Professional Documents
Culture Documents
in Indonesian Forests
An assessment
of the major threats,
research efforts
and literature
Editor
K.S.S. Nair
preliminaries.p65
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ISBN 979-8764-52-8
Nair, K.S.S. (ed.). 2000. Insect pests and diseases in Indonesian forests:
an assessment of the major threats, research efforts and literature.
Center for International Forestry Research, Bogor, Indonesia. 101p.
Published by
Center for International Forestry Research
Bogor, Indonesia
P.O. Box 6596 JKPWB, Jakarta 10065, Indonesia
Tel.: +62 (251) 622622; Fax: +62 (251) 622100
E-mail: cifor@cgiar.org
Web site: http://www.cifor.cgiar.org
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Contents
Acknowledgements
Abstract
vi
vii
1. Introduction
K.S.S. Nair
1.1. Background
1.2. Objectives
1.3. Methodology
1.4. Presentation
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
6
8
11
12
12
15
19
20
20
21
21
22
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4.8.
4.9.
4.10.
4.11.
4.12.
4.13.
4.14.
4.15.
4.16.
4.17.
4.18.
4.19.
4.20.
4.21.
4.22.
4.23.
4.24.
Dyera spp.
Eucalyptus spp.
Eusideroxylon zwageri
Gmelina arborea
Gonystylus bancanus
Koompassia species
Maesopsis eminii
Mangrove species
Melaleuca cajuputi
Ochroma pyramidale
Octomeles sumatrana
Paraserianthes falcataria
Peronema canescens
Pinus merkusii
Schleichera oleosa
Swietenia macrophylla
Tectona grandis
24
24
26
26
27
28
28
28
29
30
30
31
33
33
35
35
37
5. General Conclusions
K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi
5.1. Summary of present problems and future threats
5.2. The research scenario
5.3. Outlook for future
39
43
44
Literature Cited
45
57
70
79
Indexes
87
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List of Tables
Table 2.1.
Table 2.2.
Table 2.3.
Table 2.4
Table 2.5.
Table 2.6.
Table 2.7.
Table 4.1.
Table 4.2.
Table 4.3.
Table 4.4.
4
6
6
7
7
7
8
16
17
23
23
25
25
29
32
32
34
35
37
40
41
List of Figures
Figure 2.1. The spread of forest plantations across Indonesia and
the species planted in each province
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Acknowledgements
We thank Mr. E.A. Husaeni and Prof. Gunarwan Suratmo of Bogor Agricultural University;
Prof. Ahmad Sultoni, Mr. Subyanto and Ms. Sri Rahayu of Gadjah Mada University;
Dr. Daddy Ruhiyat, Mr. Encep Iskandar and Mr. CH. Soeyamto of Mulawarman University;
Ms. Mieke Suharti and Mr. Erdy Santoso of Forestry and Estate Crops Research and
Development Agency (FERDA); and Dr. John Poulsen of CIFOR for helpful discussions.
We are grateful to all of them for enriching this study by sharing information and their
personal experience. We also thank Dr. Ken MacDicken, Director of Research, CIFOR and
Dr. J.W. Turnbull, whose editorial comments helped to improve the presentation. We received
useful information on pests and diseases from Mr. S.S. Maurits and Mr. S.N. Sunaryo of
PT Surya Hutani Jaya; and Mr. Canesio Munoz, Mr. Cheah Leong Chew and
Mr. Lee Foo Wah of PT. Riau Andalan Pulp and Paper. Representatives of several
plantation companies helped this study by providing statistics on plantations as well as
information on pests and diseases. We thank all of them.
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Abstract
Major pests and diseases of natural and planted
Indonesian forests have been reviewed, threats assessed
and a bibliography compiled. Indonesia has about 96
million hectares of natural forests, dominated by
dipterocarps, and 4 million ha of forest plantations.
About half the plantations are in Java, consisting of
long-established species including Tectona grandis,
Pinus merkusii, Agathis dammara, Swietenia
macrophylla, Dalbergia latifolia and Melaleuca
cajuputi, and half in Sumatra and Kalimantan, mainly
fast growing pulpwood species. Major plantation
species are: Tectona grandis, Pinus merkusii, Acacia
mangium, Agathis dammara, Paraserianthes falcataria,
Swietenia macrophylla, Gmelina arborea, mangrove
species, Eucalyptus spp., Dalbergia spp., Melaleuca
cajuputi and Azadirachta excelsa. Only small-scale
plantations exist for the other species reviewed, viz.,
Alstonia spp., Anthocephalus sp., Dipterocarpaceae,
Dyera spp., Eusideroxylon zwageri, Gonystylus
bancanus, Koompassia spp., Maesopsis eminii,
Ochroma pyramidale, Octomeles sumatrana, Peronema
canescens and Schleichera oleosa. Occasional and
unpredictable insect outbreaks have occurred in natural
stands of Pinus merkusii, Plaquium sp., Casuarina
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Chapter 1
Introduction
K.S.S. Nair
1.1. Background
Indonesia is a forest country. In 1993, the
Indonesian Ministry of Forestry estimated (MoF 1993)
that about three-quarters of the 193 million hectares
(ha) of the land area, i.e., about 144 million ha, are
covered by forest. FAO estimates in 1996 showed the
forest area to be 96.2 million ha, i.e., about half of the
land area, and there has been further reduction in
forested land since then (Fox et al. 2000). This trend
of deforestation has been continuing for some time.
Shifting agriculture by indigenous communities and
logging by forest concessionaires have created about
30 million ha of secondary forests in the outer islands,
particularly Sumatra and Kalimantan. These are often
further degraded into grasslands. Apart from the early
planting of nearly 2 million ha of teak, pine, mahogany,
agathis and other species in Java for industrial
purposes, planting programmes to rehabilitate
degraded lands were initiated in the 1970s. In the
1980s, the Government initiated an ambitious
programme of Industrial Forest Plantations (Hutan
Tanaman Industri, or HTI). Under this programme,
intended to meet the raw material demands of forestbased industries, Concession areas were granted to
both foreign and national companies, and incentives
were offered, e.g. capital in the form of Government
equity, interest free loans, etc., in order to promote
plantation development. Although the Government
target (MoF 1993) of 6.2 million ha of industrial forest
plantations by year 2000 was not reached, it is
estimated that at least 4 million ha have been planted
(including plantations in Java) (see Chapter 2). In the
outer islands, fast growing species such as Acacia
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1.2. Objectives
The specific objectives were:
i. to prepare a bibliography of pests and diseases literature pertaining to Indonesian forests, including
informal publications (grey literature), like consultant reports and student theses;
ii. to interpret the literature and summarise the main
findings, and
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Introduction
1.3. Methodology
1.4. Presentation
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Chapter 2
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Table 2.1.
