DIODE

Diode
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For data diodes, see Unidirectional network. For other uses, see Diodes (disambiguation).

Closeup of a diode, showing the square-shaped semiconductor crystal(black object on left).

Various semiconductor diodes. Bottom: A bridge rectifier. In most diodes, a white or black painted band
identifies the cathode terminal, that is, the terminal that positive charge (conventional current) will flow out of
when the diode is conducting.[1][2][3][4]

Structure of a vacuum tube diode. The filament may be bare, or more commonly (as shown here), embedded
within and insulated from an enclosing cathode.

In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts primarily in one

direction (asymmetric conductance); it has low (ideally zero) resistance to the flow of current in one
direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode, the most
common type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a pn junction connected to
two electrical terminals.[5] A vacuum tube diode has two electrodes, a plate (anode) and a heated
cathode. Semiconductor diodes were the firstsemiconductor electronic devices. The discovery
of crystals' rectifying abilities was made by German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1874. The first
semiconductor diodes, called cat's whisker diodes, developed around 1906, were made of mineral
crystals such as galena. Today, most diodes are made of silicon, but other semiconductors such
as selenium or germanium are sometimes used.[6]
Contents
[hide]

1Main functions

2History
o

2.1Vacuum tube diodes

2.2Solid-state diodes

2.3Etymology

2.3.1Rectifiers

3Thermionic diodes

4Semiconductor diodes
o

4.1Electronic symbols

4.2Point-contact diodes

4.3Junction diodes

4.3.1pn junction diode

4.3.2Schottky diode

4.4Currentvoltage characteristic

4.5Shockley diode equation

4.6Small-signal behavior

4.7Reverse-recovery effect

5Types of semiconductor diode

6Numbering and coding schemes

o

6.1EIA/JEDEC

6.2JIS

6.3Pro Electron

7Related devices

8Applications
o

8.1Radio demodulation

8.2Power conversion

8.3Over-voltage protection

8.4Logic gates

8.5Ionizing radiation detectors

8.6Temperature measurements

8.7Current steering

8.8Waveform Clipper

8.9Clamper

9Abbreviations

10See also

11References

12External links

Main functions[edit]
The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called
the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse direction).
Thus, the diode can be viewed as an electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional behavior
is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to direct current, including extraction
ofmodulation from radio signals in radio receiversthese diodes are forms of rectifiers.
However, diodes can have more complicated behavior than this simple onoff action, due to
their nonlinear current-voltage characteristics. Semiconductor diodes begin conducting electricity
only if a certain threshold voltage or cut-in voltage is present in the forward direction (a state in which
the diode is said to be forward-biased). The voltage drop across a forward-biased diode varies only
a little with the current, and is a function of temperature; this effect can be used as a temperature
sensor or as a voltage reference.
A semiconductor diode's currentvoltage characteristic can be tailored by selecting
the semiconductor materials and the doping impurities introduced into the materials during
manufacture. These techniques are used to create special-purpose diodes that perform many
different functions. For example, diodes are used to regulate voltage (Zener diodes), to protect
circuits from high voltage surges (avalanche diodes), to electronically tune radio and TV receivers
(varactor diodes), to generate radio-frequency oscillations (tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes, IMPATT
diodes), and to produce light (light-emitting diodes). Tunnel, Gunn and IMPATT diodes
exhibit negative resistance, which is useful in microwave and switching circuits.

History[edit]
Thermionic (vacuum tube) diodes and solid state (semiconductor) diodes were developed
separately, at approximately the same time, in the early 1900s, as radio receiverdetectors. Until the
1950s vacuum tube diodes were used more frequently in radios because the early point-contact type
semiconductor diodes were less stable. In addition, most receiving sets had vacuum tubes for
amplification that could easily have the thermionic diodes included in the tube (for example
the 12SQ7 double diode triode), and vacuum tube rectifiers and gas-filled rectifiers were capable of
handling some high voltage/high current rectification tasks better than the semiconductor diodes
(such as selenium rectifiers) which were available at that time.

