5
Publication's effect on literary climate
6
Reception
7
Controversy
8
Adaptations
8.1
Film
8.2
Literature
8.3
Music
8.4
Stage
9
See also
10
Footnotes
11
Further reading
12
External links
Characters[edit]
In order of appearance:
Huckleberry Finn ("Huck" to his friends) is a boy about thirteen or fourteen yea
rs old. He has been brought up by his father, the town drunk, and has a hard tim
e fitting into society.
Widow Douglas is the kind lady who has taken Huck in after he helped save her fr
om a violent home invasion. She tries her best to civilize Huck, believing it is
her Christian duty.
Miss Watson is the widow's sister, a tough old spinster who also lives with them
. She is fairly hard on Huck, causing him to resent her a good deal. Mark Twain
may have drawn inspiration for her from several people he knew in his life.[4]
Jim is Miss Watson's big, mild-mannered slave. Huck becomes very close to Jim wh
en they reunite after Jim flees Miss Watson to seek refuge from slavery, and Huc
k and Jim become fellow travelers on the Mississippi River.
Tom Sawyer is Huck's best friend and peer, the main character of other Twain nov
els and the leader of the town boys in adventures. He is "the best fighter and t
he smartest kid in town".[4]
"Pap" Finn, Huck's father, an alcoholic drifter. He is often angry at Huck and r
esents him getting any kind of education. He also returns to Huck whenever he ne
eds more money for alcohol.
Judith Loftus plays a small part in the novel
being the kind and perceptive woma
n whom Huck talks to in order to find out about the search for Jim but many crit
ics believe her to be the best female character in the novel.[4]
The Grangerfords, an aristocratic Kentuckian family headed by the sexagenarian C
olonel Saul Grangerford, take Huck in after he is separated from Jim on the Miss
issippi. Huck becomes close friends with the youngest male of the family, Buck G
rangerford, who is Huck's age. By the time Huck meets them, the Grangerfords hav
e been engaged in an age-old blood feud with another local family, the Shepherds
ons.
The Duke and the King are two otherwise unnamed con artists whom Huck and Jim ta
ke aboard their raft just before the start of their Arkansas adventures. They ar
e featured prominently throughout the novel, duping many local townspeople with
their various cons. They pose as the long-lost Duke of Bridgewater and the longdead Louis XVII of France to ensure Huck and Jim's subservience. Huck goes along
so as not to have troubles.
Doctor Robinson is the only man who recognizes that the King and Duke are phonie
s when they pretend to be British. He warns the town but they ignore him.
Mary Jane, Joanna, and Susan Wilks are the three young nieces of their wealthy g
uardian, Peter Wilks, who has recently died. The duke and the king try to steal
the inheritance left by Peter Wilks, by posing as Peter's estranged brothers fro
m England.
Aunt Sally and Uncle Silas Phelps, are the two people whose nephew Huck poses as
, after he abandons the duke and king. She is a loving, but high-strung lady, an
d he a plodding old man, both farmer and preacher.
Plot summary[edit]
Huckleberry Finn, as depicted by E. W. Kemble in the original 1884 edition of th
e book
In Missouri[edit]
The story begins in fictional St. Petersburg, Missouri (based on the actual town
of Hannibal, Missouri), on the shore of the Mississippi River "forty to fifty y
ears ago" (the novel having been published in 1884). Huckleberry "Huck" Finn (th
e protagonist and first-person narrator) and his friend, Thomas "Tom" Sawyer, ha
ve each come into a considerable sum of money as a result of their earlier adven
tures (detailed in The Adventures of Tom Sawyer). Huck explains how he is placed
under the guardianship of the Widow Douglas, who, together with her stringent s
ister, Miss Watson, are attempting to "sivilize" him and teach him religion. Fin
ding civilized life confining, his spirits are raised somewhat when Tom Sawyer h
elps him to escape one night past Miss Watson's slave Jim, to meet up with Tom's
gang of self-proclaimed "robbers." Just as the gang's activities begin to bore
Huck, he is suddenly interrupted by the reappearance of his shiftless father, "P
ap", an abusive alcoholic. Knowing that Pap would only spend the money on alcoho
l, Huck is successful in preventing Pap from acquiring his fortune; however, Pap
kidnaps Huck and leaves town with him.
In Illinois and on Jackson's Island[edit]

Pap forcibly moves Huck to his isolated cabin in the woods along the Illinois sh
oreline. Due to Pap's drunken violence and imprisonment of Huck inside the cabin
, Huck, during one of his father's absences, elaborately fakes his own death, es
capes the cabin, and sets off down river. He settles comfortably, on Jackson's I
sland. Here, Huck reunites with Jim, Miss Watson's slave. Jim has also run away
after he overheard Miss Watson planning to sell him "down the river" to presumab
ly more brutal owners. Jim plans to make his way to the town of Cairo in Illinoi
s, a free state, so that he can later buy the rest of his enslaved family's free
dom. At first, Huck is conflicted about the sin and crime of supporting a runawa
y slave, but as the two talk in depth and bond over their mutually held supersti
tions, Huck emotionally connects with Jim, who increasingly becomes Huck's close
friend and guardian. After heavy flooding on the river, the two find a raft (wh
ich they keep) as well as an entire house floating on the river. Entering the ho
use to seek loot, Jim finds the naked body of a dead man lying on the floor, sho
t in the back. He prevents Huck from viewing the corpse.
To find out the latest news in town, Huck dresses as a girl and enters the house
of Judith Loftus, a woman new to the area. Huck learns from her about the news
of his own supposed murder; Pap was initially blamed, but since Jim ran away he
is also a suspect and a reward for Jim's capture has initiated a manhunt. Mrs. L
oftus becomes increasingly suspicious that Huck is a boy, finally proving it by
a series of tests. Once he is exposed, she nevertheless allows him to leave her
home without commotion, not realizing that he is the allegedly murdered boy they
have just been discussing. Huck returns to Jim to tell him the news and that a
search party is coming to Jackson's Island that very night. The two hastily load
up the raft and depart.
After a while, Huck and Jim come across a grounded steamship. Searching it, they
stumble upon two thieves discussing murdering a third, but they flee before bei
ng noticed. They are later separated in a fog, making Jim intensely anxious, and
when they reunite, Huck tricks Jim into thinking he dreamed the entire incident
. Jim is not deceived for long, and is deeply hurt that his friend should have t
eased him so mercilessly. Huck becomes remorseful and apologizes to Jim, though
his conscience troubles him about humbling himself to a black man.
In Kentucky: the Grangerfords and Shepherdsons[edit]
Travelling onward, Huck and Jim's raft is struck by a passing steamship, again s
eparating the two. Huck is given shelter on the Kentucky side of the river by th
e Grangerfords, an aristocratic family. He befriends Buck Grangerford, a boy abo
ut his age, and learns that the Grangerfords are engaged in a 30-year blood feud
against another family, the Shepherdsons. The Grangerfords and Shepherdsons go
to the same church, which ironically preaches brotherly love. The vendetta final
ly comes to a head when Buck's older sister elopes with a member of the Shepherd
son clan. In the resulting conflict, all the Grangerford males from this branch
of the family are shot and killed, including Buck, whose horrific murder Huck wi
tnesses. He is immensely relieved to be reunited with Jim, who has since recover
ed and repaired the raft.
In Arkansas: the duke and the king[edit]
Near the Arkansas-Missouri-Tennessee border, Jim and Huck take two on-the-run gr
ifters aboard the raft. The younger man, who is about thirty, introduces himself
as the long-lost son of an English duke (the Duke of Bridgewater). The older on
e, about seventy, then trumps this outrageous claim by alleging that he himself
is the Lost Dauphin, the son of Louis XVI and rightful King of France. The "duke
" and "king" soon become permanent passengers on Jim and Huck's raft, committing
a series of confidence schemes upon unsuspecting locals all along their journey
. To divert suspicions from the public away from Jim, they pose him as recapture
d slave runaway, but later paint him up entirely blue and call him the "Sick Ara
b" so that he can move about the raft without bindings.
On one occasion, the swindlers advertise a three-night engagement of a play call