Category
Purpose1
18.8
13
Protection forest
Watershed protection
30.3
21
Production forest
33.9
24
30.5
21
Convertible forest
30.5
21
Total
144.0
100
% Area
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Area (ha)
Tectona grandis
Pinus merkusii
Agathis dammara
Swietenia macrophylla
Dalbergia latifolia
Melaleuca cajuputi
Paraserianthes falcataria
Schleichera oleosa
Rhizophora spp.
Others
Total
1 066 532
583 974
66 013
54 383
25 502
11 848
6 064
3 732
49 662
89 063
1 956 775
Table 2.3. Industrial forest plantations (HTI) in the outer islands of Indonesia
Region
Geographical
area (ha)
Sumatra
Kalimantan
Sulawesi
Irian Jaya
Nusa Tenggara
Moluccas
Total
47 050 873
54 824 700
19 227 076
41 066 000
6 744 235
8 572 800
178 485 684
Forest
area (ha)
23 877 500
35 745 200
11 473 400
30 611 800
2 732 400
4 201 600
108 641 900
Area allotted
for HTI (ha)
2 525 486
3 129 781
187 146
1 389 200
55 074
74 568
7 361 255
Area planted up
to 98-99 (ha)
888 354
802 505
27 931
0
5 945
33 264
1 757 999
Source: Statistik Pengusahaan Hutan 1998/1999, Dirjen Pengusahaan Hutan Produksi, Dephutbun (1999); Geographical area and
forest area from MoFEC (1999); HTI area and planted area from Dit. Bina Pengusahaan Hutan, MoFEC
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Pulpwood
species
Timber or plywood
species
Category
Acacia mangium
Other Acacia spp.
Eucalyptus spp.
Gmelina arborea
Paraserianthes falcataria
Alstonia sp.
Anthocephalus sp.
Azadirachta excelsa
Dyera sp.
Eusideroxylon zwageri
Gonystylus bancanus
Koompasia sp.
Maesopsis eminii
Ochroma pyramidale
Octomeles sumatrana
Peronema canescens
Pinus merkusii
Shorea spp.
Tectona grandis
Area allotted
Area planted
up to 98/99
(million ha)
Pulp
4.94 (67%)
1.04 (64%)
Construction wood
1.65 (23%)
0.32 (20%)
Transmigration
0.76 (10%)
0.26 (16%)
Total
7.34 (100%)
1.63 (100%)
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Area (ha)
Percentage
Acacia mangium
Other Acacia spp.
Paraserianthes falcataria
Gmelina arborea
Eucalyptus spp.
Azadirachta excelsa
Hevea braziliensis
Peronema canescens
Octomeles sumatrana
Dipterocarps
Tectona grandis
Maesopsis eminii
Swietenia macrophylla
Miscellaneous species
443 535
24 023
48 401
47 790
29 821
18 463
8 293
4 963
4 456
2 977
1 966
282
244
55 213
64.2
3.5
7.0
6.7
4.3
2.7
1.2
0.7
0.7
0.4
0.3
>0.1
>0.1
8.0
Total
690 528
100.0
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Natural
forest
Plantation forest
For
pulpwood
For construction
timber
Community
forest
Total
million m3
1999 - 2000
34.79
15.52
1.70
1.49
53.50
2018 - 2019
31.56
42.58
26.73
2.86
103.73
Difference
-3.23
+27.06
+25.03
+1.37
+50.23
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MAP
2/22/01, 10:35 AM
WEST
JAVA
CENTRAL
JAVA
EAST JAVA
SOUTH
SULAWESI
MOLLUCAS
SOUTHEAST SULAWESI
- Acacia mangium
- Gmelina arborea
- Swietenia macrophylla
- Tectona grandis
CENTRAL KALIMANTAN
- Acacia mangium
- Anthocephalus spp.
- Dyera spp.
- Gmelina arborea
- Koompassia spp.
- Ochroma spp.
- Paraserianthes falcataria
- Peronema canescens
- Shorea spp.
SOUTH SULAWESI
- Gmelina arborea
- Paraserianthes falcataria
EAST
NUSA TENGGARA
SOUTHEAST
SULAWESI
CENTRAL
SULAWESI
WEST KALIMANTAN
- Acacia mangium
- Alstonia spp.
- Eucalyptus spp.
- Gmelina arborea
- Paraserianthes falcataria
- Peronema canescens
- Shorea spp.
EAST JAVA
- Agathis spp.
- Melaleuca cajuputi
- Paraserianthes falcataria
- Pinus merkusii
- Schleichera oleosa
- Swietenia macrophylla
- Tectona grandis
SOUTH
KALIMANTAN
CENTRAL
KALIMANTAN
WEST
KALIMANTAN
EAST
KALIMANTAN
RIAU
- Acacia mangium
- other Acacia spp.
- Anthocephalus spp.
- Azadirachta excelsa
- Gmelina arborea
- Maesopsis eminii
- Octomeles sumatrana
- Paraserianthes falcataria
- Peronema canescens
CENTRAL JAVA
- Agathis spp.
- Dalbergia spp.
- mangrove species
- Melaleuca cajuputi
- Pinus Merkusii
- Swietenia macrophylla
- Tectona grandis
LAMPUNG
SOUTH
SUMATRA
JAMBI
RIAU
WEST
SUMATRA
NORTH
SUMATRA
WEST JAVA
- Acacia mangium
- Agathis spp.
- mangrove species
- Pinus merkusii
- Shorea spp.
- Swietenia macrophylla
- Tectona grandis
D.I.ACEH
D.I. ACEH
- Acacia mangium
- Eucalyptus spp.
- Paraserianthes falcataria
- Pinus merkusii
LAMPUNG
- Acacia mangium
- Gmelina arborea
- Paraserianthes falcataria
- Shorea spp.
SOUTH SUMATRA
- Acacia mangium
- Alstonia spp.
- Gmelina arborea
- Paraserianthes falcataria
- Shorea spp.
JAMBI
- Acacia mangium
- other Acacia spp.
- Dyera spp.
- Eucalyptus spp.
- Gmelina arborea
- Gonystylus bancanus
- Paraserianthes falcataria
- Peronema canescens
- Shorea spp.
WEST SUMATRA
- Gmelina arborea
- Paraserianthes falcataria
NORTH SUMATRA
- Acacia mangium
- other Acacia spp.
- Anthocephalus spp.
- Azadirachta excelsa
- Duabanga moluccana
- Eucalyptus spp.
