Boundary layer

For the anatomical structure, see Boundary layer of Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow
uterus.
At some distance back from the leading edge, the smooth
In physics and uid mechanics, a boundary layer is the
laminar ow breaks down and transitions to a turbulent
ow. From a drag standpoint, it is advisable to have the
transition from laminar to turbulent ow as far aft on the
wing as possible, or have a large amount of the wing surface within the laminar portion of the boundary layer.
The low energy laminar ow, however, tends to break
down more suddenly than the turbulent layer.

1 Aerodynamics

Boundary layer visualization, showing transition from laminar

to turbulent condition

layer of uid in the immediate vicinity of a bounding surface where the eects of viscosity are signicant. In the
Earths atmosphere, the atmospheric boundary layer is the
air layer near the ground aected by diurnal heat, moisture or momentum transfer to or from the surface. On
an aircraft wing the boundary layer is the part of the ow
close to the wing, where viscous forces distort the surrounding non-viscous ow. See Reynolds number.
Laminar boundary layers can be loosely classied according to their structure and the circumstances under which
they are created. The thin shear layer which develops on
an oscillating body is an example of a Stokes boundary
layer, while the Blasius boundary layer refers to the wellknown similarity solution near an attached at plate held
in an oncoming unidirectional ow. When a uid rotates
and viscous forces are balanced by the Coriolis eect
(rather than convective inertia), an Ekman layer forms.
In the theory of heat transfer, a thermal boundary layer
occurs. A surface can have multiple types of boundary
layer simultaneously.
The viscous nature of airow reduces the local velocities on a surface and is responsible for skin friction. The
layer of air over the wings surface that is slowed down
or stopped by viscosity, is the boundary layer. There are
two dierent types of boundary layer ow: laminar and
Ludwig Prandtl
turbulent.[1]
Laminar Boundary Layer Flow

The aerodynamic boundary layer was rst dened by

Ludwig Prandtl in a paper presented on August 12, 1904
at the third International Congress of Mathematicians in
Heidelberg, Germany. It simplies the equations of uid
ow by dividing the ow eld into two areas: one inside the boundary layer, dominated by viscosity and creating the majority of drag experienced by the boundary
body; and one outside the boundary layer, where viscosity

The laminar boundary is a very smooth ow, while the

turbulent boundary layer contains swirls or eddies. The
laminar ow creates less skin friction drag than the turbulent ow, but is less stable. Boundary layer ow over
a wing surface begins as a smooth laminar ow. As the
ow continues back from the leading edge, the laminar
boundary layer increases in thickness.
1

2 BOUNDARY LAYER EQUATIONS

u0

u(y)

Laminar boundary layer velocity prole

can be neglected without signicant eects on the solution. This allows a closed-form solution for the ow in
both areas, a signicant simplication of the full Navier
Stokes equations. The majority of the heat transfer to and
from a body also takes place within the boundary layer,
again allowing the equations to be simplied in the ow
eld outside the boundary layer. The pressure distribution throughout the boundary layer in the direction normal to the surface (such as an airfoil) remains constant
throughout the boundary layer, and is the same as on the
surface itself.
The thickness of the velocity boundary layer is normally
dened as the distance from the solid body at which the
viscous ow velocity is 99% of the freestream velocity (the surface velocity of an inviscid ow). Displacement Thickness is an alternative denition stating that the
boundary layer represents a decit in mass ow compared
to inviscid ow with slip at the wall. It is the distance by
which the wall would have to be displaced in the inviscid
case to give the same total mass ow as the viscous case.
The no-slip condition requires the ow velocity at the surface of a solid object be zero and the uid temperature be
equal to the temperature of the surface. The ow velocity will then increase rapidly within the boundary layer,
governed by the boundary layer equations, below.