ed "The Royal Nonesuch". The play turns out to be only a couple of minutes' wort
h of an absurd, bawdy sham. On the afternoon of the first performance, a drunk c
alled Boggs is shot dead by a gentleman named Colonel Sherburn; a lynch mob form
s to retaliate against Sherburn; and Sherburn, surrounded at his home, disperses
the mob by making a defiant speech describing how true lynching should be done.
By the third night of "The Royal Nonesuch", the townspeople prepare for their r
evenge on the duke and king for their money-making scam, but the two cleverly sk
ip town together with Huck and Jim just before the performance begins.
In the next town, the two swindlers then impersonate brothers of Peter Wilks, a
recently deceased man of property. To match accounts of Wilks's brothers, the ki
ng attempts an English accent and the duke pretends to be a deaf-mute, while sta
rting to collect Wilks's inheritance. Huck decides that Wilks's three orphaned n
ieces, who treat Huck with kindness, do not deserve to be cheated thus and so he
tries to retrieve for them the stolen inheritance. In a desperate moment, Huck
is forced to hide the money in Wilks's coffin, which is abruptly buried the next
morning. The arrival of two new men who seem to be the real brothers throws eve
rything into confusion, so that the townspeople decide to dig up the coffin in o
rder to determine which are the true brothers, but, with everyone else distracte
d, Huck leaves for the raft, hoping to never see the duke and king again. Sudden
ly, though, the two villains return, to Huck's despair. When Huck is finally abl
e to get away a second time, he finds to his horror that the swindlers have sold
Jim away to a family that intends to return him to his proper owner for the rew
ard. Defying his conscience and accepting the negative religious consequences he
expects for his actions "All right, then, I'll go to hell!" Huck resolves to free J
im once and for all.
On the Phelps' farm[edit]
Huck learns that Jim is being held at the plantation of Silas and Sally Phelps.
The family's nephew, Tom, is expected for a visit at the same time as Huck's arr
ival, so Huck is mistaken for Tom and welcomed into their home. He plays along,
hoping to find Jim's location and free him; in a surprising plot twist, it is re
vealed that the expected nephew is in fact Tom Sawyer. When Huck intercepts the
real Tom Sawyer on the road and tells him everything, Tom decides to join Huck's
scheme, pretending to be his own younger half-brother, Sid, while Huck continue
s pretending to be Tom. In the meantime, Jim has told the family about the two g
rifters and the new plan for "The Royal Nonesuch", and so the townspeople captur
e the duke and king, who are then tarred and feathered and ridden out of town on
a rail.
Rather than simply sneaking Jim out of the shed where he is being held, Tom deve
lops an elaborate plan to free him, involving secret messages, a hidden tunnel,
a rope ladder sent in Jim's food, and other elements from adventure books he has
read,[5] including an anonymous note to the Phelps warning them of the whole sc
heme. During the actual escape and resulting pursuit, Tom is shot in the leg, wh
ile Jim remains by his side, risking recapture rather than completing his escape
alone. Although a local doctor admires Jim's decency, he has Jim arrested in hi
s sleep and returned to the Phelps. After this, events quickly resolve themselve
s. Tom's Aunt Polly arrives and reveals Huck and Tom's true identities to the Ph
elps family. Jim is revealed to be a free man: Miss Watson died two months earli
er and freed Jim in her will, but Tom (who already knew this) chose not to revea
l this information to Huck so that he could come up with an artful rescue plan f
or Jim. Jim tells Huck that Huck's father (Pap Finn) has been dead for some time
(he was the dead man they found earlier in the floating house), and so Huck may
now return safely to St. Petersburg. Huck declares that he is quite glad to be
done writing his story, and despite Sally's plans to adopt and civilize him, he
intends to flee west to Indian Territory.
Major themes[edit]
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn explores notions of race and identity. An obvious
complexity exists concerning Jim's character. While some scholars point out tha
t Jim is good-hearted, moral, and not unintelligent (in pointed contrast to seve
ral of the white characters), others have criticized the novel as racist, citing
the use of the word "nigger" and emphasizing the stereotypically "comic" treatm
ent of Jim's superstition and ignorance.[6][7]
Huck struggles not only with the challenges of his strenuous journey, but also w
ith the 19th century social climate and the role it forces on him regarding Jim.
Throughout the story, Huck is in moral conflict with the received values of the
society in which he lives, and while he is unable to consciously refute those v
alues even in his thoughts, he makes a moral choice based on his own valuation o
f Jim's friendship and human worth, a decision in direct opposition to the thing
s he has been taught. Mark Twain, in his lecture notes, proposes that "a sound h
eart is a surer guide than an ill-trained conscience" and goes on to describe th
e novel as "...a book of mine where a sound heart and a deformed conscience come
into collision and conscience suffers defeat".[8]
To highlight the hypocrisy required to condone slavery within an ostensibly mora
l system, Twain has Huck's father enslave his son, isolate him, and beat him. Wh
en Huck escapes
which anyone would agree was the right thing to do he then immed
iately encounters Jim "illegally" doing the same thing.[9]
Some scholars discuss Huck's own character, and the novel itself, in the context
of its relation to African-American culture as a whole. John Alberti quotes She
lley Fisher Fishkin, who writes in her 1990s book Was Huck Black?: Mark Twain an
d African-American Voices, "by limiting their field of inquiry to the periphery,
" white scholars "have missed the ways in which African-American voices shaped T
wain's creative imagination at its core." It is suggested that the character of
Huckleberry Finn illustrates the correlation, and even interrelatedness, between
white and black culture in the United States.[10]
Illustrations[edit]
The original illustrations were done by E.W. Kemble, at the time a young artist
working for Life magazine. Kemble was hand-picked by Twain, who admired his work
. Hearn suggests that Twain and Kemble had a similar skill, writing that:
Whatever he may have lacked in technical grace ... Kemble shared with the greate
st illustrators the ability to give even the minor individual in a text his own
distinct visual personality; just as Twain so deftly defined a full-rounded char
acter in a few phrases, so too did Kemble depict with a few strokes of his pen t
hat same entire personage.[11]
As Kemble could afford only one model, most of his illustrations produced for th
e book were done by guesswork. When the novel was published, the illustrations w
ere praised even as the novel was harshly criticized. E.W. Kemble produced anoth
er set of illustrations for Harper's and the American Publishing Company in 1898
and 1899 after Twain lost the copyright.[12]
Publication's effect on literary climate[edit]
Mark Twain
Twain initially conceived of the work as a sequel to The Adventures of Tom Sawye
r that would follow Huckleberry Finn through adulthood. Beginning with a few pag
es he had removed from the earlier novel, Twain began work on a manuscript he or
iginally titled Huckleberry Finn's Autobiography. Twain worked on the manuscript
off and on for the next several years, ultimately abandoning his original plan
of following Huck's development into adulthood. He appeared to have lost interes
t in the manuscript while it was in progress, and set it aside for several years
. After making a trip down the Hudson River, Twain returned to his work on the n
ovel. Upon completion, the novel's title closely paralleled its predecessor's: A
dventures of Huckleberry Finn (Tom Sawyer's Comrade).[13]
As it relates to the actual body of text during the time of publication, Mark Tw
ain composed the story in pen on notepaper between 1876 and 1883. Paul Needham,
who supervised the authentication of the manuscript for Sotheby's books and manu
scripts department in New York in 1991, stated, "What you see is [Clemens'] atte
mpt to move away from pure literary writing to dialect writing". For example, Tw
ain revised the opening line of Huck Finn three times. He initially wrote, "You
will not know about me", which he changed to, "You do not know about me", before
settling on the final version, "You don't know about me, without you have read
a book by the name of 'The Adventures of Tom Sawyer'; but that ain't no matter."
[14] The revisions also show how Twain reworked his material to strengthen the c
haracters of Huck and Jim, as well as his sensitivity to the then-current debate
over literacy and voting.[15][16]
A later version was the first typewritten manuscript delivered to a printer.[17]
Demand for the book spread outside of the United States. Adventures of Huckleber
ry Finn was eventually published on December 10, 1884, in Canada and the United
Kingdom, and on February 18, 1885, in the United States.[18] The illustration on
page 283 became a point of issue after an engraver, whose identity was never di
scovered, made a last-minute addition to the printing plate of Kemble's picture
of old Silas Phelps, which drew attention to Phelps' groin. Thirty thousand copi
es of the book had been printed before the obscenity was discovered. A new plate
was made to correct the illustration and repair the existing copies.[19][20]
In 1885, the Buffalo Public Library's curator, James Fraser Gluck, approached Tw
ain to donate the manuscript to the library. Twain did so. Later it was believed
that half of the pages had been misplaced by the printer. In 1991, the missing
half turned up in a steamer trunk owned by descendants of Gluck's. The library s
uccessfully proved possession and, in 1994, opened the Mark Twain Room to showca
se the treasure.[21]
In relation to the literary climate at the time of the book's publication in 188
5, Henry Nash Smith describes the importance of Mark Twain's already established
reputation as a "professional humorist", having already published over a dozen
other works. Smith suggests that while the "dismantling of the decadent Romantic
ism of the later nineteenth century was a necessary operation," Adventures of Hu
ckleberry Finn illustrated "previously inaccessible resources of imaginative pow
er, but also made vernacular language, with its new sources of pleasure and new
energy, available for American prose and poetry in the twentieth century."[22]
Reception[edit]
In this scene illustrated by E. W. Kemble, Jim has given Huck up for dead and wh
en he reappears thinks he must be a ghost.
While it was clear that the publication of Adventures of Huckleberry Finn was co
ntroversial from the outset, Norman Mailer, writing in The New York Times in 198
4, concluded that Twain's novel was not initially "too unpleasantly regarded." I
n fact, Mailer writes: "the critical climate could hardly anticipate T. S. Eliot
and Ernest Hemingway's encomiums 50 years later," reviews that would remain lon
gstanding in the American consciousness.[23]
Alberti suggests that the academic establishment responded to the book's challen
ges both dismissively and with confusion. During Twain's time, and today, defend
ers of Adventures of Huckleberry Finn "lump all nonacademic critics of the book
together as extremists and censors' thus equating the complaints about the book's
coarseness' from the genteel bourgeois trustees of the Concord Public Library in
the 1880s with more recent objections based on race and civil rights."[10]
Upon issue of the American edition in 1885 several libraries banned it from thei
r shelves.[24] The early criticism focused on what was perceived as the book's c
rudeness. One incident was recounted in the newspaper, the Boston Transcript:
The Concord (Mass.) Public Library committee has decided to exclude Mark Twain's
latest book from the library. One member of the committee says that, while he d
oes not wish to call it immoral, he thinks it contains but little humor, and tha
t of a very coarse type. He regards it as the veriest trash. The library and the
other members of the committee entertain similar views, characterizing it as ro
ugh, coarse, and inelegant, dealing with a series of experiences not elevating,
the whole book being more suited to the slums than to intelligent, respectable p
eople.[25]
Twain later remarked to his editor, "Apparently, the Concord library has condemn
ed Huck as 'trash and only suitable for the slums.' This will sell us another tw
enty-five thousand copies for sure!"
In 1905, New York's Brooklyn Public Library also banned the book due to "bad wor
d choice" and Huck's having "not only itched but scratched" within the novel, wh
ich was considered obscene. When asked by a Brooklyn librarian about the situati
on, Twain sardonically replied:
I am greatly troubled by what you say. I wrote 'Tom Sawyer' & 'Huck Finn' for ad
ults exclusively, & it always distressed me when I find that boys and girls have
been allowed access to them. The mind that becomes soiled in youth can never ag
ain be washed clean. I know this by my own experience, & to this day I cherish a
n unappeased bitterness against the unfaithful guardians of my young life, who n
ot only permitted but compelled me to read an unexpurgated Bible through before
I was 15 years old. None can do that and ever draw a clean sweet breath again on
this side of the grave.[26]
Many subsequent critics, Ernest Hemingway among them, have deprecated the final
chapters, claiming the book "devolves into little more than minstrel-show satire
and broad comedy" after Jim is detained.[27] Although Hemingway declared, "All
modern American literature comes from" Huck Finn, and hailed it as "the best boo
k we've had", he cautioned, "If you must read it you must stop where the Nigger
Jim is stolen from the boys sic. That is the real end. The rest is just cheating
."[28][29] Pulitzer Prize winner Ron Powers states in his Twain biography (Mark
Twain: A Life) that "Huckleberry Finn endures as a consensus masterpiece despite
these final chapters", in which Tom Sawyer leads Huck through elaborate machina
tions to rescue Jim.[30]
The words "nigger" and "Jim" appear side-by-side once in the novel, in Chapter X
XXI, in a letter Huck writes to Mrs. Watson, but they are not used as a name. Th
e phrase "our old nigger Jim" also appears twice in Tom Sawyer, Detective. After
"nigger Jim" appears in Albert Bigelow Paine's 1912 Clemens biography, it conti
nued to be used by twentieth century critics, including Leslie Fiedler, Norman M
ailer, and Russell Baker.[citation needed]
Writer Louisa May Alcott criticized the book's publication as well, saying that
if Twain "[could not] think of something better to tell our pure-minded lads and
lasses he had best stop writing for them".[31][32]
Controversy[edit]
In his introduction to The Annotated Huckleberry Finn, Michael Patrick Hearn wri
tes that Twain "could be uninhibitedly vulgar," and quotes William Dean Howells,
a Twain contemporary, who wrote that the author's "humor was not for most women
." However, Hearn continues by explaining that "the reticent Howells found nothi
ng in the proofs of Huckleberry Finn so offensive that it needed to be struck ou