- Gmelina arborea
- Maesopsis eminii
- Paraserianthes falcataria
- Peronema canescens
- Pinus merkusii
- Swietenia macrophylla
Figure. 2.1. The spread of forest plantations across Indonesia and the species planted in each province
- Acacia mangium
- Eucalyptus spp.
- Eusideroxylon zwageri
- Gmelina arborea
- Paraserianthes falcataria
- Peronema canescens
- Shorea spp.
- Tectona grandis
SOUTH KALIMANTAN
MOLLUCAS
- Acacia mangium
- Gmelina arborea
- Paraserianthes falcataria
- Ochroma spp.
- Paraserianthes falcataria
CENTRAL SULAWESI
EAST KALIMANTAN
- Acacia mangium
- Eucalyptus spp.
- Eusideroxylon zwageri
- Gmelina arborea
- Paraserianthes falcataria
- Peronema canescens
- Shorea spp.
- Swietenia macrophylla
- Tectona grandis
Chapter 3
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12
General Scenario of Pests and Diseases in Natural Forests and Plantations in Indonesia
3.2. Plantations
More data are available on pests and diseases of
plantation trees than for native forests. However, as
most plantations in the outer islands are still young,
plantation experience is limited to species planted in
Java. These include teak, pine, mahogany, rosewood,
and species of Melaleuca, Paraserianthes, Schleichera
and Rhizophora. Teak plantations have suffered
chronic damage from the defoliator, Hyblaea puera,
throughout the plantations in Java. In some locations,
the termite Neotermes tectonae that infests the trunk
and branches of living teak trees has caused economic
damage. However, because the trees are not killed,
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Chapter 4
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Scientific name
Common name
Notes
Root-feeding
Coptotermes curvignathus
(Isoptera, Rhinotermitidae)
Termite
Leaf-feeding
Bagworms
Unidentified caterpillar
(Lepidoptera, Noctuidae)
Caterpillar Plusia
Valanga nigricornis
(Orthoptera, Acrididae)
Grasshopper
Sap-sucking
Mosquito bug
On young saplings
Twig-boring
Pinhole borers
Trunk-boring
Xytrocera festiva
(Coleoptera, Cerambycidae)
Stem borer
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On young saplings
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Causative agent
Foliar diseases
Rust
Powdery mildew
Black mildew
Leaf spot
Notes
Stem cankers
Pink disease
Corticium salmonicolor
Black canker
Pytophthora palmivora
Cytospora sp.
Hypoxylon mammatum
Minor
Minor
Heart rot
Phellinus noxius
Rigidoporus hypobrunneus
Tinctoporellus epimiltinus
Root rots
Red root rot
Ganoderma philipii
(syn. G. pseudoferreum)
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Rigidoporus microporus
(syn. Leptoporus lignosus)
(syn. Fomes lignosus)
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4.7. Dipterocarpaceae
(Dipterocarps)
Indonesian common names: Meranti, Balau,
Sengkawang, etc.
Natural forests in Indonesia are dominated by
dipterocarps but they have not received much attention
as plantation species. Apart from experimental plantings
in West Java since the 1950s, most planting has been
enrichment planting of logged-over forests using
wildlings. There is renewed interest in dipterocarps and
plantations are being established, mainly in the provinces
of West, Central, East and South Kalimantan, South
Sumatra and Jambi (see Fig. 2.1). In addition, Perum
Perhutani intends to use them to replace poor pine
plantations in West Java.
The species planted are mainly Shorea and
Dipterocarpus spp. The genus Shorea consists of many
species commercially grouped on wood characteristics
into red meranti, white meranti, yellow meranti, balau
and red balau. Most Shorea spp. have been tried in
experimental plantations and the relatively fast-growing
S. leprosula, S. selanica, S. javanica, S. smithiana and
S. parviflora are receiving more attention. The rates
of growth of these species differ between regions but
S. leprosula grows faster in most places. In cooperation
with Japanese plantation companies (Japan is the main
importer of Indonesian dipterocarp timber), FERDA
(Forestry and Estate Crops Research and Development
Agency of Indonesia) and some universities have
compared the performance of Shorea spp. seedlings
and rooted cuttings and established experimental
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Scientific name
Common name
Tree species
Seed damage
Nanophyes shoreae
(Coleoptera, Curculionidae)
weevil
Shorea spp.
Hopea odorata
Alcidodes dipterocarpi
(Coleoptera, Curculionidae)
weevil
moth larva
Shorea spp.
Mucanum sp.
(Hemiptera, Pentatomidae)
plant bug
Shorea javanica
On seedlings in
nurseries
Lawana candida
(Homoptera, Cicadidae)
cicada
Shorea leprosula
Occasional pest on
older plants
Calliteara cerigoides
(Lepidoptera, Lymantriidae)
hairy caterpillar
Serious pest
Unidentified bagworm
bagworm
Shorea smithiana
Unidentified beetles
(Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae)
scarabaeid
beetles
Shorea spp.
Sap sucking
Leaf feeding
Notes
Causative agent
Species affected
Curvularia harveyi
Shorea pinanga
Necrosis/decay of seeds
Shorea pinanga
several
Fusarium spp.
Shorea spp.
Many
Agrobacterium tumefaciens
Shorea spp.
S. javanica
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Scientific name
Common name
Nursery pests
Helopeltis spp.
(Hemiptera, Miridae)
Unidentified
(Lepidoptera, Pyralidae)
Leaf roller
Alcides sp.
(Coleoptera, Curculionidae)
Shoot borer
On young transplants
Subterranean termites
Saplings
Helopeltis spp.
(Hemiptera, Miridae)
Tea-mosquito bug
Causes die-back of
shoots
Zeuzera coffeae
(Lepidoptera, Cossidae)
Red borer
Notes
Diseases
In the nursery, eucalypt seedlings are susceptible to
damping-off by Pythium and Fusarium spp. (Sitepu
and Suharti 1998). The diseases can be managed by
appropriate nursery techniques (controlling soil
quality, water regime and crowding of seedlings) and,
when necessary by fungicides. Older seedlings and
saplings are affected by leaf spot diseases caused
by several fungi (Table 4.6). Stem canker of saplings
caused by Corticium salmonicolor (pink disease) has
occurred in North Sumatra but little information is
available on its severity and extent of incidence.
Death of older trees caused by root rot has often
been noted and the associated pathogens were
Pythium sp., Phytophthora sp. and Botryodiplodia
sp. (Anggraeni and Suharti 1997). In a 7-year-old
plantation of E. urophylla examined by one of us
(K.S.S.N.) at Sebulu, East Kalimantan, several trees
in patches were found dead due to root disease. In
future plantings in this area E. urophylla is being
replaced with E. pellita which is less susceptible to
diseases (S.S. Maurits personal communication).