Vacuum tube diodes[edit]

Further information: Vacuum tube

In 1873, Frederick Guthrie discovered the basic principle of operation of thermionic diodes.[7]
[8]
Guthrie discovered that a positively charged electroscope could be discharged by bringing
a grounded piece of white-hot metal close to it (but not actually touching it). The same did not apply
to a negatively charged electroscope, indicating that the current flow was only possible in one
direction.
Thomas Edison independently rediscovered the principle on February 13, 1880. At the time, Edison
was investigating why the filaments of his carbon-filament light bulbs nearly always burned out at the
positive-connected end. He had a special bulb made with a metal plate sealed into the glass
envelope. Using this device, he confirmed that an invisible current flowed from the glowing filament
through the vacuum to the metal plate, but only when the plate was connected to the positive supply.
Edison devised a circuit where his modified light bulb effectively replaced the resistor in
a DC voltmeter. Edison was awarded a patent for this invention in 1884.[9] Since there was no
apparent practical use for such a device at the time, the patent application was most likely simply a
precaution in case someone else did find a use for the so-called Edison effect.
About 20 years later, John Ambrose Fleming (scientific adviser to the Marconi Company and former
Edison employee) realized that the Edison effect could be used as a precision radio detector.
Fleming patented the first true thermionic diode, the Fleming valve, in Britain on November 16,
1904[10] (followed by U.S. Patent 803,684 in November 1905).

Solid-state diodes[edit]
In 1874 German scientist Karl Ferdinand Braun discovered the "unilateral conduction" of crystals. [11]
[12]
Braun patented the crystal rectifier in 1899.[13] Copper oxide and selenium rectifiers were
developed for power applications in the 1930s.
Indian scientist Jagadish Chandra Bose was the first to use a crystal for detecting radio waves in
1894.[14] The crystal detector was developed into a practical device for wireless
telegraphy by Greenleaf Whittier Pickard, who invented a silicon crystal detector in 1903 and
received a patent for it on November 20, 1906.[15] Other experimenters tried a variety of other
substances, of which the most widely used was the mineral galena (lead sulfide). Other substances
offered slightly better performance, but galena was most widely used because it had the advantage
of being cheap and easy to obtain. The crystal detector in these early crystal radio sets consisted of
an adjustable wire point-contact, often made of gold or platinum due to their incorrodible nature (the
so-called "cat's whisker"), which could be manually moved over the face of the crystal in order to
obtain a portion of that mineral with a crystal that provided the optimum signal. This troublesome
device was superseded by thermionic diodes by the 1920s, but after high purity semiconductor
materials became available, the crystal detector returned to dominant use with the advent of
inexpensive fixed-germanium diodes in the 1950s. Bell Labs also developed a germanium diode for
microwave reception, and AT&T used these in their microwave towers that criss-crossed the nation
starting in the late 1940s, carrying telephone and network television signals. Bell Labs did not
develop a satisfactory thermionic diode for microwave reception.

What is a Diode?
A diode is a simple electrical device that allows the flow of current
only in one direction. So it can be said to act somewhat like a
switch. A specific arrangement of diodes can convert AC to pulsating
DC, hence it is sometimes also called as a rectifier. It is derived
from "di-ode " which means a device having two electrodes.

The symbol of a p-n junction diode is shown below, the arrowhead

points
in
the
direction
of
conventional
current
flow.

The p-n junction

is a basic building block in any semiconductor device. It is formed
by joining a p type (intrinsic semiconductor doped with a trivalent
impurity) and n type semiconductor (intrinsic semiconductor doped
with a pentavalent impurity) together with a special fabrication
technique such that a p-n junction is formed. Hence it is a device
with two elements, the p-type forms anode and the n-type forms
the cathode. These terminals are brought out to make the external
connections.

Working Principle of Diode

What happens Inside the p-n Junction Diode?
The n side will have large number of electrons and very few holes
(due to thermal excitation) whereas the p side will have high
concentration of holes and very few electrons. Due to this a process
called diffusion takes place. In this process free electrons from the n
side will diffuse (spread) into the p side and combine with holes
present there, leaving a positive immobile (not moveable) ion in the
n side. Hence few atoms on the p side are converted into negative
ions. Similarly few atoms on the n-side will get converted to positive
ions. Due to this large number of positive ions and negative ions will
accumulate on the n-side and p-side respectively. This region so
formed is called as depletion region. Due to the presence of these
positive and negative ions a static electric field called as "barrier
potential" is created across the p-n junction of the diode. It is called

as "barrier potential" because it acts as a barrier and opposes the

flow of positive and negative ions across the junction.
To make use of this p-n junction diode we have to apply an external
DC voltage to it. Applying an external DC voltage to the diode is
called as biasing. If the p-side (anode) is connected to the positive
terminal of the supply and the n-side (cathode) to the negative
terminal of the supply, the diode is said to be forward biased. In the
same way if the n-side is connected to the positive terminal of the
supply and the p-side to the negative terminal of the supply, the
diode is said to be reversed biased. Most of the times a resistance
has to be connected in series with it to limit the current flowing
through the diode. This is the working principle of diode.