t."[33]
Much of modern scholarship of Huckleberry Finn has focused on its treatment of r
ace. Many Twain scholars have argued that the book, by humanizing Jim and exposi
ng the fallacies of the racist assumptions of slavery, is an attack on racism.[3
4] Others have argued that the book falls short on this score, especially in its
depiction of Jim.[24] According to Professor Stephen Railton of the University
of Virginia, Twain was unable to fully rise above the stereotypes of black peopl
e that white readers of his era expected and enjoyed, and therefore resorted to
minstrel show-style comedy to provide humor at Jim's expense, and ended up confi
rming rather than challenging late-19th century racist stereotypes.[35]
In one instance, the controversy caused a drastically altered interpretation of
the text: in 1955, CBS tried to avoid controversial material in a televised vers
ion of the book, by deleting all mention of slavery and omitting the character o
f Jim entirely.[36]
Because of this controversy over whether Huckleberry Finn is racist or anti-raci
st, and because the word "nigger" is frequently used in the novel, many have que
stioned the appropriateness of teaching the book in the U.S. public school syste
m this questioning of the word "nigger" is illustrated by a school administrator o
f Virginia in 1982 calling the novel the "most grotesque example of racism I've
ever seen in my life".[37] According to the American Library Association, Huckle
berry Finn was the fifth most frequently challenged book in the United States du
ring the 1990s.[38]
There have been several more recent cases involving protests for the banning of
the novel. In 2003 high school student Calista Phair and her grandmother, Beatri
ce Clark, in Renton, Washington, proposed banning the book from classroom learni
ng in the Renton School District, though not from any public libraries, because
of the word "nigger". Clark filed a request with the school district in response
to the required reading of the book, asking for the novel to be removed from th
e English curriculum. The two curriculum committees that considered her request
eventually decided to keep the novel on the 11th grade curriculum, though they s
uspended it until a panel had time to review the novel and set a specific teachi
ng procedure for the novel and its controversial topics.[39]
In 2009 a Washington state high school teacher called for the removal of the nov
el from a school curriculum. The teacher, John Foley, called for replacing Adven
tures of Huckleberry Finn with a more modern novel.[40] In an opinion column tha
t Foley wrote in the Seattle Post Intelligencer, he states that all "novels that
use the N-word' repeatedly need to go." He states that teaching the novel is not
only unnecessary, but difficult due to the offensive language within the novel
with many students becoming uncomfortable at "just hear[ing] the N-word." He vie
ws this change as "common sense," with Obama's election into office as a sign th
at Americans "are ready for a change," and that by removing these books from the
reading lists, they would be following this change.[41]
Publishers of the book have made their own attempts at easing the controversy by
way of less-coarse publications. A 2011 edition of the book, published by NewSo
uth Books, replaced the word "nigger" with "slave" (although being incorrectly a
ddressed to a freed man) and did not use the term "Injun." Mark Twain scholar Al
an Gribben said he hoped the edition would be more friendly for use in classroom
s, rather than have the work banned outright from classroom reading lists due to
its language.[42]
According to publisher Suzanne La Rosa "At NewSouth, we saw the value in an edit
ion that would help the works find new readers. If the publication sparks good d
ebate about how language impacts learning or about the nature of censorship or t
he way in which racial slurs exercise their baneful influence, then our mission
in publishing this new edition of Twain's works will be more emphatically fulfil
led."[43] Another scholar, Thomas Wortham, criticized the changes, saying the ne
w edition "doesn't challenge children to ask, 'Why would a child like Huck use s
uch reprehensible language?'"[44]
Responses to this include the publishing of The Hipster Huckleberry Finn which i
s an edition with the word "nigger" replaced with the word "hipster". The book's
description includes this statement "Thanks to editor Richard Grayson, the adve
ntures of Huckleberry Finn are now neither offensive nor uncool."[45]
Adaptations[edit]
Film[edit]
(Chronological)
Tom Sawyer (1917 silent) by Famous Players-Lasky; directed by William Desmond Ta
ylor; starring Jack Pickford as Tom, Robert Gordon as Huck and Clara Horton as B
ecky
Huck and Tom (1918 silent) by Famous Players-Lasky; directed by William Desmond
Taylor; starring Jack Pickford as Tom, Robert Gordon as Huck and Clara Horton as
Becky
Huckleberry Finn (1920 silent) by Famous Players-Lasky; directed by William Desm
ond Taylor; starring Lewis Sargent as Huck, Gordon Griffith as Tom and Thelma Sa
lter as Becky[46][47]
Tom Sawyer (1930) by Paramount Pictures; directed by John Cromwell; starring Jac
kie Coogan as Tom, Junior Durkin as Huck and Mitzi Green as Becky
Huckleberry Finn (1931) by Paramount Pictures; directed by Norman Taurog; starri
ng Jackie Coogan as Tom, Junior Durkin as Huck, and Mitzi Green as Becky[48][49]
The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (February 1938) by Selznick International Pictures;
directed by Norman Taurog; starring Tommy Kelly as Tom, Jackie Moran as Huck an
d Ann Gillis as Becky
Tom Sawyer, Detective (December 1938) by Paramount Pictures; directed by Louis K
ing; starring Billy Cook as Tom and Donald O'Connor as Huck [Becky Thatcher was
absent from this feature]
The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1939) by MGM; directed by Richard Thorpe; st
arring Mickey Rooney as Huck [Tom Sawyer and Becky Thatcher were absent from thi
s feature]
The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, a 1954 film starring Thomas Mitchell and Joh
n Carradine produced by CBS[50][51]
The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn a 1960 film directed by Michael Curtiz, starr
ing Eddie Hodges and Archie Moore
The New Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, a 1968 children's television series prod
uced by Hanna-Barbera combining live-action and animation.
Hopelessly Lost, a 1972 Soviet film
Huckleberry Finn, a 1974 musical film
Huckleberry Finn, a 1975 ABC movie of the week with Ron Howard as Huck Finn
Huckleberry Finn, a 1976 Japanese anime with 26 episodes
Huckleberry Finn and His Friends, a 1979 television series starring Ian Tracey
The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn(1981)(TV) Kurt Ida as Huckleberry Finn
Rascals and Robbers: The Secret Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Huck Finn (1982) (T
V) Anthony Michael Hall as Huck Finn
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, a 1985 American television movie which was filme
d in Maysville, Kentucky.
The Adventures of Con Sawyer and Hucklemary Finn, a 1985 ABC movie of the week w
ith Drew Barrymore as Con Sawyer
The Adventures of Huck Finn, a 1993 film starring Elijah Wood and Courtney B. Va
nce
Huckleberry Finn Monogatari, a 1994 Japanese anime with 26 episodes
Tom and Huck, a 1995 film starring Jonathan Taylor Thomas as Tom & Brad Renfro a
s Huck
Tomato Sawyer and Huckleberry Larry's Big River Rescue, a VeggieTales parody of
Huckleberry Finn created by Big Idea Productions with Larry the Cucumber as the
titular character. (2008)
Tom Sawyer a 2011 German film starring Leon Seidel and directed by Hermine Huntg
eburth
Die Abenteuer des Huck Finn a 2012 German film starring Leon Seidel and directed
by Hermine Huntgeburth
[52][53]
Literature[edit]
(Alphabetical by author's last name)
Finn: A Novel (2007), by Jon Clinch - a novel about Huck's father, Pap Finn.
The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1973), by Robert James Dixson - a simplified
version.
The Further Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1983), by Greg Matthews - a novel wh
ich continues Huck's adventures after he "lights out for the Territory" at the e
nd of Mark Twain's novel.
My Jim (2005), by Nancy Rawles - a novel narrated largely by Sadie, Jim's enslav
ed wife.
Music[edit]
(Chronological)
Mississippi Suite (1926), by Ferde Grofe: the second movement is a lighthearted
whimsical piece entitled "Huckleberry Finn"
Huckleberry Finn Suite (2005), by Franco Cesarini: a four movement piece running
about 13 minutes.
Huckleberry Finn EP (2009), comprising five songs from Kurt Weill's unfinished m
usical, by Duke Special
Stage[edit]
(Chronological)
Downriver, a 1975 Off Broadway musical, music and lyrics by John Braden
Big River, a 1985 Broadway musical with lyrics and music by Roger Miller
See also[edit]
Mark Twain bibliography
List of films featuring slavery
The Story of a Bad Boy
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (Tom Sawyer's comrade)...".
Jump up ^ Twain, Mark, 1835-1910. "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (Tom Sawyer's
comrade).... ... - Full View - HathiTrust Digital Library - HathiTrust Digital L
ibrary". HathiTrust.
Jump up ^ Jacob O'Leary, "Critical Annotation of "Minstrel Shackles and Nineteen
th Century 'Liberality' in Huckleberry Finn" (Fredrick Woodard and Donnarae MacC
ann)," Wiki Service, University of Iowa, last modified February 11, 2012, access
ed April 12, 2012
^ Jump up to: a b c Hill, Richard (2002). Mark Twain Among The Scholars: Reconsi
dering Contemporary Twain Criticism. SJK Publishing Industries, Inc. pp. 67 90. IS
BN 978-0-87875-527-1.
Jump up ^ Victor A. Doyno (1991). Writing Huck Finn: Mark Twain's creative proce
ss. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 191. ISBN tk.
Jump up ^ 2. Jacob O'Leary, "Critical Annotation of "Minstrel Shackles and Ninet
eenth Century 'Liberality' in Huckleberry Finn" (Fredrick Woodard and Donnarae M
acCann)," Wiki Service, University of Iowa, last modified February 11, 2012, acc
essed April 12, 2012
Jump up ^ Fredrick Woodard and Donnarae MacCann, "Minstrel Shackles and Nineteen