Stem canker was also observed on some trees. Stem
canker on Eucalyptus has been attributed to Nectria
sp. (Nazif and Suharti 1990) and in Riau, Sumatra,
52% of 5-year-old trees in a 10 ha E. urophylla
Threat assessment
Pests are not a major constraint to eucalypt
plantations. Nursery pests, and termites that attack
the out-planted saplings during plantation
establishment stage, can be effectively managed.
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Causative agent
Notes
Damping-off
Pythium sp.,
Fusarium sp.
In nurseries
Leaf spot
Pestalotia sp.,
Curvularia sp.,
Mycosphaerella spp.
On seedlings
and saplings
Leaf blight
Cylindrocladium
multiseptatum
On saplings
Kirramyces
destructens
On saplings
Pink disease
Corticium
salmonicolor
On saplings
Root rot
Phytophthora sp.,
Botryodiplodia sp.
On older trees
Stem canker
Nectria sp.
On older trees
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Diseases
No disease of the living tree is on record.
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Threat assessment
Although there is very little plantation experience with
this species, available information suggests that there
is no threat of pests and diseases.
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Diseases
In nurseries, damping off caused by Pythium,
Phytophthora and Rhizoctonia spp. is common
(Rahayu 1999). Anthracnose disease characterised by
sudden death of seedlings, caused by Colletotrichum
sp., has been reported (Kobayashi and Zinno 1984).
Root rot disease caused by Botryodiplodia sp. has
affected young plantations in South Kalimantan, Jambi
and Sumatra (Anggraeni and Suharti 1997).
Ganoderma sp. has been isolated from the roots of
dead trees of G. arborea in the campus of Gajah Mada
University in Yogyakarta.
Threat assessment
Gmelina arborea has several serious pests in countries
where it is native. The most damaging is the beetle
defoliator, C. leayana. Suratmo (1996) lists it as a pest
of G. arborea in Indonesia but no details are available
and other reviewers do not mention it. Since this is a
potentially dangerous pest which has become a limiting
factor for large-scale cultivation of G. arborea in its
native range, more investigation is needed on the
occurrence and severity of this pest in Indonesia. Other
serious pests of G. arborea outside Indonesia include
the sap-sucking bug, Tingis beesoni (Hemiptera,
Tingidae) which builds up in outbreak proportions in
young plantations, causing defoliation and shoot dieback in India (Beeson 1941; Nair and Mathew 1988);
the defoliator, Ozola minor (Lepidoptera, Geometridae)
in the Philippines (Yemane 1990); and the stem borer,
Glena indiana (Coleoptera, Cerambycidae) in Thailand
(Hutacharern 1990). None of these has been reported
in Indonesia. At present, there are no major pest
problems in G. arborea plantations in Indonesia. This is
a similar situation to Brazil and some African countries
where G. arborea has been planted as an exotic. Two
04-Deaseas.65.p65
27
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28
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28
Black
Threat assessment
In Uganda, a canker, caused by Fusarium solani was
described in young trees growing stunted in poor soil
(Schabel and Latiff 1993). There is no threat of pests
and diseases to this species that has been grown
successfully for a long time in agroforestry systems
in Java.
2/21/01, 4:25 PM
29
Type of damage
Scientific name
Common name
Sap sucking
Chionaspis sp.
(Homoptera, Coccoidea,
Diaspididae)
Scale insect
Aulacaspis marina
(Homoptera, Coccoidea,
Diaspididae)
Scale insect
Rhizophora spp.
Unidentified beetle
(Coleoptera)
Beetle
Bruguiera spp.
Pteroma plagiophleps
(Lepidoptera,
Psychidae)
Bagworm
Rhizophora spp.
Acanthopsyche sp.
(Lepidoptera,
Psychidae)
Bagworm
Bruguiera sp.
Zeuzera conferta
(Lepidoptera, Cossidae)
Beehole borer
Stem borer
Xyleborus spp.
(Coleoptera, Scolytidae)
Scolytid borer
Twig borer
Leaf feeding
Stem boring
Threat assessment
Among the insect pests in Indonesia, the borer,
Z. conferta, has also been recognised as a pest of
mangroves in Bangladesh (Chowdhury 1996). Most
pests recorded affect the establishment stage and
have seriously threatened the cultivation of
mangroves. Rhizophora spp. have been grown
successfully in Java for a long time. Defoliation
during every summer, as occurs in Avicennia marina
in Hong Kong (Anderson and Lee 1995), is rare.
There are occasional defoliator outbreaks in natural
stands of mangroves. In 1983, 500-1000 ha of an
almost pure stand of Excoecaria agallocha
(Euphorbiacae) was mass defoliated by caterpillars
of Ophiusa melicerta (syn. Achaea janata)
(Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) in North Sumatra (Whitten
and Damanik 1986). Other such outbreaks include
mass defoliation of the same species by Achaea serva
(Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) in central Queensland,
Australia (McKillup and McKillup 1997); of
Avicennia alba by larvae of Cleora injectaria
(Lepidoptera, Geometridae) in Thailand
(Piyakarnchana 1981); and of A. marina by Hyblaea
puera (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) in India (Anonymous
04-Deaseas.65.p65
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Notes
On seedlings
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30
Insect pests
Several species of subterranean termites are reported
to attack young trees, up to 6 years old, often causing
mortality up to 80% (Intari 1979; Intari and
Wiriadinata 1984). Insecticidal treatments have been
standardised for control. Among non-insect pests, a
mite causes leaf gall.
Diseases
No disease has been encountered.
Threat assessment
Melaleuca cajuputi (as M. leucodendron) has been
cultivated successfully in Indonesia for a long time.
Apart from the subterranean termites that can be
controlled effectively by soil treatment with suitable
insecticides, there is no major threat of pests and
diseases. The leaves contain chemical components
that act as a feeding repellent to some insects
(Doskotch et al. 1980; Alonso et al. 1996).