is desirable to have a laminar boundary layer. This results

in a lower skin friction due to the characteristic velocity
prole of laminar ow. However, the boundary layer inevitably thickens and becomes less stable as the ow develops along the body, and eventually becomes turbulent,
the process known as boundary layer transition. One way
of dealing with this problem is to suck the boundary layer
away through a porous surface (see Boundary layer suction). This can reduce drag, but is usually impractical
due to its mechanical complexity and the power required
to move the air and dispose of it. Natural laminar ow
techniques push the boundary layer transition aft by reshaping the aerofoil or fuselage so that its thickest point is
more aft and less thick. This reduces the velocities in the
leading part and the same Reynolds number is achieved
with a greater length.
At lower Reynolds numbers, such as those seen with
model aircraft, it is relatively easy to maintain laminar
ow. This gives low skin friction, which is desirable.
However, the same velocity prole which gives the laminar boundary layer its low skin friction also causes it to
be badly aected by adverse pressure gradients. As the
pressure begins to recover over the rear part of the wing
chord, a laminar boundary layer will tend to separate from
the surface. Such ow separation causes a large increase
in the pressure drag, since it greatly increases the eective
size of the wing section. In these cases, it can be advantageous to deliberately trip the boundary layer into turbulence at a point prior to the location of laminar separation,
using a turbulator. The fuller velocity prole of the turbulent boundary layer allows it to sustain the adverse pressure gradient without separating. Thus, although the skin
friction is increased, overall drag is decreased. This is
the principle behind the dimpling on golf balls, as well as
vortex generators on aircraft. Special wing sections have
also been designed which tailor the pressure recovery so
laminar separation is reduced or even eliminated. This
represents an optimum compromise between the pressure
drag from ow separation and skin friction from induced
turbulence.

The thermal boundary layer thickness is similarly the distance from the body at which the temperature is 99% of
the temperature found from an inviscid solution. The ratio of the two thicknesses is governed by the Prandtl num- When using half-models in wind tunnels, a peniche is
ber. If the Prandtl number is 1, the two boundary layers sometimes used to reduce or eliminate the eect of the
are the same thickness. If the Prandtl number is greater boundary layer.
than 1, the thermal boundary layer is thinner than the velocity boundary layer. If the Prandtl number is less than
1, which is the case for air at standard conditions, the ther2 Boundary layer equations
mal boundary layer is thicker than the velocity boundary
layer.
The deduction of the boundary layer equations was
In high-performance designs, such as gliders and com- one of the most important advances in uid dynamics
mercial aircraft, much attention is paid to controlling (Anderson, 2005). Using an order of magnitude analythe behavior of the boundary layer to minimize drag. sis, the well-known governing NavierStokes equations
Two eects have to be considered. First, the boundary of viscous uid ow can be greatly simplied within the
layer adds to the eective thickness of the body, through boundary layer. Notably, the characteristic of the partial
the displacement thickness, hence increasing the pressure dierential equations (PDE) becomes parabolic, rather
drag. Secondly, the shear forces at the surface of the wing than the elliptical form of the full NavierStokes equacreate skin friction drag.
tions. This greatly simplies the solution of the equaAt high Reynolds numbers, typical of full-sized aircraft, it tions. By making the boundary layer approximation, the

3
ow is divided into an inviscid portion (which is easy to
solve by a number of methods) and the boundary layer,
u
u
2u
u0
which is governed by an easier to solve PDE. The conti- u
+
= u0
+ 2
x
y
x
y
nuity and NavierStokes equations for a two-dimensional
steady incompressible ow in Cartesian coordinates are For a ow in which the static pressure p also does not
given by
change in the direction of the ow then
u
+
=0
x y
u
u
1 p
u
+
=
+
x
y
x
u