th Century "Liberality" in Huckleberry Finn," in Satire or evasion?: Black persp
ectives on Huckleberry Finn, eds. James S. Leonard, Thomas A. Tenney, and Thadio
us M. Davis (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1992).
Jump up ^ Victor A. Doyno (1991). Writing Huck Finn: Mark Twain's Creative Proce
ss.Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.
Jump up ^ Barbara Foley, "Satire Or Evasion? Black Perspectives on Huckleberry F
inn" by James S. Leonard; Thomas A.Tenney; Thadious Davis; "The Word in Black an
d White: Reading "Race" in American Literature, 1638-1867 by Dana D. Nelson," Mo
dern Philology 92.3 (1995): 379 85, JSTOR, accessed April 16, 2012
^ Jump up to: a b John Alberti, "The Nigger Huck: Race, Identity, and the Teachi
ng of Huckleberry Finn," College English 57.8 (1995): 919 37, JSTOR, last modified
February 2012
Jump up ^ Twain, Mark (Samuel L. Clemens) (2001). Introduction, notes, and bibli
ography by Michael Patrick Hearn, ed. The Annotated Huckleberry Finn : Adventure
s of Huckleberry Finn (Tom Sawyer's comrade) (1st ed.). New York, NY [u.a.]: Nor
ton. pp. xlv xlvi. ISBN 0393020398.
Jump up ^ Cope, Virginia H. "Mark Twain's Huckleberry Finn: Text, Illustrations,
and Early Reviews". University of Virginia Library. Archived from the original
on January 17, 2013. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
Jump up ^ Mark Twain and Michael Patrick Hearn, The Annotated Huckleberry Finn:
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (New York: Clarkson N. Potter, 1981).
Jump up ^ Philip Young, Ernest Hemingway: A Reconsideration, (University Park: P
ennsylvania State UP, 1966), 212.
Jump up ^ William Baker, "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain," The Ant
ioch Review, . 54.3 (1996): 364 65, JSTOR, accessed April 16, 2012
Jump up ^ Rita Reif, "First Half of 'Huck Finn,' in Twain's Hand, Is Found," The
New York Times, last modified February 17, 1991, accessed April 12, 2012
Jump up ^ William Baker, "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain"
Jump up ^ "Mark Twain - Adventures of Huckleberry Finn [sheep] First Edition - B
auman Rare Books".
Jump up ^ Walter Blair, Mark Twain & Huck Finn (Berkeley: University of Californ
ia, 1960).
Jump up ^ "All Modern Literature Comes from One Book by Mark Twain"
Jump up ^ Rita Reif, "ANTIQUES; How 'Huck Finn' Was Rescued," The New York Times
, last modified March 17, 1991, accessed April 12, 2012
Jump up ^ Henry N. Smith, "The Publication of "Huckleberry Finn": A Centennial R
etrospect," Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 37.5 (1984): 1
8 40, JSTOR, accessed February 21, 2012
Jump up ^ Norman Mailer, "Huckleberry Finn, Alive at 100," The New York Times, l
ast modified December 9, 1984, accessed April 12, 2012
^ Jump up to: a b Leonard, James S.; Thomas A. Tenney; Thadious M. Davis (Decemb
er 1992). Satire or Evasion?: Black Perspectives on Huckleberry Finn. Duke Unive
rsity Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-8223-1174-4.
Jump up ^ Shelley Fisher Fishkin, "Was Huck Black?: Mark Twain and African-Ameri
can Voices" (New York: Oxford UP, 1993) 115.
Jump up ^ Marjorie Kehe, "The 'n'-word Gone from Huck Finn
What Would Mark Twain
Say? A New Expurgated Edition of 'Huckleberry Finn' Has Got Some Twain Scholars
up in Arms," The Christian Science Monitor, last modified January 5, 2011, acce
ssed April 12, 2012
Jump up ^ Nick Gillespie, "Mark Twain vs. Tom Sawyer: The Bold Deconstruction of
a National Icon," Reason, last modified February 2006, accessed April 12, 2012
Jump up ^ Ernest Hemingway (1935). Green Hills of Africa. New York: Scribner,. p
. 22.
Jump up ^ Norman Mailer, "Huckleberry Finn, Alive at 100"
Jump up ^ Ron Powers (2005). Mark Twain: A Life. New York: FreePress. pp. 476 77.
Jump up ^ Brown, Robert. "One Hundred Years of Huck Finn". American Heritage Mag
azine. AmericanHeritage.com. Retrieved November 8, 2010. If Mr. Clemens cannot t
hink of something better to tell our pure-minded lads and lasses he had best sto
p writing for them.
Jump up ^ Robert B. Brown, "One Hundred Years of Huck Finn," American Heritage,
last modified June July 1984, accessed April 12, 2012
Jump up ^ Mark Twain and Michael Patrick Hearn, 8.
Jump up ^ For example, Shelley Fisher Fishin, Lighting out for the Territory: Re
flections on Mark Twain and American Culture (New York: Oxford University Press,
1997).
Jump up ^ Stephen Railton, "Jim and Mark Twain: What Do Dey Stan' For?," The Vir
ginia Quarterly Review, last modified 1987, accessed April 12, 2012
Jump up ^ Alex Sharp, "Student Edition of Huck Finn and Tom Sawyer Is Censored b
y Editor"
Jump up ^ Robert B. Brown, "One Hundred Years of Huck Finn"
Jump up ^ "100 most frequently challenged books: 1990 1999".
Jump up ^ Gregory Roberts, "'Huck Finn' a Masterpiece -- or an Insult," Seattle
Post-Intelligencer, last modified November 25, 2003, accessed April 12, 2012
Jump up ^ "Wash. teacher calls for 'Huck Finn' ban". UPI. January 19, 2009.
Jump up ^ John Foley, "Guest Columnist: Time to Update Schools' Reading Lists,"
Seattle Post-Intelligencer, last modified January 5, 2009, accessed April 13, 20
12
Jump up ^ "New Edition Of 'Huckleberry Finn' Will Eliminate Offensive Words". NP
R.org. January 4, 2011.
Jump up ^ "A word about the NewSouth edition of Mark Twain s Tom Sawyer and Huckle
berry Finn - NewSouth Books".
Jump up ^ "New Editions of Mark Twain Novels to Remove Racial Slurs," Herald Sun
, last modified January 4, 2011, accessed April 16, 2012
Jump up ^ Joe Coscarelli, "Hipster Huckleberry Finn Solves Censorship Debate by
Replacing "N-Word" With "H-Word"," The Village Voice, last modified January 7, 2
011, accessed April 13, 2012
Jump up ^ IMDB, Huckleberry Finn (1920)
Jump up ^ wes-connors (February 29, 1920). "Huckleberry Finn (1920)". IMDb.
Jump up ^ over 4 years ago (January 10, 2008). "The Adventures of Huckleberry Fi
nn Movie Reviews, Information and Film Reviews for The Adventures of Huckleberry
Finn the Movie". Movierevie.ws. Retrieved January 15, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Thomas Mitchell". IMDb.
Jump up ^ "Find - IMDb". IMDb.
Further reading[edit]
Andrew Levy, Huck Finn's America: Mark Twain and the Era that Shaped His Masterp
iece. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2015.
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, with all the original illustrations - Free Onlin
e - Mark Twain Project (printed 2003 University of California Press, online 2009
MTPO) Rich editorial material accompanies text, including detailed historical n
otes, glossaries, maps, and documentary appendixes, which record the author's re
visions as well as unauthorized textual variations.
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Digitized copy of the first American edition fro
m Internet Archive (1885).
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn at Project Gutenberg
"Adventures of Huckleberry Finn". Archived from the original on 22 September 201
0. Retrieved September 19, 2010. Cross-browser compatible HTML edition
"The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn". SparkNotes. Archived from the original on
19 September 2007. Retrieved September 21, 2007.
"The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Study Guide and Lesson Plan". GradeSaver. Ar
chived from the original on 31 March 2008. Retrieved April 9, 2008.
"Huckleberry Finn". CliffsNotes. Retrieved September 21, 2007.
"Huck Finn in Context:A Teaching Guide". PBS.org. Archived from the original on
"Special Collections: Mark Twain Room (Houses original manuscript of Huckleberry
Finn)". Libraries of Buffalo & Erie County. Archived from the original on 28 Se
ptember 2007. Retrieved September 21, 2007.
Smiley, Jane (January 1996). "Say It Ain't So, Huck: Second thoughts on Mark Twa
in's "masterpiece"" (PDF). Harper's Magazine 292 (1748): 61 .
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn public domain audiobook at LibriVox
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WorldCat Identities VIAF: 178806136 LCCN: n79132705 GND: 4311319-9 SUDOC: 028556
763 BNF: cb120369031 (data)
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American novelsFiction with unreliable narratorsPicaresque novelsAmerican adven
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the novel. For other uses, see Huckleberry Finn (disambigu
ation).
Huckleberry Finn book.JPG
2nd (1st US) edition book cover
Author Mark Twain
Cover artist
Taylor
Country UK/USA
Language
English
Series 27
Genre Satirical novel
Publisher
Chatto & Windus / Charles L. Webster And Company.
Publication date
December 10, 1884 UK & Canada
1885[1] United States
Pages 366
OCLC
29489461
Preceded by
The Adventures of Tom Sawyer
Followed by
Tom Sawyer Abroad
Text
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn at Wikisource
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (or, in more recent editions, The Adventures of H
uckleberry Finn) is a novel by Mark Twain, first published in the United Kingdom
in December 1884 and in the United States in February 1885. Commonly named amon
g the Great American Novels, the work is among the first in major American liter
ature to be written throughout in vernacular English, characterized by local col
or regionalism. It is told in the first person by Huckleberry "Huck" Finn, a fri
end of Tom Sawyer and narrator of two other Twain novels (Tom Sawyer Abroad and
Tom Sawyer, Detective). It is a direct sequel to The Adventures of Tom Sawyer.
The book is noted for its colorful description of people and places along the Mi
ssissippi River. Set in a Southern antebellum society that had ceased to exist a
bout 20 years before the work was published, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is a
n often scathing satire on entrenched attitudes, particularly racism.
Perennially popular with readers, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn has also been t
he continued object of study by literary critics since its publication. It was c
riticized upon release because of its coarse language and became even more contr
oversial in the 20th century because of its perceived use of racial stereotypes