Threat assessment
Pests of O. pyramidale, recorded outside Indonesia,
include a shoot borer, Anadasmus porinodus
(Lepidoptera, Stenomidae) in Costa Rica (Becker
1974) and a leaf roller, Sylepta derogata (Lepidoptera,
Pyralidae), a common pest of malvaceous plants, in
Kerala, India (Mathew 1980). All the known pests,
including Z. coffeae in Indonesia, are polyphagous
insects and there is no major threat to plantations of
O. pyramidale in Indonesia.
Diseases recorded outside Indonesia include a brown
root rot in areas previously planted with cocoa in Papua
New Guinea, caused by Phellinus noxius (Dennis
1992); a bark canker in Ecuador, with which the
hyphomycetes fungus Stilbella ecuadorensis was
associated (Morgan et al. 1991); and a die-back in
Kerala, India with which the fungi, Calonectria
rigidiuscula and Fusarium moniliformae were
associated (Sharma et al. 1985). However, there is no
threat of disease in Indonesia where the tree has been
grown successfully for a considerable time.
Insect pests
The red borer, Zeuzera coffeae (Lepidoptera,
Cossidae) has been reported in a plantation 1.5 years
old in Java (Wiselius 1998). This moth caterpillar is
known to attack coffee, tea, cinchona and a few other
small trees. The larvae bore into woody stems and
branches and make a longitudinal tunnel along the pith,
often causing death of the distal part of the branch. In
most species it has not been a serious threat. No other
pest has been noted on this species in Indonesia.
Diseases
No disease of O. pyramidale has been reported from
Indonesia.
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31
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31
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32
Causative agent
Notes
Damping-off
Pythium sp.
Phytophthora sp.
Rhizoctonia sp.
On seedlings
Anthracnose
disease
Colletotrichum sp.
On seedlings
Root rot
Botryodiplodia sp.
On young trees
Ganoderma sp.
Ustulina sp.
Rosellinia sp.
On older trees
Scientific name
Common name
Notes
Trunk boring
Xystrocera festiva
(Coleoptera, Cerambycidae)
Sengon borer
(albizia borer)
Serious pest
X. globosa
Minor pest
Pteroma plagiophleps
(Lepidoptera, Psychidae)
Small bagworm
Occasionally serious;
feeds also on bark
surface
Eurema blanda
(Lepidoptera, Pieridae)
Sporadic
Root feeding
Several species
(Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae)
White grubs
On saplings
Bark feeding
Indarbela quadrinotata
(Lepidoptera, Indarbelidae)
Bark caterpillar
Twig boring
Xylosandrus morigerus
(Coleoptera, Scolytidae)
Scolytid beetle
Leaf feeding
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33
Threat Assessment
The borer X. festiva is a major threat to P. falcataria
plantations in Indonesia. Regular surveillance and
removal of infested trees reduces the incidence of attack
but extension efforts to promote this method and further
research to develop improved control techniques are
needed. It is a serious pest of P. falcataria plantations
in Malaysia but not in the rest of tropical Asia. The
bagworm, Pteroma plagiophleps and the yellow
butterfly, Eurema spp. are widespread pests with the
bagworm potentially capable of causing serious
damage in endemic patches of infestation. In Kerala,
India, it caused dieback and death of trees in patches
where repeated defoliation occurred (Nair and
Mathew 1992). Vigilance is necessary against this
insect, particularly because it infests many other tree
species in Indonesia, facilitating build up to high
population levels. Appropriate management methods
need to be developed. The yellow butterfly is also
capable of causing sporadic, locally widespread
defoliation, but since the impact is not serious, it is
not a major threat to plantations. Other pests are of
minor significance.
Nursery diseases can be managed effectively. Root
rot is generally not a serious problem, except in trees
older than 10 years, and is not a threat to plantations
managed on shorter rotations. Dieback caused by
Botryodiplodia theobromae has been noted in Kerala,
India, but bark injury caused by fire or other agencies
is considered to be a predisposing factor (Sharma and
Sankaran 1988). In the Philippines, canker caused by
Corticium salmonicolor is a common problem, but its
impact is not serious (Anino 1990). Thus diseases do
not appear to be a threat to P. falcataria plantations in
Indonesia. The problems with Botryodiplodia and
Corticium spp. in other countries may be due to a
narrow genetic base of the host where P. falcataria is
an introduced species.
Insect pests
There are three main pests of P. merkusii in Indonesia
(Table 4.10). The most damaging is the tusam pitch
moth, Dioryctria rubella (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae).
04-Deaseas.65.p65
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34
Scientific name
Common name
Notes
Dioryctria rubella
(Lepidoptera, Pyralidae)
Foliage feeding
Miliona basalis
(Lepidoptera, Geometridae)
Pine looper
Nesodiprion biremis
(Hymenoptera, Diprionidae)
Pine sawfly
Several species
(Lepidoptera, Psychidae)
Bagworms
Several species
(Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae)
White grubs
On roots of saplings
Coptotermes sp.
(Isoptera, Rhinotermitidae)
Termites
Root feeding
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35
Causative agent
Notes
Damping-off
Pythium sp.
Fusarium sp.
Rhizoctonia sp.
On seedlings
Blight
Cladiospora sp.
On seedlings
Root rot
Botryodiplodia sp.
Rare incidence in
nurseries in Java
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35
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36
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36
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37
Insect Pests
There are three well-known pests of teak in Indonesia
(Table 4.12). Caterpillars of the moth, Hyblaea puera
(Lepidoptera, Hyblaeidae), commonly known as the
teak defoliator, feed on the foliage during the early
part of the growth season, soon after flushing. It is
believed to cause one or more total defoliation events
every year in most teak areas, but systematically
gathered data are not available. The teak defoliator is a
migrant pest, with shifting foci of high-density
infestations during the early outbreak period, which
coincides with pre-monsoon rains (Nair 1988). This
is followed by widespread infestation and sudden
disappearance of the pest population. The dynamics
of infestation are similar to Indian infestations
(Kalshoven 1953), but detailed studies are lacking. In
Indian teak plantations H. puera causes substantial loss
of growth increment (Nair et al 1996).
The teak leaf skeletoniser Eutectona machaeralis (syn.