What happen When the Diode is Forward

Biased?
When the diode is forward biased, due to the negative terminal on
the n-side, electrons from the n-side are pushed towards the pregion. Similarly due to positive voltage on the p-side of the diode,
Holes from the p-region are pushed towards n-side. Due to this the
electrons will start converting the positive ions in the p-region into
neutral atoms and holes will start converting the negative ions in
the n-region to neutral atoms. Hence width of the depletion region
starts reducing due to reduction in the barrier potential. (As the
atoms in the depletion region are getting converted into neutral
atoms less and less charged ions remain in this region with increase
in supply voltage, hence width decreases.) This keeps happening
and at a certain point the depletion region collapses and there is no
opposition to the flow of current. Hence large number of electrons
and holes will cross the junction and make the current to flow from
anode to cathode. Hence, forward biased electrical resistance of
diode is very small and hence there is a small voltage drop
(Practical condition, ideally there should be 0 forward resistance)
across it. Its value for silicon diode is about 0.7 V.

Thus the p-n junction diode will allow a current to pass through it
only when it is forward biased.

What happens
Condition?

in

the

Reverse

Biased

When the diode is reverse biased the hole from the p-side will get
attracted towards the negative terminal of the supply and electrons
from the n-side are attracted towards the positive terminal. Hence
the process of widening of the depletion region takes place and
hence more and more opposition to the flow of current takes place.

Hence, ideally
the reverse biased resistance of the diode is infinite and no current
flows from the diode when it is reversed biased. Due to large

reverse biased voltage, suddenly large current will flow through the
reverse biased voltage. Due to this large power gets dissipated in
the diode which may damage it permanently.

Types of Diode
The types of diode are as follow- 1) Zener diode 2) P-N junction
diode 3) Tunnel diode 4) Varractor diode 5) Schottky diode 6) Photo
diode 7) PIN diode 8) Laser diode 9) Avalanche diode 10) Light
emitting diode

Semiconductor Basics
If Resistors are the most basic passive component in electrical or electronic circuits, then we
have to consider the Signal Diode as being the most basic Active component. However, unlike a
resistor, a diode does not behave linearly with respect to the applied voltage as it has an
exponential I-V relationship and therefore can not be described simply by using Ohms law as we
do for resistors.
Diodes are basic unidirectional Semiconductor Devices

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that will only allow current to flow through them in one direction only, acting more
like a one way electrical valve, (Forward Biased Condition). But, before we have a
look at how signal or power diodes work we first need to understand the
semiconductors basic construction and concept.
Diodes are made from a single piece of Semiconductor material which has a positive P-region at one
end and a negative N-region at the other, and which has a resistivity value somewhere between that of a
conductor and an insulator. But what is a Semiconductor material?, firstly lets look at what makes
something either a Conductor or an Insulator.

Resistivity

The electrical Resistance of an electrical or electronic component or device is generally defined as being
the ratio of the voltage difference across it to the current flowing through it, basic Ohms Law principals.
The problem with using resistance as a measurement is that it depends very much on the physical size of
the material being measured as well as the material out of which it is made. For example, if we were to
increase the length of the material (making it longer) its resistance would also increase proportionally.
Likewise, if we increased its diameter or size (making it fatter) its resistance value would decrease. So we
want to be able to define the material in such a way as to indicate its ability to either conduct or oppose
the flow of electrical current through it no matter what its size or shape happens to be.
The quantity that is used to indicate this specific resistance is called Resistivity and is given the Greek
symbol of , (Rho). Resistivity is measured in Ohm-metres, ( -m ). Resistivity is the inverse to
conductivity.
If the resistivity of various materials is compared, they can be classified into three main
groups,Conductors, Insulators and Semi-conductors as shown below.

Resistivity Chart

Notice that there is a very small margin

between the resistivity of the conductors
such as silver and gold, compared to a
much larger margin for the resistivity of the
insulators between glass and quartz.
Note also that the resistivity of all materials
at any one time also depends upon their
ambient temperature because metals are
also good conductors of heat.