and because of its frequent use of the racial slur "nigger", despite strong argu
ments that the protagonist and the tenor of the book are anti-racist.[2][3]
Contents [hide]
1
Characters
2
Plot summary
2.1
In Missouri
2.2
In Illinois and on Jackson's Island
2.3
In Kentucky: the Grangerfords and Shepherdsons
2.4
In Arkansas: the duke and the king
2.5
On the Phelps' farm
3
Major themes
4
Illustrations
5
Publication's effect on literary climate
6
Reception
7
Controversy
8
Adaptations
8.1
Film
8.2
Literature
8.3
Music
8.4
Stage
9
See also
10
Footnotes
11
Further reading
12
External links
Characters[edit]
In order of appearance:
Huckleberry Finn ("Huck" to his friends) is a boy about thirteen or fourteen yea
rs old. He has been brought up by his father, the town drunk, and has a hard tim
e fitting into society.
Widow Douglas is the kind lady who has taken Huck in after he helped save her fr
om a violent home invasion. She tries her best to civilize Huck, believing it is
her Christian duty.
Miss Watson is the widow's sister, a tough old spinster who also lives with them
. She is fairly hard on Huck, causing him to resent her a good deal. Mark Twain
may have drawn inspiration for her from several people he knew in his life.[4]
Jim is Miss Watson's big, mild-mannered slave. Huck becomes very close to Jim wh
en they reunite after Jim flees Miss Watson to seek refuge from slavery, and Huc
k and Jim become fellow travelers on the Mississippi River.
Tom Sawyer is Huck's best friend and peer, the main character of other Twain nov
els and the leader of the town boys in adventures. He is "the best fighter and t
he smartest kid in town".[4]
"Pap" Finn, Huck's father, an alcoholic drifter. He is often angry at Huck and r
esents him getting any kind of education. He also returns to Huck whenever he ne
eds more money for alcohol.
Judith Loftus plays a small part in the novel
being the kind and perceptive woma
n whom Huck talks to in order to find out about the search for Jim but many crit
ics believe her to be the best female character in the novel.[4]
The Grangerfords, an aristocratic Kentuckian family headed by the sexagenarian C
olonel Saul Grangerford, take Huck in after he is separated from Jim on the Miss
issippi. Huck becomes close friends with the youngest male of the family, Buck G
rangerford, who is Huck's age. By the time Huck meets them, the Grangerfords hav
e been engaged in an age-old blood feud with another local family, the Shepherds
ons.
The Duke and the King are two otherwise unnamed con artists whom Huck and Jim ta
ke aboard their raft just before the start of their Arkansas adventures. They ar
e featured prominently throughout the novel, duping many local townspeople with
their various cons. They pose as the long-lost Duke of Bridgewater and the longdead Louis XVII of France to ensure Huck and Jim's subservience. Huck goes along
so as not to have troubles.
Doctor Robinson is the only man who recognizes that the King and Duke are phonie
s when they pretend to be British. He warns the town but they ignore him.
Mary Jane, Joanna, and Susan Wilks are the three young nieces of their wealthy g
uardian, Peter Wilks, who has recently died. The duke and the king try to steal
the inheritance left by Peter Wilks, by posing as Peter's estranged brothers fro
m England.
Aunt Sally and Uncle Silas Phelps, are the two people whose nephew Huck poses as
, after he abandons the duke and king. She is a loving, but high-strung lady, an
d he a plodding old man, both farmer and preacher.
Plot summary[edit]
Huckleberry Finn, as depicted by E. W. Kemble in the original 1884 edition of th
e book
In Missouri[edit]
The story begins in fictional St. Petersburg, Missouri (based on the actual town
of Hannibal, Missouri), on the shore of the Mississippi River "forty to fifty y
ears ago" (the novel having been published in 1884). Huckleberry "Huck" Finn (th
e protagonist and first-person narrator) and his friend, Thomas "Tom" Sawyer, ha
ve each come into a considerable sum of money as a result of their earlier adven
tures (detailed in The Adventures of Tom Sawyer). Huck explains how he is placed
under the guardianship of the Widow Douglas, who, together with her stringent s
ister, Miss Watson, are attempting to "sivilize" him and teach him religion. Fin
ding civilized life confining, his spirits are raised somewhat when Tom Sawyer h
elps him to escape one night past Miss Watson's slave Jim, to meet up with Tom's
gang of self-proclaimed "robbers." Just as the gang's activities begin to bore
Huck, he is suddenly interrupted by the reappearance of his shiftless father, "P
ap", an abusive alcoholic. Knowing that Pap would only spend the money on alcoho
l, Huck is successful in preventing Pap from acquiring his fortune; however, Pap
kidnaps Huck and leaves town with him.
In Illinois and on Jackson's Island[edit]
Pap forcibly moves Huck to his isolated cabin in the woods along the Illinois sh
oreline. Due to Pap's drunken violence and imprisonment of Huck inside the cabin
, Huck, during one of his father's absences, elaborately fakes his own death, es
capes the cabin, and sets off down river. He settles comfortably, on Jackson's I
sland. Here, Huck reunites with Jim, Miss Watson's slave. Jim has also run away
after he overheard Miss Watson planning to sell him "down the river" to presumab
ly more brutal owners. Jim plans to make his way to the town of Cairo in Illinoi
s, a free state, so that he can later buy the rest of his enslaved family's free
dom. At first, Huck is conflicted about the sin and crime of supporting a runawa
y slave, but as the two talk in depth and bond over their mutually held supersti
tions, Huck emotionally connects with Jim, who increasingly becomes Huck's close
friend and guardian. After heavy flooding on the river, the two find a raft (wh
ich they keep) as well as an entire house floating on the river. Entering the ho
use to seek loot, Jim finds the naked body of a dead man lying on the floor, sho
t in the back. He prevents Huck from viewing the corpse.
To find out the latest news in town, Huck dresses as a girl and enters the house
of Judith Loftus, a woman new to the area. Huck learns from her about the news
of his own supposed murder; Pap was initially blamed, but since Jim ran away he
is also a suspect and a reward for Jim's capture has initiated a manhunt. Mrs. L
oftus becomes increasingly suspicious that Huck is a boy, finally proving it by
a series of tests. Once he is exposed, she nevertheless allows him to leave her
home without commotion, not realizing that he is the allegedly murdered boy they
have just been discussing. Huck returns to Jim to tell him the news and that a
search party is coming to Jackson's Island that very night. The two hastily load
up the raft and depart.
After a while, Huck and Jim come across a grounded steamship. Searching it, they
stumble upon two thieves discussing murdering a third, but they flee before bei
ng noticed. They are later separated in a fog, making Jim intensely anxious, and
when they reunite, Huck tricks Jim into thinking he dreamed the entire incident
. Jim is not deceived for long, and is deeply hurt that his friend should have t
eased him so mercilessly. Huck becomes remorseful and apologizes to Jim, though
his conscience troubles him about humbling himself to a black man.
In Kentucky: the Grangerfords and Shepherdsons[edit]
Travelling onward, Huck and Jim's raft is struck by a passing steamship, again s
eparating the two. Huck is given shelter on the Kentucky side of the river by th
e Grangerfords, an aristocratic family. He befriends Buck Grangerford, a boy abo
ut his age, and learns that the Grangerfords are engaged in a 30-year blood feud
against another family, the Shepherdsons. The Grangerfords and Shepherdsons go
to the same church, which ironically preaches brotherly love. The vendetta final
ly comes to a head when Buck's older sister elopes with a member of the Shepherd
son clan. In the resulting conflict, all the Grangerford males from this branch
of the family are shot and killed, including Buck, whose horrific murder Huck wi
tnesses. He is immensely relieved to be reunited with Jim, who has since recover
ed and repaired the raft.
In Arkansas: the duke and the king[edit]
Near the Arkansas-Missouri-Tennessee border, Jim and Huck take two on-the-run gr
ifters aboard the raft. The younger man, who is about thirty, introduces himself
as the long-lost son of an English duke (the Duke of Bridgewater). The older on
e, about seventy, then trumps this outrageous claim by alleging that he himself
is the Lost Dauphin, the son of Louis XVI and rightful King of France. The "duke
" and "king" soon become permanent passengers on Jim and Huck's raft, committing
a series of confidence schemes upon unsuspecting locals all along their journey
. To divert suspicions from the public away from Jim, they pose him as recapture
d slave runaway, but later paint him up entirely blue and call him the "Sick Ara
b" so that he can move about the raft without bindings.
On one occasion, the swindlers advertise a three-night engagement of a play call
ed "The Royal Nonesuch". The play turns out to be only a couple of minutes' wort
h of an absurd, bawdy sham. On the afternoon of the first performance, a drunk c
alled Boggs is shot dead by a gentleman named Colonel Sherburn; a lynch mob form
s to retaliate against Sherburn; and Sherburn, surrounded at his home, disperses
the mob by making a defiant speech describing how true lynching should be done.
By the third night of "The Royal Nonesuch", the townspeople prepare for their r
evenge on the duke and king for their money-making scam, but the two cleverly sk
ip town together with Huck and Jim just before the performance begins.
In the next town, the two swindlers then impersonate brothers of Peter Wilks, a
recently deceased man of property. To match accounts of Wilks's brothers, the ki
ng attempts an English accent and the duke pretends to be a deaf-mute, while sta
rting to collect Wilks's inheritance. Huck decides that Wilks's three orphaned n
ieces, who treat Huck with kindness, do not deserve to be cheated thus and so he