Hapalia machaeralis, Pyrausta machaeralis)
(Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) is also present in plantations
in Java (Suratmo 1987). This caterpillar feeds on the
leaves, leaving the major veins intact, hence the name,
skeletoniser. Intachat (1998) identified the species
in Indonesia, Malaysia and probably Thailand as Paliga
Scientific name
Common name
Leaf feeding
Hyblaea puera
(Lepidoptera, Hyblaeidae)
Teak defoliator
Paliga damastesalis
(Lepidoptera, Pyralidae)
Valanga nigricornis
(Orthoptera, Acrididae)
Grasshopper
Neotermes tectonae
(Isoptera, Kalotermitidae)
Inger-inger
Xyleutes ceramica
(Lepidoptera, Cossidae)
Beehole borer
Xyleborus destruens
(Coleoptera, Scolytidae)
Ambrosia beetle
Minor pest
Zeuzera coffeae
(Lepidoptera, Cossidae)
Red borer
On saplings
Trunk/stem boring
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37
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Notes
Earlier known as
Eutectona, Pyrausta or
Hapalia machaeralis
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38
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Chapter 5
General Conclusions
K.S.S. Nair and Sumardi
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40
General Conclusions
Table 5.1. Summary of pest and disease problems for long-standing plantation species
Tree species
Category
Future threat
Agathis dammara
Pest
Disease
None
None
None
None
Dalbergia latifolia
Pest
Disease
None
None
None
None
Mangroves
(mainly Rhizophora)
Pest
Disease
None
None
None
None
Maesopsis eminii
Pest
Disease
None
None
None
None
Melaleuca cajuputi
Pest
Disease
None
None
None
None
Paraserianthes falcataria
Pest
Disease
1. Trunk borer
(Xystrocera festiva)
2. Defoliator
(Pteroma plagiophleps)
None
1. Trunk borer
(Xystrocera festiva)
2. Defoliator
(Pteroma plagiophleps)
None
Pest
None in Java
None in Java
Shoot borer
(Dioryctria rubella)
in Sumatra
Shoot borer
(Dioryctria rubella)
in Sumatra
Disease
None
None
Schleichera oleosa
Pest
Disease
None
None
None
None
Swietenia macrophylla
Pest
Shoot borer
(Hypsipyla robusta)
None
Shoot borer
(Hypsipyla robusta)
None
Defoliator
(Hyblaea puera)
None
Defoliator
(Hyblaea puera)
None
Pinus merkusii
Disease
Pest
Tectona grandis
Disease
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41
Table 5.2.
Tree species
Category
Future threat
Pest
None
Disease
None
Helopeltis, unpredictable
caterpillar outbreak
Root rot, Heart rot of stem
Alstonia spp.
Pest
Disease
None
None
Unpredictable
None
Anthocephalus sp.
Pest
Disease
None
None
Unpredictable
None
Azadirachta excelsa
Pest
Disease
None
None
None
None
Dipterocarps
Pest
Disease
None
None
None
None
Dyera spp.
Pest
Disease
None
None
None
None
Eucalyptus spp.
Pest
Disease
None
None
None
Root rot
Eusideroxylon zwageri
Pest
Disease
None
None
None
None
Gmelina arborea
Pest
Disease
None
None
Unpredictable
None
Gonystylus bancanus
Pest
Disease
None
None
Unpredictable
None
Koompassia spp.
Pest
Disease
None
None
None
None
Ochroma pyramidale
Pest
Disease
None
None
None
None
Octomeles sumatrana
Pest
Disease
None
None
None
None
Peronema canescens
Pest
Disease
None
None
None
None
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41
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42
General Conclusions
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42
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43
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43
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44
General Conclusions
05-Deaseas.65.p65
44
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Arentz, F. 1996. Root rot in plantations of Acacia
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Becker, V. O. 1974. A stenomatid (Lepidoptera) that
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47
Literature Cited
06-RefCited.p65
47
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48
Literature Cited
06-RefCited.p65
48
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2/21/01, 4:26 PM
49
Literature Cited
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2/21/01, 4:26 PM
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Literature Cited
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2/21/01, 4:26 PM
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Literature Cited
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Literature Cited
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Literature Cited
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Literature Cited
06-RefCited.p65
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2/21/01, 4:26 PM
55
Literature Cited
06-RefCited.p65
55
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Chapter 6
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
58
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
59
25.
33.
26.
34.
27.
35.
28.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
29.
30.
31.
32.
60
41.
49.
42.
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kualitas dan kuantitas kayu jati (Effect of
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quantity of teak timber). Pusat Penelitian dan
Pengembangan Hutan 444-447: 1-13.
50.
43.
51.
44.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
45.
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forest district, Central Java). Buletin Penelitian
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46.
47.
48.
61
63.
57.
64.
58.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
59.
60.
61.
62.
62
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
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66
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kehutanan (Prospect of integrated management
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174. Achmad, Hadi, S., Herliyana, E.N. and
Setiawan, A. 1999. Patogenitas Rhizoctonia