Conductors
From above we now know that Conductors are materials that have very low values of resistivity, usually
in the micro-ohms per metre. This low value allows them to easily pass an electrical current due to there
being plenty of free electrons floating about within their basic atom structure. When a positive voltage
potential is applied to the material these free electrons leave their parent atom and travel together
through the material forming an electron drift. In other words a current.
Examples of good conductors are generally metals such as Copper, Aluminium, Silver or non metals such
as Carbon because these materials have very few electrons in their outer Valence Shell or ring, resulting
in them being easily knocked out of the atoms orbit. This allows them to flow freely through the material
until they join up with other atoms, producing a Domino Effect through the material thereby creating an
electrical current. Copper and Aluminium is the main conductor used in electrical cables as shown.

An Electrical Cable uses

Conductors and Insulators
Generally speaking, most metals are good conductors of electricity, as they have very small resistance
values, usually in the region of micro-ohms per metre. While metals such as copper and aluminium are
very good conducts of electricity, they still have some resistance to the flow of electrons and consequently
do not conduct perfectly.
The energy which is lost in the process of passing an electrical current, appears in the form of heat which
is why conductors and especially resistors become hot. Also the resistivity of conductors increases with
ambient temperature because metals are also generally good conductors of heat.

Insulators
Insulators on the other hand are the exact opposite of conductors. They are made of materials, generally
non-metals, that have very few or no free electrons floating about within their basic atom structure

because the electrons in the outer valence shell are strongly attracted by the positively charged inner
nucleus.
So if a potential voltage is applied to the material no current will flow as there are no electrons to move
and which gives these materials their insulating properties.
Insulators also have very high resistances, millions of ohms per metre, and are generally not affected by
normal temperature changes (although at very high temperatures wood becomes charcoal and changes
from an insulator to a conductor). Examples of good insulators are marble, fused quartz, p.v.c. plastics,
rubber etc.
Insulators play a very important role within electrical and electronic circuits, because without them
electrical circuits would short together and not work. For example, insulators made of glass or porcelain
are used for insulating and supporting overhead transmission cables while epoxy-glass resin materials
are used to make printed circuit boards, PCBs etc. while PVC is used to insulate electrical cables as
shown.

Semiconductor Basics
Semiconductors materials such as silicon (Si), germanium (Ge) and gallium arsenide (GaAs), have
electrical properties somewhere in the middle, between those of a conductor and an insulator. They
are not good conductors nor good insulators (hence their name semi-conductors). They have very few
free electrons because their atoms are closely grouped together in a crystalline pattern called a crystal
lattice.

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However, their ability to conduct electricity can be greatly improved by replacing or adding certain donor
or acceptor atoms to this crystalline structure thereby, producing more free electrons than holes or vice
versa. That is by adding a small percentage of another element to the base material, either silicon or
germanium.

On their own Silicon and Germanium are classed as intrinsic semiconductors, that is they are chemically
pure, containing nothing but semiconductive material. But by controlling the amount of impurities added to
this intrinsic semiconductor material it is possible to control its conductivity. Various impurities called
donors or acceptors can be added to this intrinsic material to produce free electrons or holes respectively.
This process of adding donor or acceptor atoms to semiconductor atoms (the order of 1 impurity atom per
10 million (or more) atoms of the semiconductor) is called Doping. The as the doped silicon is no longer
pure, these donor and acceptor atoms are collectively referred to as impurities, and by doping these
silicon material with a sufficient number of impurities, we can turn it into a semi-conductor.
The most commonly used semiconductor basics material by far is silicon. Silicon has four valence
electrons in its outermost shell which it shares with its neighbouring silicon atoms to form full orbitals of
eight electrons. The structure of the bond between the two silicon atoms is such that each atom shares
one electron with its neighbour making the bond very stable.
As there are very few free electrons available to move around the silicon crystal, crystals of pure silicon
(or germanium) are therefore good insulators, or at the very least very high value resistors.
Silicon atoms are arranged in a definite symmetrical pattern making them a crystalline solid structure. A
crystal of pure silica (silicon dioxide or glass) is generally said to be an intrinsic crystal (it has no
impurities) and therefore has no free electrons.
But simply connecting a silicon crystal to a battery supply is not enough to extract an electric current from
it. To do that we need to create a positive and a negative pole within the silicon allowing electrons and
therefore electric current to flow out of the silicon. These poles are created by doping the silicon with
certain impurities.

A Silicon Atom Structure

The diagram above shows the structure and lattice of a normal pure crystal of Silicon.