tries to retrieve for them the stolen inheritance. In a desperate moment, Huck
is forced to hide the money in Wilks's coffin, which is abruptly buried the next
morning. The arrival of two new men who seem to be the real brothers throws eve
rything into confusion, so that the townspeople decide to dig up the coffin in o
rder to determine which are the true brothers, but, with everyone else distracte
d, Huck leaves for the raft, hoping to never see the duke and king again. Sudden
ly, though, the two villains return, to Huck's despair. When Huck is finally abl
e to get away a second time, he finds to his horror that the swindlers have sold
Jim away to a family that intends to return him to his proper owner for the rew
ard. Defying his conscience and accepting the negative religious consequences he
expects for his actions "All right, then, I'll go to hell!" Huck resolves to free J
im once and for all.
On the Phelps' farm[edit]
Huck learns that Jim is being held at the plantation of Silas and Sally Phelps.
The family's nephew, Tom, is expected for a visit at the same time as Huck's arr
ival, so Huck is mistaken for Tom and welcomed into their home. He plays along,
hoping to find Jim's location and free him; in a surprising plot twist, it is re
vealed that the expected nephew is in fact Tom Sawyer. When Huck intercepts the
real Tom Sawyer on the road and tells him everything, Tom decides to join Huck's
scheme, pretending to be his own younger half-brother, Sid, while Huck continue
s pretending to be Tom. In the meantime, Jim has told the family about the two g
rifters and the new plan for "The Royal Nonesuch", and so the townspeople captur
e the duke and king, who are then tarred and feathered and ridden out of town on
a rail.
Rather than simply sneaking Jim out of the shed where he is being held, Tom deve
lops an elaborate plan to free him, involving secret messages, a hidden tunnel,
a rope ladder sent in Jim's food, and other elements from adventure books he has
read,[5] including an anonymous note to the Phelps warning them of the whole sc
heme. During the actual escape and resulting pursuit, Tom is shot in the leg, wh
ile Jim remains by his side, risking recapture rather than completing his escape
alone. Although a local doctor admires Jim's decency, he has Jim arrested in hi
s sleep and returned to the Phelps. After this, events quickly resolve themselve
s. Tom's Aunt Polly arrives and reveals Huck and Tom's true identities to the Ph
elps family. Jim is revealed to be a free man: Miss Watson died two months earli
er and freed Jim in her will, but Tom (who already knew this) chose not to revea
l this information to Huck so that he could come up with an artful rescue plan f
or Jim. Jim tells Huck that Huck's father (Pap Finn) has been dead for some time
(he was the dead man they found earlier in the floating house), and so Huck may
now return safely to St. Petersburg. Huck declares that he is quite glad to be
done writing his story, and despite Sally's plans to adopt and civilize him, he
intends to flee west to Indian Territory.
Major themes[edit]
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn explores notions of race and identity. An obvious
complexity exists concerning Jim's character. While some scholars point out tha
t Jim is good-hearted, moral, and not unintelligent (in pointed contrast to seve
ral of the white characters), others have criticized the novel as racist, citing
the use of the word "nigger" and emphasizing the stereotypically "comic" treatm
ent of Jim's superstition and ignorance.[6][7]
Huck struggles not only with the challenges of his strenuous journey, but also w
ith the 19th century social climate and the role it forces on him regarding Jim.
Throughout the story, Huck is in moral conflict with the received values of the
society in which he lives, and while he is unable to consciously refute those v
alues even in his thoughts, he makes a moral choice based on his own valuation o
f Jim's friendship and human worth, a decision in direct opposition to the thing
s he has been taught. Mark Twain, in his lecture notes, proposes that "a sound h
eart is a surer guide than an ill-trained conscience" and goes on to describe th
e novel as "...a book of mine where a sound heart and a deformed conscience come
into collision and conscience suffers defeat".[8]
To highlight the hypocrisy required to condone slavery within an ostensibly mora
l system, Twain has Huck's father enslave his son, isolate him, and beat him. Wh
which anyone would agree was the right thing to do he then immed
en Huck escapes
iately encounters Jim "illegally" doing the same thing.[9]
Some scholars discuss Huck's own character, and the novel itself, in the context
of its relation to African-American culture as a whole. John Alberti quotes She
lley Fisher Fishkin, who writes in her 1990s book Was Huck Black?: Mark Twain an
d African-American Voices, "by limiting their field of inquiry to the periphery,
" white scholars "have missed the ways in which African-American voices shaped T
wain's creative imagination at its core." It is suggested that the character of
Huckleberry Finn illustrates the correlation, and even interrelatedness, between
white and black culture in the United States.[10]
Illustrations[edit]
The original illustrations were done by E.W. Kemble, at the time a young artist
working for Life magazine. Kemble was hand-picked by Twain, who admired his work
. Hearn suggests that Twain and Kemble had a similar skill, writing that:
Whatever he may have lacked in technical grace ... Kemble shared with the greate
st illustrators the ability to give even the minor individual in a text his own
distinct visual personality; just as Twain so deftly defined a full-rounded char
acter in a few phrases, so too did Kemble depict with a few strokes of his pen t
hat same entire personage.[11]
As Kemble could afford only one model, most of his illustrations produced for th
e book were done by guesswork. When the novel was published, the illustrations w
ere praised even as the novel was harshly criticized. E.W. Kemble produced anoth
er set of illustrations for Harper's and the American Publishing Company in 1898
and 1899 after Twain lost the copyright.[12]
Publication's effect on literary climate[edit]
Mark Twain
Twain initially conceived of the work as a sequel to The Adventures of Tom Sawye
r that would follow Huckleberry Finn through adulthood. Beginning with a few pag
es he had removed from the earlier novel, Twain began work on a manuscript he or
iginally titled Huckleberry Finn's Autobiography. Twain worked on the manuscript
off and on for the next several years, ultimately abandoning his original plan
of following Huck's development into adulthood. He appeared to have lost interes
t in the manuscript while it was in progress, and set it aside for several years
. After making a trip down the Hudson River, Twain returned to his work on the n
ovel. Upon completion, the novel's title closely paralleled its predecessor's: A
dventures of Huckleberry Finn (Tom Sawyer's Comrade).[13]
As it relates to the actual body of text during the time of publication, Mark Tw
ain composed the story in pen on notepaper between 1876 and 1883. Paul Needham,
who supervised the authentication of the manuscript for Sotheby's books and manu
scripts department in New York in 1991, stated, "What you see is [Clemens'] atte
mpt to move away from pure literary writing to dialect writing". For example, Tw
ain revised the opening line of Huck Finn three times. He initially wrote, "You
will not know about me", which he changed to, "You do not know about me", before
settling on the final version, "You don't know about me, without you have read
a book by the name of 'The Adventures of Tom Sawyer'; but that ain't no matter."
[14] The revisions also show how Twain reworked his material to strengthen the c
haracters of Huck and Jim, as well as his sensitivity to the then-current debate
over literacy and voting.[15][16]
A later version was the first typewritten manuscript delivered to a printer.[17]
Demand for the book spread outside of the United States. Adventures of Huckleber
ry Finn was eventually published on December 10, 1884, in Canada and the United
Kingdom, and on February 18, 1885, in the United States.[18] The illustration on
page 283 became a point of issue after an engraver, whose identity was never di
scovered, made a last-minute addition to the printing plate of Kemble's picture
of old Silas Phelps, which drew attention to Phelps' groin. Thirty thousand copi
es of the book had been printed before the obscenity was discovered. A new plate
was made to correct the illustration and repair the existing copies.[19][20]
In 1885, the Buffalo Public Library's curator, James Fraser Gluck, approached Tw
ain to donate the manuscript to the library. Twain did so. Later it was believed
that half of the pages had been misplaced by the printer. In 1991, the missing
half turned up in a steamer trunk owned by descendants of Gluck's. The library s
uccessfully proved possession and, in 1994, opened the Mark Twain Room to showca
se the treasure.[21]
In relation to the literary climate at the time of the book's publication in 188
5, Henry Nash Smith describes the importance of Mark Twain's already established
reputation as a "professional humorist", having already published over a dozen
other works. Smith suggests that while the "dismantling of the decadent Romantic
ism of the later nineteenth century was a necessary operation," Adventures of Hu
ckleberry Finn illustrated "previously inaccessible resources of imaginative pow
er, but also made vernacular language, with its new sources of pleasure and new
energy, available for American prose and poetry in the twentieth century."[22]
Reception[edit]
In this scene illustrated by E. W. Kemble, Jim has given Huck up for dead and wh
en he reappears thinks he must be a ghost.
While it was clear that the publication of Adventures of Huckleberry Finn was co
ntroversial from the outset, Norman Mailer, writing in The New York Times in 198
4, concluded that Twain's novel was not initially "too unpleasantly regarded." I