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mangium (Pathogenicity of Rhizoctonia solani
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175. Achmad, Hadi, S., Said, E.G., Setiawihardja,
B., Kardin, M.K. and Harran, S. 1999. The
potential use of two species or Trichoderma
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antagonis Trichoderma sp. terhadap
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ekstrak umbi bawang putih dan Trichoderma
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of garlic extract and Trichoderma sp. in
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
Bibliography Number
Acacia
003
111
211
251
011
166
221
253
Acacia auriculiformis
221
253
Acacia mangium
003
111
243
Agathis dammara
070
Agathis loranthifolia
266
Alstonia scholaris
007
Anacardium occidentale
255
Avicennia
013
Azadirachta indica
129
Bruguiera
041
044
Dalbergia latifolia
060
224
268
Dipterocarpaceae
063
258
071
281
Eucalyptus
036
188
271
056
189
272
Eucalyptus alba
056
225
Eucalyptus deglupta
098
110
Eucalyptus urophylla
271
272
Gmelina arborea
030
072
Gonystylus bancanus
137
145
Melaleuca cajuputi/leucadendron
040
059
Metroxylon sagu
181
Mikania micrantha
019
Nylocarpus granatum
282
016
171
228
284
027
174
242
287
029
180
243
288
094
184
244
290
110
192
245
011
174
245
016
180
251
027
184
284
029
192
287
094
228
288
110
242
213
239
078
086
163
164
209
098
190
102
191
103
215
110
225
186
251
251
271
272
187
284
097
264
265
80
Paraserianthes falcataria
029
130
050
132
061
133
068
162
082
167
090
232
104
289
Paulownia kawakamii
263
Pinanga
200
Pinus merkusii
005
119
175
222
009
120
183
256
011
141
184
259
043
143
194
260
074
167
217
262
084
172
219
267
114
174
220
270
Rhizophora
004
013
187
Rhizophora mucronata
004
Santalum album
109
250
Shorea
002
248
006
051
105
178
182
237
Shorea acuminatissima
237
Shorea albida
002
Shorea javanica
006
051
182
Shorea smithiana
237
Swietenia macrophylla
077
080
127
142
147
148
149
Tectona grandis
010
122
038
123
039
124
042
126
045
158
053
269
065
057
114
141
Insects
Acanthopsyche
041
Antennopsis gayi
096
Aulacaspis vitis
157
Calliteara cerigoides
078
Chaetocnema
044
Chionaspis
004
Clouges glauculalis
007
Curinus coeruleus
117
Dioryctria
054
Duomitus ceramicus
038
Eurema
031
061
134
Helopeltis
067
102
103
Helopeltis antonii
103
052
81
Hypsipyla robusta
077
Loranthus
125
Macrochirus praetor
046
Metisa plana
106
Milionia basalis
043
Mucanum
051
Neotermes tectonae
010
124
Paliga damastesalis
037
Prionoxystus
097
Scolytids
066
Xyleutes ceramicus
038
Xystrocera festiva
033
132
Zeuzera coffeae
098
080
127
142
147
148
149
039
158
042
045
053
122
123
035
068
076
090
104
130
177
283
284
286
287
Diseases
Aecidium fragiforme
213
Botryodiplodia
177
Cylindrocarpon
195
Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum
186
Fusarium
195
Guignardia candeloflamma
200
Hyphomycetes
190
Mycosphaerella
188
Mycosphaerella gracilis
188
Pseudomonas solanacearum
255
Ramaria canieticolor
243
Rhizoctonia solani
174
Trichoderma
175
239
189
176
82
General Indexes
In Bahasa Indonesia
Bibliography Number
Akasia
003
111
211
251
011
166
221
253
016
171
228
284
027
174
242
287
Bercak daun
178
188
200
215
Boktor
033
132
035
068
Busuk akar
060
176
179
Busuk batang
176
266
Busuk bonggol
181
Busuk hati
228
288
Cendana
109
250
Damar
070
213
239
Derajat penularan
004
Dipterocarpa
002
086
258
006
163
281
Ekaliptus
036
188
271
056
189
272
Ekor serigala
217
270
Embun tepung
221
Gaharu
140
Hama persemaian
026
Hawar daun
186
008
049
112
134
161
218
238
257
Inger-inger
010
124
287
029
180
243
288
094
184
244
290
110
192
245
076
090
104
130
224
283
286
015
164
018
195
063
197
071
198
078
209
098
190
102
191
103
215
110
225
186
251
021
058
115
136
162
223
240
261
024
079
116
138
170
230
241
273
025
083
118
139
201
231
246
275
026
088
121
154
205
233
247
276
032
100
128
156
207
235
252
277
036
101
131
159
212
236
254
280
039
158
042
045
053
122
123
278
83
284
Jamur karat
239
Jamur pewarna
229
Jati
010
122
038
123
039
124
Jati putih
030
072
097
Kanker batang
271
272
Kayu putih
040
059
264
265
Kerawai
084
Kumbang ambrosia
012
137
145
160
Kupu kuning
031
134
Leda
098
110
251
Lodoh
172
282
173
175
Mahoni
077
080
Mangrove
004
013
Mete
255
Mimba
129
Nyiri
282
Oleng-oleng
038
Penggerek batang
012
136
Penggerek pucuk
253
042
126
045
158
053
269
065
222
256
262
267
127
142
147
148
149
028
052
157
165
187
030
097
098
077
080
127
142
147
148
149
046
047
Penyakit layu
268
274
Penyakit puru
264
265
Pulai
007
Ramin
137
145
Rayap
010
056
123
027
059
124
039
060
158
040
070
224
042
096
045
108
053
122
Kanker akar
263
Rotan
046
047
062
Sagu
181
284
84
Sengon
029
130
049
132
061
133
068
162
082
167
090
232
104
289
Sonokeling
060
224
268
Tusam
005
114
174
220
270
009
119
175
222
274
011
120
183
256
282
043
141
184
259
057
143
194
260
074
167
217
262
084
172
219
267
Ulat kantung
041
106
Agarwood
140
278
Ambrosia beetle
012
137
145
160
Bagworm
041
106
Bark beetle
012
030
Bark rot
266
Beehole borer
038
Cashew
255
Caueput
040
059
264
265
Damping-off
172
282
173
175
222
256
262
267
Dipterocarp
002
086
258
006
163
281
015
164
018
195
063
197
071
198
078
209
Fox-tail
217
270
Gall disease
264
265
Heart rot
228
288
008
049
112
134
161
218
238
257
021
058
115
136
162
223
240
261
024
079
116
138
170
230
241
273
025
083
118
139
201
231
246
275
026
088
121
154
205
233
247
276
032
100
128
156
207
235
252
277
036
101
131
159
212
236
254
280
Ironwood
137
145
Leaf blight
186
In English
85
Leaf spot
178
188
200
215
Mahogany
077
080
127
142
147
148
149
Mangrove
004
013
028
052
157
165
187
Neem
129
Nursery pests
026
Pine
005
114
174
220
270
009
119
175
222
274
011
120
183
256
282
043
141
184
259
057
143
194
260
074
167
217
262
084
172
219
267
Pine sawfly
084
Pinhole borer
136
062
Powdery mildew
221
Rattan