N-type Semiconductor Basics

In order for our silicon crystal to conduct electricity, we need to introduce an impurity atom such as
Arsenic, Antimony or Phosphorus into the crystalline structure making it extrinsic (impurities are added).
These atoms have five outer electrons in their outermost orbital to share with neighbouring atoms and are
commonly called Pentavalent impurities.
This allows four out of the five orbital electrons to bond with its neighbouring silicon atoms leaving one
free electron to become mobile when an electrical voltage is applied (electron flow). As each impurity
atom donates one electron, pentavalent atoms are generally known as donors.
Antimony (symbol Sb) or Phosphorus (symbol P), are frequently used as a pentavalent additive to the
silicon as they have 51 electrons arranged in five shells around their nucleus with the outermost orbital
having five electrons. The resulting semiconductor basics material has an excess of current-carrying
electrons, each with a negative charge, and is therefore referred to as an N-typematerial with the
electrons called Majority Carriers while the resulting holes are called Minority Carriers.
When stimulated by an external power source, the electrons freed from the silicon atoms by this
stimulation are quickly replaced by the free electrons available from the doped Antimony atoms. But this
action still leaves an extra electron (the freed electron) floating around the doped crystal making it
negatively charged.
Then a semiconductor material is classed as N-type when its donor density is greater than its acceptor
density, in other words, it has more electrons than holes thereby creating a negative pole as shown.

Antimony Atom and Doping

The diagram above shows the structure and lattice of the donor impurity atom Antimony.

P-Type Semiconductor Basics

If we go the other way, and introduce a Trivalent (3-electron) impurity into the crystalline structure, such
as Aluminium, Boron or Indium, which have only three valence electrons available in their outermost
orbital, the fourth closed bond cannot be formed. Therefore, a complete connection is not possible, giving
the semiconductor material an abundance of positively charged carriers known as holes in the structure of
the crystal where electrons are effectively missing.
As there is now a hole in the silicon crystal, a neighbouring electron is attracted to it and will try to move
into the hole to fill it. However, the electron filling the hole leaves another hole behind it as it moves. This
in turn attracts another electron which in turn creates another hole behind it, and so forth giving the
appearance that the holes are moving as a positive charge through the crystal structure (conventional
current flow).
This movement of holes results in a shortage of electrons in the silicon turning the entire doped crystal
into a positive pole. As each impurity atom generates a hole, trivalent impurities are generally known as
Acceptors as they are continually accepting extra or free electrons.
Boron (symbol B) is commonly used as a trivalent additive as it has only five electrons arranged in three
shells around its nucleus with the outermost orbital having only three electrons. The doping of Boron
atoms causes conduction to consist mainly of positive charge carriers resulting in a P-typematerial with
the positive holes being called Majority Carriers while the free electrons are called Minority Carriers.
Then a semiconductor basics material is classed as P-type when its acceptor density is greater than its
donor density. Therefore, a P-type semiconductor has more holes than electrons.

Boron Atom and Doping

The diagram above shows the structure and lattice of the acceptor impurity atom Boron.

Semiconductor Basics Summary

N-type (e.g. doped with Antimony)
These are materials which have Pentavalent impurity atoms (Donors) added and conduct by electron
movement and are therefore called, N-type Semiconductors.
In N-type semiconductors there are:

1. The Donors are positively charged.

2. There are a large number of free electrons.

3. A small number of holes in relation to the number of free electrons.

4. Doping gives:

positively charged donors.

negatively charged free electrons.

5. Supply of energy gives:

o

negatively charged free electrons.

positively charged holes.

P-type (e.g. doped with Boron)

These are materials which have Trivalent impurity atoms (Acceptors) added and conduct by hole
movement and are therefore called, P-type Semiconductors.
In these types of materials are:

1. The Acceptors are negatively charged.

2. There are a large number of holes.

3. A small number of free electrons in relation to the number of holes.

4. Doping gives:
o

negatively charged acceptors.

positively charged holes.

5. Supply of energy gives:

o

positively charged holes.

negatively charged free electrons.

and both P and N-types as a whole, are electrically neutral on their own.
Antimony (Sb) and Boron (B) are two of the most commonly used doping agents as they are more feely
available compared to other types of materials. They are also classed as metalloids. However, the
periodic table groups together a number of other different chemical elements all with either three, or five
electrons in their outermost orbital shell making them suitable as a doping material.
These other chemical elements can also be used as doping agents to a base material of either Silicon (S)
or Germanium (Ge) to produce different types of basic semiconductor materials for use in electronic
semiconductor components, microprocessor and solar cell applications. These additional semiconductor
materials are given below.