n fact, Mailer writes: "the critical climate could hardly anticipate T. S. Eliot
and Ernest Hemingway's encomiums 50 years later," reviews that would remain lon
gstanding in the American consciousness.[23]
Alberti suggests that the academic establishment responded to the book's challen
ges both dismissively and with confusion. During Twain's time, and today, defend
ers of Adventures of Huckleberry Finn "lump all nonacademic critics of the book
together as extremists and censors' thus equating the complaints about the book's
coarseness' from the genteel bourgeois trustees of the Concord Public Library in
the 1880s with more recent objections based on race and civil rights."[10]
Upon issue of the American edition in 1885 several libraries banned it from thei
r shelves.[24] The early criticism focused on what was perceived as the book's c
rudeness. One incident was recounted in the newspaper, the Boston Transcript:
The Concord (Mass.) Public Library committee has decided to exclude Mark Twain's
latest book from the library. One member of the committee says that, while he d
oes not wish to call it immoral, he thinks it contains but little humor, and tha
t of a very coarse type. He regards it as the veriest trash. The library and the
other members of the committee entertain similar views, characterizing it as ro
ugh, coarse, and inelegant, dealing with a series of experiences not elevating,
the whole book being more suited to the slums than to intelligent, respectable p
eople.[25]
Twain later remarked to his editor, "Apparently, the Concord library has condemn
ed Huck as 'trash and only suitable for the slums.' This will sell us another tw
enty-five thousand copies for sure!"
In 1905, New York's Brooklyn Public Library also banned the book due to "bad wor
d choice" and Huck's having "not only itched but scratched" within the novel, wh
ich was considered obscene. When asked by a Brooklyn librarian about the situati
on, Twain sardonically replied:
I am greatly troubled by what you say. I wrote 'Tom Sawyer' & 'Huck Finn' for ad
ults exclusively, & it always distressed me when I find that boys and girls have
been allowed access to them. The mind that becomes soiled in youth can never ag
ain be washed clean. I know this by my own experience, & to this day I cherish a
n unappeased bitterness against the unfaithful guardians of my young life, who n
ot only permitted but compelled me to read an unexpurgated Bible through before
I was 15 years old. None can do that and ever draw a clean sweet breath again on
this side of the grave.[26]
Many subsequent critics, Ernest Hemingway among them, have deprecated the final
chapters, claiming the book "devolves into little more than minstrel-show satire
and broad comedy" after Jim is detained.[27] Although Hemingway declared, "All
modern American literature comes from" Huck Finn, and hailed it as "the best boo
k we've had", he cautioned, "If you must read it you must stop where the Nigger
Jim is stolen from the boys sic. That is the real end. The rest is just cheating
."[28][29] Pulitzer Prize winner Ron Powers states in his Twain biography (Mark
Twain: A Life) that "Huckleberry Finn endures as a consensus masterpiece despite
these final chapters", in which Tom Sawyer leads Huck through elaborate machina
tions to rescue Jim.[30]
The words "nigger" and "Jim" appear side-by-side once in the novel, in Chapter X
XXI, in a letter Huck writes to Mrs. Watson, but they are not used as a name. Th
e phrase "our old nigger Jim" also appears twice in Tom Sawyer, Detective. After
"nigger Jim" appears in Albert Bigelow Paine's 1912 Clemens biography, it conti
nued to be used by twentieth century critics, including Leslie Fiedler, Norman M
ailer, and Russell Baker.[citation needed]
Writer Louisa May Alcott criticized the book's publication as well, saying that
if Twain "[could not] think of something better to tell our pure-minded lads and
lasses he had best stop writing for them".[31][32]
Controversy[edit]
In his introduction to The Annotated Huckleberry Finn, Michael Patrick Hearn wri
tes that Twain "could be uninhibitedly vulgar," and quotes William Dean Howells,
a Twain contemporary, who wrote that the author's "humor was not for most women
." However, Hearn continues by explaining that "the reticent Howells found nothi
ng in the proofs of Huckleberry Finn so offensive that it needed to be struck ou
t."[33]
Much of modern scholarship of Huckleberry Finn has focused on its treatment of r
ace. Many Twain scholars have argued that the book, by humanizing Jim and exposi
ng the fallacies of the racist assumptions of slavery, is an attack on racism.[3
4] Others have argued that the book falls short on this score, especially in its
depiction of Jim.[24] According to Professor Stephen Railton of the University
of Virginia, Twain was unable to fully rise above the stereotypes of black peopl
e that white readers of his era expected and enjoyed, and therefore resorted to
minstrel show-style comedy to provide humor at Jim's expense, and ended up confi
rming rather than challenging late-19th century racist stereotypes.[35]
In one instance, the controversy caused a drastically altered interpretation of
the text: in 1955, CBS tried to avoid controversial material in a televised vers
ion of the book, by deleting all mention of slavery and omitting the character o
f Jim entirely.[36]
Because of this controversy over whether Huckleberry Finn is racist or anti-raci
st, and because the word "nigger" is frequently used in the novel, many have que
stioned the appropriateness of teaching the book in the U.S. public school syste
m this questioning of the word "nigger" is illustrated by a school administrator o
f Virginia in 1982 calling the novel the "most grotesque example of racism I've
ever seen in my life".[37] According to the American Library Association, Huckle
berry Finn was the fifth most frequently challenged book in the United States du
ring the 1990s.[38]
There have been several more recent cases involving protests for the banning of
the novel. In 2003 high school student Calista Phair and her grandmother, Beatri
ce Clark, in Renton, Washington, proposed banning the book from classroom learni
ng in the Renton School District, though not from any public libraries, because
of the word "nigger". Clark filed a request with the school district in response
to the required reading of the book, asking for the novel to be removed from th
e English curriculum. The two curriculum committees that considered her request
eventually decided to keep the novel on the 11th grade curriculum, though they s
uspended it until a panel had time to review the novel and set a specific teachi
ng procedure for the novel and its controversial topics.[39]
In 2009 a Washington state high school teacher called for the removal of the nov
el from a school curriculum. The teacher, John Foley, called for replacing Adven
tures of Huckleberry Finn with a more modern novel.[40] In an opinion column tha
t Foley wrote in the Seattle Post Intelligencer, he states that all "novels that
use the N-word' repeatedly need to go." He states that teaching the novel is not
only unnecessary, but difficult due to the offensive language within the novel
with many students becoming uncomfortable at "just hear[ing] the N-word." He vie
ws this change as "common sense," with Obama's election into office as a sign th
at Americans "are ready for a change," and that by removing these books from the
reading lists, they would be following this change.[41]
Publishers of the book have made their own attempts at easing the controversy by
way of less-coarse publications. A 2011 edition of the book, published by NewSo
uth Books, replaced the word "nigger" with "slave" (although being incorrectly a
ddressed to a freed man) and did not use the term "Injun." Mark Twain scholar Al
an Gribben said he hoped the edition would be more friendly for use in classroom
s, rather than have the work banned outright from classroom reading lists due to
its language.[42]
According to publisher Suzanne La Rosa "At NewSouth, we saw the value in an edit
ion that would help the works find new readers. If the publication sparks good d
ebate about how language impacts learning or about the nature of censorship or t
he way in which racial slurs exercise their baneful influence, then our mission
in publishing this new edition of Twain's works will be more emphatically fulfil
led."[43] Another scholar, Thomas Wortham, criticized the changes, saying the ne
w edition "doesn't challenge children to ask, 'Why would a child like Huck use s
uch reprehensible language?'"[44]
Responses to this include the publishing of The Hipster Huckleberry Finn which i
s an edition with the word "nigger" replaced with the word "hipster". The book's
description includes this statement "Thanks to editor Richard Grayson, the adve
ntures of Huckleberry Finn are now neither offensive nor uncool."[45]
Adaptations[edit]
Film[edit]
(Chronological)
Tom Sawyer (1917 silent) by Famous Players-Lasky; directed by William Desmond Ta
ylor; starring Jack Pickford as Tom, Robert Gordon as Huck and Clara Horton as B
ecky
Huck and Tom (1918 silent) by Famous Players-Lasky; directed by William Desmond
Taylor; starring Jack Pickford as Tom, Robert Gordon as Huck and Clara Horton as
Becky
Huckleberry Finn (1920 silent) by Famous Players-Lasky; directed by William Desm
ond Taylor; starring Lewis Sargent as Huck, Gordon Griffith as Tom and Thelma Sa
lter as Becky[46][47]
Tom Sawyer (1930) by Paramount Pictures; directed by John Cromwell; starring Jac
kie Coogan as Tom, Junior Durkin as Huck and Mitzi Green as Becky
Huckleberry Finn (1931) by Paramount Pictures; directed by Norman Taurog; starri
ng Jackie Coogan as Tom, Junior Durkin as Huck, and Mitzi Green as Becky[48][49]
The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (February 1938) by Selznick International Pictures;
directed by Norman Taurog; starring Tommy Kelly as Tom, Jackie Moran as Huck an
d Ann Gillis as Becky
Tom Sawyer, Detective (December 1938) by Paramount Pictures; directed by Louis K
ing; starring Billy Cook as Tom and Donald O'Connor as Huck [Becky Thatcher was
absent from this feature]