046
047
062
046
047
287
Rhizome rot
181
Root canker
263
Root rot
060
176
179
224
283
286
Rust disease
239
253
Sago
181
Sandalwood
109
Sapstain
229
Scale insect
004
Stem canker
271
Stem rot
176
Teak
010
122
038
123
039
124
042
126
045
158
053
269
065
Teak skeletonizer
037
Termite
010
056
123
027
059
124
039
060
158
040
070
224
042
096
045
108
053
122
White grubs
055
284
Wilt disease
268
250
272
274
Indexes
Tree
Acacia 17, 19, 31, 41, 42, 46, 50, 54
A. aulacocarpa 19
A. auriculiformis 17, 18, 19, 42, 45
A. crassicarpa 19
A. mangium 1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19,
36, 39, 41, 42, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 51, 52, 54
A. mearnsii 18, 54
A. perigrina 19
Actinophora fragrans 11, 12
Agathis 3, 39, 45
A. borneensis 19
A. dammara 6, 19, 20, 40
A. loranthifolia 19, 52
Albizia 17, 42, 48
A. falcataria 50, 51
A. lebbek 18
Alstonia 7, 20, 41
A. scholaris 20
A. spatulata 20
Anthocephalus 7, 41, 52
A. cadamba 20
A. chinensis 20, 49
A. macrophyllus 20
Aquilaria 27
Avicennia 28, 29
A. marina 29, 45
A. alba 29, 50
Azadirachta 42
A. excelsa 7, 21, 41
A. indica 21, 36, 52
Bruguiera 28, 29, 47
B. gymnorhiza 29
Casuarina
C. junghuhniana 11, 12
C. montana 11
88
Indexes
Koompassia 7, 28, 41
K. excelsa 28
K. grandiflora 28
K. malaccensis 28
Pithecolobium 31
Prionoxystus 27
Leucaena leucocephala 1
Samanea saman 31
Schleichera 12
S. oleosa 6, 35, 40
Shorea 7, 12, 22, 23, 43, 51
S. albida 24, 45
S. assamica 23
S. johorensis 23
S. javanica 22, 23, 47
S. lamellata 23
S. leprosula 22, 23
S. parviflora 22, 23
S. pinanga 22, 23
S. robusta 24
S. selanica 22
S. smithiana 22, 23
S. stenoptera 22
Sonneratia 28
S. acida 11
Swietenia macrophylla 6, 7, 35, 36, 39, 40, 43, 48,
53
Melaleuca 12
M. cajuputi 6, 29, 30, 40
M. leucodendron 29, 30, 45, 46, 48
Maesopsis eminii 7, 28, 40, 51
Neolamarckia 20
N. cadamba 20
Ochroma grandiflora 30
O. lagopus 30, 45
O. pyramidale 7, 30, 41, 49
Octomeles sumatrana 7, 30, 41, 46
Palaquium 11, 12
Paraserianthes 12
P. falcataria 1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 12, 13, 16, 17, 31, 32,
33, 39, 40, 42, 45, 48, 49
Peronema 43, 46
P. canescens 7, 33, 41
Pinus 3
P. caribaea 34
P. kesiya 34, 35
P. merkusii 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 33, 34, 35, 40, 42, 43,
47, 49, 52
Indexes
Insect
Acanthopsyche 28, 29, 47
Achaea janata 12, 19, 29
A. serva 29, 49
Agathiphaga 20
Agrilus 25
A. kalshoveni 12
A. sexsignatus 24, 26
Alcides 24, 25
A. gmelinae 26
Alcidodes
A. dipterocarpi 23
A. ludificator 26, 27
Anadasmus porinodus 30
Anagyrus 31
Andrector ruficornis 45
Apion argulicolle 27
Apis dorsata 28
Archips micaceana 24
Attacus atlas 36
Aulacaspis 53
A. marina 28, 29
A. vitis 53
Batocera numitor 20
Calliteara cerigoides 22, 23, 49
Calopepla leayana 27
Chaetocnema 47
Characoma 30
Chionaspis 28, 29, 47
Cleora injectaria 29, 50
Clovia 33
Coptotermes 34
C. curvignathus 15, 16, 18
Crossotarsus externe-dentatus 36
Cryptothelia variegata 34
Dendrolimus 35
Dioryctria
D. abietella 35
D. castanea 35, 51
D. rubella 33, 34, 35, 40, 48
D. sylvestrella 35
Duomitus ceramicus 47
Eurema 32, 33, 53
E. blanda 32
E. hecabe 32
Ericeia 19
E. subcinerea 51
Eumeta 34
E. (Clania) variegata 11
Eurema
E. blanda 32
Eutectona 37
E. machaeralis 37, 38, 49
Glena indiana 27
Glyphodes 20
G. bicolor 20
Gonipterus 26
Hapalia machaeralis 37
Helicoverpa armigera 19
Heliothis armigera 19
Helopeltis 16, 18, 24, 25, 41, 42, 51
H. antonii 18, 21
H. clavifer 23
H. fasciaticollis 16, 18
H. sumatranus 16, 18
H. theivora 16, 18
Heteropsylla cubana 1
Hoplocerambyx spinicornis 24, 51
Hyblaea puera 12, 29, 37, 38, 40, 49
Hypsipyla
H. grandella 36
H. robusta 12, 35, 36, 40, 48, 49, 53
Indarbela quadrinotata 31, 32
Ips
I. calligraphus 35, 46
I. grandicollis 46
Kolla bataviae 24
Laccifer lacca 35
Lawana candida 22, 23
Leucoptera sphenograpta 21
Loboschiza vulnerata 21
Locusta 16, 18
Lymantria galinara 11
Macrotermes gilvus 21
Margaronia 20
M. hilaralis 20
Megachile 36
Milionia basalis 11, 34, 35
Mucanum 22, 23, 47
89
90
Nanophyes shoreae 23
Neodiprion 35
Neotermes 36
N. papua 36
N. samoanus 36
N. tectonae 12, 37, 38, 47, 52
Nesodiprion beremis 34, 35
Odontotermes grandiceps 21
Ophiusa
O. melicerta 12, 29
O. serva 11
Ozola minor 27
Paliga
P. damastesalis 37, 38, 47
P. machaeralis 38
Petrova cristata 48
Petrovia 35
Phoracantha 26
Platypus gerstaeckeri 36
Plecoptera reflexa 19, 20
Prionoxystus 26, 27
Prodenia litura 19
Pseudophacopteron 54
P. alstonium 20
Pteroma 11
P. plagiophleps 16, 18, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 40,
49
Pyrausta 37
P. machaeralis 37
Indexes
Rhyaciona 35
Selepa celtis 19, 27
Sesarma 28, 47
Sinoxylon 18
Spirama retorta 18, 51
Sternocera 18
Sylepta derogata 30, 49
Tingis beesoni 27
Trichogramma minutus 34
Valanga nigricornis 16, 18, 37, 38
Voracia casuariniphaga 11
Xyleborus 28, 29
X. destruens 37, 38
X. fornicatus 16, 27
X. morstatti 36
Xyleutes ceramica 27, 37, 38
Xylosandrus 16, 18
X. compactus 19, 36
X. morigerus 32
Xystrocera
X. festiva 12, 16, 17, 19, 30, 31, 32, 33, 40, 42,
46, 47, 50
X. globosa 17, 19, 31, 32, 42
Zeuzera coffeae 18, 24, 25, 30, 37, 38
Zeuzera conferta 28, 29
Indexes
Disease
Hypoxylon mammatum 17
Aecidium fragiformae 19
Agrobacterium tumefaciens 22, 23
Armillaria mellea 36
Asterina 23
Atelocauda digitata 17
Kirramyces destructens 25
Leptoporus lignosus 17
Macrophoma 26
Meliola 17, 33
Mycosphaerella 25
Nectria 25
Nectria radiocola 23
Oidium 17
Pestalotia 23, 25
Pestalotiopsis 17
Phellinus noxius 17, 18, 30, 36, 45
Phytophthora 25, 26, 27, 32
P. cinnamomi 26, 36, 48
Pythium 19, 20, 25, 27, 32
Pytophthora palmivora 17
Rhizoctonia 19, 20, 27, 32, 49
Rigidoporus hypobrunneus 17
Rigidoporus microporus 17, 18
Rosellinia 32
Stilbella ecuadorensis 30, 49
Tinctoporellus epimiltinus 17
Trichoderma 54
Ustulina 32
91