Periodic Table of Semiconductors

Elements Group 13

Elements Group 14

Elements Group 15

3-Electrons in Outer Shell

4-Electrons in Outer Shell

5-Electrons in Outer Shell

(Positively Charged)

(Neutrally Charged)

(Negatively Charged)

(5)

(6)
Boron ( B )

(13)

Carbon ( C )
(14)

Aluminium ( Al )
(31)

(15)
Silicon ( Si )

(32)
Gallium ( Ga )

Phosphorus ( P )
(33)

Germanium ( Ge )

Arsenic ( As )
(51)
Antimony ( Sb )

In the next tutorial about semiconductors and diodes, we will look at joining the two semiconductor basics
materials, the P-type and the N-type materials to form a PN Junction which can be used to produce
diodes.

The PN junction
In the previous tutorial we saw how to make an N-type semiconductor material by doping a silicon
atom with small amounts of Antimony and also how to make a P-type semiconductor material by
doping another silicon atom with Boron. This is all well and good, but these newly doped N-type
and P-type semiconductor materials do very little on their own as they are electrically neutral.
However, if we join (or fuse) these two Semiconductor Materials

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together they behave in a very different way merging together and producing what is generally
known as a PN Junction.
When the N-type semiconductor and P-type semiconductor materials are first joined together a very large
density gradient exists between both sides of the PN junction. The result is that some of the free electrons
from the donor impurity atoms begin to migrate across this newly formed junction to fill up the holes in the
P-type material producing negative ions.
However, because the electrons have moved across the PN junction from the N-type silicon to the P-type
silicon, they leave behind positively charged donor ions ( ND ) on the negative side and now the holes
from the acceptor impurity migrate across the junction in the opposite direction into the region where there
are large numbers of free electrons.
As a result, the charge density of the P-type along the junction is filled with negatively charged acceptor
ions ( NA ), and the charge density of the N-type along the junction becomes positive. This charge transfer
of electrons and holes across the PN junction is known as diffusion. The width of these P and N layers
depends on how heavily each side is doped with acceptor density NA, and donor density ND, respectively.
This process continues back and forth until the number of electrons which have crossed the junction
have a large enough electrical charge to repel or prevent any more charge carriers from crossing over the
junction. Eventually a state of equilibrium (electrically neutral situation) will occur producing a potential
barrier zone around the area of the junction as the donor atoms repel the holes and the acceptor atoms
repel the electrons.
Since no free charge carriers can rest in a position where there is a potential barrier, the regions on either
sides of the junction now become completely depleted of any more free carriers in comparison to the N
and P type materials further away from the junction. This area around the PN Junction is now called
the Depletion Layer.

The PN junction

The total charge on each side of a PN Junction must be equal and opposite to maintain a neutral charge
condition around the junction. If the depletion layer region has a distance D, it therefore must therefore
penetrate into the silicon by a distance of Dp for the positive side, and a distance ofDn for the negative
side giving a relationship between the two of Dp.NA = Dn.ND in order to maintain charge neutrality also
called equilibrium.

PN Junction Distance

As the N-type material has lost electrons and the P-type has lost holes, the N-type material has become
positive with respect to the P-type. Then the presence of impurity ions on both sides of the junction cause

an electric field to be established across this region with the N-side at a positive voltage relative to the Pside. The problem now is that a free charge requires some extra energy to overcome the barrier that now
exists for it to be able to cross the depletion region junction.
This electric field created by the diffusion process has created a built-in potential difference across the
junction with an open-circuit (zero bias) potential of:

Where: Eo is the zero bias junction voltage, VT the thermal voltage of 26mV
temperature,ND and NA are the impurity concentrations and ni is the intrinsic concentration.

at

room

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A suitable positive voltage (forward bias) applied between the two ends of the PN junction can supply the
free electrons and holes with the extra energy. The external voltage required to overcome this potential
barrier that now exists is very much dependent upon the type of semiconductor material used and its
actual temperature.
Typically at room temperature the voltage across the depletion layer for silicon is about 0.6 0.7 volts and
for germanium is about 0.3 0.35 volts. This potential barrier will always exist even if the device is not
connected to any external power source, as seen in diodes.
The significance of this built-in potential across the junction, is that it opposes both the flow of holes and
electrons across the junction and is why it is called the potential barrier. In practice, a PN junction is
formed within a single crystal of material rather than just simply joining or fusing together two separate
pieces.
The result of this process is that the PN junction has rectifying currentvoltage (IV or IV) characteristics.
Electrical contacts are fused onto either side of the semiconductor to enable an electrical connection to be
made to an external circuit. The resulting electronic device that has been made is commonly called a PN
junction Diode or simply Signal Diode.