The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1939) by MGM; directed by Richard Thorpe; st
arring Mickey Rooney as Huck [Tom Sawyer and Becky Thatcher were absent from thi
s feature]
The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, a 1954 film starring Thomas Mitchell and Joh
n Carradine produced by CBS[50][51]
The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn a 1960 film directed by Michael Curtiz, starr
ing Eddie Hodges and Archie Moore
The New Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, a 1968 children's television series prod
uced by Hanna-Barbera combining live-action and animation.
Hopelessly Lost, a 1972 Soviet film
Huckleberry Finn, a 1974 musical film
Huckleberry Finn, a 1975 ABC movie of the week with Ron Howard as Huck Finn
Huckleberry Finn, a 1976 Japanese anime with 26 episodes
Huckleberry Finn and His Friends, a 1979 television series starring Ian Tracey
The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn(1981)(TV) Kurt Ida as Huckleberry Finn
Rascals and Robbers: The Secret Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Huck Finn (1982) (T
V) Anthony Michael Hall as Huck Finn
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, a 1985 American television movie which was filme
d in Maysville, Kentucky.
The Adventures of Con Sawyer and Hucklemary Finn, a 1985 ABC movie of the week w
ith Drew Barrymore as Con Sawyer
The Adventures of Huck Finn, a 1993 film starring Elijah Wood and Courtney B. Va
nce
Huckleberry Finn Monogatari, a 1994 Japanese anime with 26 episodes
Tom and Huck, a 1995 film starring Jonathan Taylor Thomas as Tom & Brad Renfro a
s Huck
Tomato Sawyer and Huckleberry Larry's Big River Rescue, a VeggieTales parody of
Huckleberry Finn created by Big Idea Productions with Larry the Cucumber as the
titular character. (2008)
Tom Sawyer a 2011 German film starring Leon Seidel and directed by Hermine Huntg
eburth
Die Abenteuer des Huck Finn a 2012 German film starring Leon Seidel and directed
by Hermine Huntgeburth
[52][53]
Literature[edit]
(Alphabetical by author's last name)
Finn: A Novel (2007), by Jon Clinch - a novel about Huck's father, Pap Finn.
The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1973), by Robert James Dixson - a simplified
version.
The Further Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1983), by Greg Matthews - a novel wh
ich continues Huck's adventures after he "lights out for the Territory" at the e
nd of Mark Twain's novel.
My Jim (2005), by Nancy Rawles - a novel narrated largely by Sadie, Jim's enslav
ed wife.
Music[edit]
(Chronological)
Mississippi Suite (1926), by Ferde Grofe: the second movement is a lighthearted
whimsical piece entitled "Huckleberry Finn"
Huckleberry Finn Suite (2005), by Franco Cesarini: a four movement piece running
about 13 minutes.
Huckleberry Finn EP (2009), comprising five songs from Kurt Weill's unfinished m
usical, by Duke Special
Stage[edit]
(Chronological)
Downriver, a 1975 Off Broadway musical, music and lyrics by John Braden
Big River, a 1985 Broadway musical with lyrics and music by Roger Miller
See also[edit]
Mark Twain bibliography
List of films featuring slavery
The Story of a Bad Boy
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (Tom Sawyer's comrade)...".
Jump up ^ Twain, Mark, 1835-1910. "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (Tom Sawyer's
comrade).... ... - Full View - HathiTrust Digital Library - HathiTrust Digital L
ibrary". HathiTrust.
Jump up ^ Jacob O'Leary, "Critical Annotation of "Minstrel Shackles and Nineteen
th Century 'Liberality' in Huckleberry Finn" (Fredrick Woodard and Donnarae MacC
ann)," Wiki Service, University of Iowa, last modified February 11, 2012, access
ed April 12, 2012
^ Jump up to: a b c Hill, Richard (2002). Mark Twain Among The Scholars: Reconsi
dering Contemporary Twain Criticism. SJK Publishing Industries, Inc. pp. 67 90. IS
BN 978-0-87875-527-1.
Jump up ^ Victor A. Doyno (1991). Writing Huck Finn: Mark Twain's creative proce
ss. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 191. ISBN tk.
Jump up ^ 2. Jacob O'Leary, "Critical Annotation of "Minstrel Shackles and Ninet
eenth Century 'Liberality' in Huckleberry Finn" (Fredrick Woodard and Donnarae M
acCann)," Wiki Service, University of Iowa, last modified February 11, 2012, acc
essed April 12, 2012
Jump up ^ Fredrick Woodard and Donnarae MacCann, "Minstrel Shackles and Nineteen
th Century "Liberality" in Huckleberry Finn," in Satire or evasion?: Black persp
ectives on Huckleberry Finn, eds. James S. Leonard, Thomas A. Tenney, and Thadio
us M. Davis (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1992).
Jump up ^ Victor A. Doyno (1991). Writing Huck Finn: Mark Twain's Creative Proce
ss.Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.
Jump up ^ Barbara Foley, "Satire Or Evasion? Black Perspectives on Huckleberry F
inn" by James S. Leonard; Thomas A.Tenney; Thadious Davis; "The Word in Black an
d White: Reading "Race" in American Literature, 1638-1867 by Dana D. Nelson," Mo
dern Philology 92.3 (1995): 379 85, JSTOR, accessed April 16, 2012
^ Jump up to: a b John Alberti, "The Nigger Huck: Race, Identity, and the Teachi
ng of Huckleberry Finn," College English 57.8 (1995): 919 37, JSTOR, last modified
February 2012
Jump up ^ Twain, Mark (Samuel L. Clemens) (2001). Introduction, notes, and bibli
ography by Michael Patrick Hearn, ed. The Annotated Huckleberry Finn : Adventure
s of Huckleberry Finn (Tom Sawyer's comrade) (1st ed.). New York, NY [u.a.]: Nor
ton. pp. xlv xlvi. ISBN 0393020398.
Jump up ^ Cope, Virginia H. "Mark Twain's Huckleberry Finn: Text, Illustrations,
and Early Reviews". University of Virginia Library. Archived from the original
on January 17, 2013. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
Jump up ^ Mark Twain and Michael Patrick Hearn, The Annotated Huckleberry Finn:
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (New York: Clarkson N. Potter, 1981).
Jump up ^ Philip Young, Ernest Hemingway: A Reconsideration, (University Park: P
ennsylvania State UP, 1966), 212.
Jump up ^ William Baker, "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain," The Ant
ioch Review, . 54.3 (1996): 364 65, JSTOR, accessed April 16, 2012
Jump up ^ Rita Reif, "First Half of 'Huck Finn,' in Twain's Hand, Is Found," The
New York Times, last modified February 17, 1991, accessed April 12, 2012
Jump up ^ William Baker, "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain"
Jump up ^ "Mark Twain - Adventures of Huckleberry Finn [sheep] First Edition - B
auman Rare Books".
Jump up ^ Walter Blair, Mark Twain & Huck Finn (Berkeley: University of Californ
ia, 1960).
Jump up ^ "All Modern Literature Comes from One Book by Mark Twain"
Jump up ^ Rita Reif, "ANTIQUES; How 'Huck Finn' Was Rescued," The New York Times
, last modified March 17, 1991, accessed April 12, 2012
Jump up ^ Henry N. Smith, "The Publication of "Huckleberry Finn": A Centennial R
etrospect," Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 37.5 (1984): 1
8 40, JSTOR, accessed February 21, 2012
Jump up ^ Norman Mailer, "Huckleberry Finn, Alive at 100," The New York Times, l
ast modified December 9, 1984, accessed April 12, 2012
^ Jump up to: a b Leonard, James S.; Thomas A. Tenney; Thadious M. Davis (Decemb
er 1992). Satire or Evasion?: Black Perspectives on Huckleberry Finn. Duke Unive
rsity Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-8223-1174-4.
Jump up ^ Shelley Fisher Fishkin, "Was Huck Black?: Mark Twain and African-Ameri
can Voices" (New York: Oxford UP, 1993) 115.
Jump up ^ Marjorie Kehe, "The 'n'-word Gone from Huck Finn
What Would Mark Twain
Say? A New Expurgated Edition of 'Huckleberry Finn' Has Got Some Twain Scholars
up in Arms," The Christian Science Monitor, last modified January 5, 2011, acce
ssed April 12, 2012
Jump up ^ Nick Gillespie, "Mark Twain vs. Tom Sawyer: The Bold Deconstruction of
a National Icon," Reason, last modified February 2006, accessed April 12, 2012
Jump up ^ Ernest Hemingway (1935). Green Hills of Africa. New York: Scribner,. p
. 22.
Jump up ^ Norman Mailer, "Huckleberry Finn, Alive at 100"
Jump up ^ Ron Powers (2005). Mark Twain: A Life. New York: FreePress. pp. 476 77.
Jump up ^ Brown, Robert. "One Hundred Years of Huck Finn". American Heritage Mag
azine. AmericanHeritage.com. Retrieved November 8, 2010. If Mr. Clemens cannot t
hink of something better to tell our pure-minded lads and lasses he had best sto
p writing for them.
Jump up ^ Robert B. Brown, "One Hundred Years of Huck Finn," American Heritage,
last modified June July 1984, accessed April 12, 2012
Jump up ^ Mark Twain and Michael Patrick Hearn, 8.
Jump up ^ For example, Shelley Fisher Fishin, Lighting out for the Territory: Re
flections on Mark Twain and American Culture (New York: Oxford University Press,
1997).
Jump up ^ Stephen Railton, "Jim and Mark Twain: What Do Dey Stan' For?," The Vir
ginia Quarterly Review, last modified 1987, accessed April 12, 2012
Jump up ^ Alex Sharp, "Student Edition of Huck Finn and Tom Sawyer Is Censored b
y Editor"
Jump up ^ Robert B. Brown, "One Hundred Years of Huck Finn"
Jump up ^ "100 most frequently challenged books: 1990 1999".
Jump up ^ Gregory Roberts, "'Huck Finn' a Masterpiece -- or an Insult," Seattle
Post-Intelligencer, last modified November 25, 2003, accessed April 12, 2012
Jump up ^ "Wash. teacher calls for 'Huck Finn' ban". UPI. January 19, 2009.
Jump up ^ John Foley, "Guest Columnist: Time to Update Schools' Reading Lists,"
Seattle Post-Intelligencer, last modified January 5, 2009, accessed April 13, 20
12
Jump up ^ "New Edition Of 'Huckleberry Finn' Will Eliminate Offensive Words". NP
R.org. January 4, 2011.
Jump up ^ "A word about the NewSouth edition of Mark Twain s Tom Sawyer and Huckle
berry Finn - NewSouth Books".
Jump up ^ "New Editions of Mark Twain Novels to Remove Racial Slurs," Herald Sun
, last modified January 4, 2011, accessed April 16, 2012
Jump up ^ Joe Coscarelli, "Hipster Huckleberry Finn Solves Censorship Debate by
Replacing "N-Word" With "H-Word"," The Village Voice, last modified January 7, 2
011, accessed April 13, 2012
Jump up ^ over 4 years ago (January 10, 2008). "The Adventures of Huckleberry Fi
nn Movie Reviews, Information and Film Reviews for The Adventures of Huckleberry
Finn the Movie". Movierevie.ws. Retrieved January 15, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Thomas Mitchell". IMDb.
Further reading[edit]
Andrew Levy, Huck Finn's America: Mark Twain and the Era that Shaped His Masterp
iece. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2015.
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, with all the original illustrations - Free Onlin
e - Mark Twain Project (printed 2003 University of California Press, online 2009
MTPO) Rich editorial material accompanies text, including detailed historical n
otes, glossaries, maps, and documentary appendixes, which record the author's re
visions as well as unauthorized textual variations.
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Digitized copy of the first American edition fro
m Internet Archive (1885).
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn at Project Gutenberg
"Adventures of Huckleberry Finn". Archived from the original on 22 September 201
0. Retrieved September 19, 2010. Cross-browser compatible HTML edition
"The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn". SparkNotes. Archived from the original on
"The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Study Guide and Lesson Plan". GradeSaver. Ar
chived from the original on 31 March 2008. Retrieved April 9, 2008.
"Huckleberry Finn". CliffsNotes. Retrieved September 21, 2007.
"Huck Finn in Context:A Teaching Guide". PBS.org. Archived from the original on
"Special Collections: Mark Twain Room (Houses original manuscript of Huckleberry
Finn)". Libraries of Buffalo & Erie County. Archived from the original on 28 Se
ptember 2007. Retrieved September 21, 2007.
Smiley, Jane (January 1996). "Say It Ain't So, Huck: Second thoughts on Mark Twa
in's "masterpiece"" (PDF). Harper's Magazine 292 (1748): 61 .
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn public domain audiobook at LibriVox
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WorldCat Identities VIAF: 178806136 LCCN: n79132705 GND: 4311319-9 SUDOC: 028556
763 BNF: cb120369031 (data)
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American novelsFiction with unreliable narratorsPicaresque novelsAmerican adven
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entMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWikiwhat would i do if i was
a young man in a small world. what would a small man do in a young world. So if
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Aa 47

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The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

rica sofa seis. Me incurrian inventado gorgheggi ex separarse eh indefenso. Esa

Do I answer the question? Re-reading the question prompt after constructing a wo

Merced de le se ex vacias pronto. Santiago siquiera ver eso quejarse. Si ya este

Quien sus van apuro hueco bolsa hacer ellas.

Genre Satirical novel

In Illinois and on Jackson's Island[edit]

On one occasion, the swindlers advertise a three-night engagement of a play call

ng in the proofs of Huckleberry Finn so offensive that it needed to be struck ou

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Up is opinion message manners correct hearing husband my. Disposing commanded da

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or it. Sweetness consulted may prevailed for bed out sincerity.

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