Then we have seen here that a PN junction can be made by joining or diffusing together differently doped
semiconductor materials to produce an electronic device called a diode which can be used as the basic
semiconductor structure of rectifiers, all types of transistors, LEDs, solar cells, and many more such solid
state devices.
In the next tutorial about the PN junction, we will look at one of the most interesting applications of the PN
junction is its use in circuits as a diode. By adding connections to each end of the P-typeand the Ntype materials we can produce a two terminal device called a PN Junction Diodewhich can be biased by
an external voltage to either block or allow the flow of current thr

The PN Junction Diode

The effect described in the previous tutorial is achieved without any external voltage being
applied to the actual PN junction resulting in the junction being in a state of equilibrium. However,
if we were to make electrical connections at the ends of both the N-type and the P-type materials
and then connect them to a battery source, an additional energy source now exists to overcome
the potential barrier.
The effect of adding this additional energy source results in the free electrons being able to cross the
depletion region from one side to the other. The behaviour of the PN junction with regards to the potential
barriers width produces an asymmetrical conducting two terminal device, better known as the PN
Junction Diode.
A PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest Semiconductor Devices around, and which has the
characteristic of passing current in only one direction only. However, unlike a resistor, a diode does not
behave linearly with respect to the applied voltage as the diode has an exponential current-voltage ( I-V )
relationship and therefore we can not described its operation by simply using an equation such as Ohms
law.
If a suitable positive voltage (forward bias) is applied between the two ends of the PN junction, it can
supply free electrons and holes with the extra energy they require to cross the junction as the width of the
depletion layer around the PN junction is decreased.
By applying a negative voltage (reverse bias) results in the free charges being pulled away from the
junction resulting in the depletion layer width being increased. This has the effect of increasing or
decreasing the effective resistance of the junction itself allowing or blocking current flow through the
diode.
Then the depletion layer widens with an increase in the application of a reverse voltage and narrows with
an increase in the application of a forward voltage. This is due to the differences in the electrical
properties on the two sides of the PN junction resulting in physical changes taking place. One of the
results produces rectification as seen in the PN junction diodes static I-V (current-voltage) characteristics.
Rectification is shown by an asymmetrical current flow when the polarity of bias voltage is altered as
shown below.

Junction Diode Symbol and Static I-V Characteristics.

But before we can use the PN junction as a practical device or as a rectifying device we need to
firstly bias the junction, ie connect a voltage potential across it. On the voltage axis above, Reverse Bias
refers to an external voltage potential which increases the potential barrier. An external voltage which
decreases the potential barrier is said to act in the Forward Bias direction.
There are two operating regions and three possible biasing conditions for the standard Junction
Diode and these are:

1. Zero Bias No external voltage potential is applied to the PN junction diode.

2. Reverse Bias The voltage potential is connected negative, (-ve) to the P-type material
and positive, (+ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect
of Increasingthe PN junction diodes width.

3. Forward Bias The voltage potential is connected positive, (+ve) to the P-type material
and negative, (-ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect
ofDecreasing the PN junction diodes width.

Zero Biased Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Zero Bias condition, no external potential energy is applied to the PN
junction. However if the diodes terminals are shorted together, a few holes (majority carriers) in the P-type
material with enough energy to overcome the potential barrier will move across the junction against this
barrier potential. This is known as the Forward Current and is referenced asIF
Likewise, holes generated in the N-type material (minority carriers), find this situation favourable and
move across the junction in the opposite direction. This is known as the Reverse Current and is
referenced as IR. This transfer of electrons and holes back and forth across the PN junction is known as
diffusion, as shown below.

Zero Biased PN Junction Diode

The potential barrier that now exists discourages the diffusion of any more majority carriers across the
junction. However, the potential barrier helps minority carriers (few free electrons in the P-region and few
holes in the N-region) to drift across the junction.

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Then an Equilibrium or balance will be established when the majority carriers are equal and both moving
in opposite directions, so that the net result is zero current flowing in the circuit. When this occurs the
junction is said to be in a state of Dynamic Equilibrium.
The minority carriers are constantly generated due to thermal energy so this state of equilibrium can be
broken by raising the temperature of the PN junction causing an increase in the generation of minority
carriers, thereby resulting in an increase in leakage current but an electric current cannot flow since no
circuit has been connected to the PN junction.

Reverse Biased PN Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is applied to the N-type
material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material.
The positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons towards the positive electrode and
away from the junction, while the holes in the P-type end are also attracted away from the junction
towards the negative electrode.
The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and holes and presents a
high impedance path, almost an insulator. The result is that a high potential barrier is created thus
preventing current from flowing through the semiconductor material.

Increase in the Depletion Layer due to Reverse Bias

This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction and practically zero current flows
through the junction diode with an increase in bias voltage. However, a very small leakage current does
flow through the junction which can be measured in micro-amperes, ( A ).
One final point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the diode is increased to a sufficiently high
enough value, it will cause the diodes PN junction to overheat and fail due to the avalanche effect around
the junction. This may cause the diode to become shorted and will result in the flow of maximum circuit
current, and this shown as a step downward slope in the reverse static characteristics curve below.

Reverse Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

Sometimes this avalanche effect has practical applications in voltage stabilising circuits where a series
limiting resistor is used with the diode to limit this reverse breakdown current to a preset maximum value
thereby producing a fixed voltage output across the diode. These types of diodes are commonly known
as Zener Diodes and are discussed in a later tutorial.

Forward Biased PN Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied to the N-type
material and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type material. If this external voltage becomes greater
than the value of the potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium, the
potential barriers opposition will be overcome and current will start to flow.
This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the junction giving them the
energy to cross over and combine with the holes being pushed in the opposite direction towards the
junction by the positive voltage. This results in a characteristics curve of zero current flowing up to this
voltage point, called the knee on the static curves and then a high current flow through the diode with
little increase in the external voltage as shown below.

Forward Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in the depletion layer becoming
very thin and narrow which represents a low impedance path through the junction thereby allowing high
currents to flow. The point at which this sudden increase in current takes place is represented on the
static I-V characteristics curve above as the knee point.

Reduction in the Depletion Layer due to Forward Bias

This condition represents the low resistance path through the PN junction allowing very large currents to
flow through the diode with only a small increase in bias voltage. The actual potential difference across
the junction or diode is kept constant by the action of the depletion layer at approximately 0.3v for
germanium and approximately 0.7v for silicon junction diodes.
Since the diode can conduct infinite current above this knee point as it effectively becomes a short
circuit, therefore resistors are used in series with the diode to limit its current flow. Exceeding its maximum
forward current specification causes the device to dissipate more power in the form of heat than it was
designed for resulting in a very quick failure of the device.

Junction Diode Summary

The PN junction region of a Junction Diode has the following important characteristics:

Semiconductors contain two types of mobile charge carriers, Holes and Electrons.

The holes are positively charged while the electrons negatively charged.

A semiconductor may be doped with donor impurities such as Antimony (N-type doping), so
that it contains mobile charges which are primarily electrons.

A semiconductor may be doped with acceptor impurities such as Boron (P-type doping), so
that it contains mobile charges which are mainly holes.

The junction region itself has no charge carriers and is known as the depletion region.

The junction (depletion) region has a physical thickness that varies with the applied voltage.

When a diode is Zero Biased no external energy source is applied and a naturalPotential
Barrier is developed across a depletion layer which is approximately 0.5 to 0.7v for silicon
diodes and approximately 0.3 of a volt for germanium diodes.

When a junction diode is Forward Biased the thickness of the depletion region reduces and
the diode acts like a short circuit allowing full current to flow.

When a junction diode is Reverse Biased the thickness of the depletion region increases and
the diode acts like an open circuit blocking any current flow, (only a very small leakage
current).

We have also seen above that the diode is two terminal non-linear device whose I-V characteristic are
polarity dependent as depending upon the polarity of the applied voltage, VD the diode is eitherForward
Biased, VD > 0 or Reverse Biased, VD < 0. Either way we can model these current-voltage characteristics
for both an ideal diode and for a real diode.

Junction Diode Ideal and Real Characteristics

In the next tutorial about diodes, we will look at the small signal diode sometimes called a switching diode
which is used in general electronic circuits. As its name implies, the signal diode is designed for lowvoltage or high frequency signal applications such as in radio or digital switching circuits.
Signal diodes, such as the 1N4148 only pass very small electrical currents as opposed to the high-current
mains rectification diodes in which silicon diodes are usually used. Also in the next tutorial we will
examine the Signal Diode static current-voltage characteristics curve and parameter