1 p

+
=
+
x
y
y

p
=0
x
(
(

2u 2u
+ 2
x2
y
2

+ 2
x2
y

)
)

so u0 remains constant.
Therefore, the equation of motion simplies to become

u
2u
u
where u and are the velocity components, is the den- u x + y = y 2
sity, p is the pressure, and is the kinematic viscosity of
These approximations are used in a variety of practithe uid at a point.
cal ow problems of scientic and engineering interest.
The approximation states that, for a suciently high The above analysis is for any instantaneous laminar or
Reynolds number the ow over a surface can be divided turbulent boundary layer, but is used mainly in laminar
into an outer region of inviscid ow unaected by vis- ow studies since the mean ow is also the instantaneous
cosity (the majority of the ow), and a region close to the ow because there are no velocity uctuations present.
surface where viscosity is important (the boundary layer). This simplied equations is parabolic PDE and can be
Let u and be streamwise and transverse (wall normal) solved using a similarity solution often referred to as the
velocities respectively inside the boundary layer. Using Blasius boundary layer
scale analysis, it can be shown that the above equations
of motion reduce within the boundary layer to become

3 Turbulent boundary layers

u

u
u
1 p
2u
+
=
+ 2
x
y
x
y

The treatment of turbulent boundary layers is far more

dicult due to the time-dependent variation of the ow
1 p
properties. One of the most widely used techniques in
=0
which turbulent ows are tackled is to apply Reynolds
y
and if the uid is incompressible (as liquids are under decomposition. Here the instantaneous ow properties
are decomposed into a mean and uctuating component.
standard conditions):
Applying this technique to the boundary layer equations
gives the full turbulent boundary layer equations not often
given in literature:
u
+
=0
x y
The order of magnitude analysis assumes the streamwise u v
+
=0
length scale signicantly larger than the transverse length x y
scale inside the boundary layer. It follows that variations
( 2
)
2
in properties in the streamwise direction are generally u u +v u = 1 p + u + u (u v ) (u2 )
x
y
x
x2
y 2
y
x
much lower than those in the wall normal direction. Ap(
)
ply this to the continuity equation shows that , the wall
1 p
2v
2v

v
v
2
normal velocity, is small compared with u the streamwise u x +v y = y + x2 + y 2 x (u v ) y (v )
velocity.
Using a similar order-of-magnitude analysis, the above
Since the static pressure p is independent of y , then pres- equations can be reduced to leading order terms. By
sure at the edge of the boundary layer is the pressure choosing length scales for changes in the transversethroughout the boundary layer at a given streamwise po- direction, and L for changes in the streamwise-direction,
sition. The external pressure may be obtained through an with << L , the x-momentum equation simplies to:
application of Bernoullis equation. Let u0 be the uid
velocity outside the boundary layer, where u and u0 are
both parallel. This gives upon substituting for p the fol1 p

u
u
+v
=

(u v )
u
lowing result
x
y
x y

5 CONVECTIVE TRANSFER CONSTANTS FROM BOUNDARY LAYER ANALYSIS

This equation does not satisfy the no-slip condition at the

wall. Like Prandtl did for his boundary layer equations,
[
]
[
]
2
a new, smaller length scale must be used to allow the u(y) = u0 1 (y h) = u0 y 2 y ,
h2
h
h
viscous term to become leading order in the momentum
equation. By choosing << as the y-scale, the leadwhen y 0 , then
ing order momentum equation for this inner boundary
layer is given by:
y
u(y) 2u0 = y
h
1 p
2u

where is the tangent of the Poiseuille parabola inter0=
+ 2
(u v )
x
y
y
secting the wall. Although Lvques solution was speIn the limit of innite Reynolds number, the pressure gradient term can be show to have no eect on the inner
region of the turbulent boundary layer. The new inner
length scale is a viscous length scale, and is of order

u , with u being the velocity scale of the turbulent uctuations, in this case a friction velocity.
Unlike the laminar boundary layer equations, the presence of two regimes governed by dierent sets of ow
scales (i.e. the inner and outer scaling) has made nding
a universal similarity solution for the turbulent boundary
layer dicult and controversial. To nd a similarity solution that spans both regions of the ow, it is necessary
to asymptotically match the solutions from both regions
of the ow. Such analysis will yield either the so-called
log-law or power-law.
The additional term u v in the turbulent boundary layer
equations is known as the Reynolds shear stress and is
unknown a priori. The solution of the turbulent boundary layer equations therefore necessitates the use of a
turbulence model, which aims to express the Reynolds
shear stress in terms of known ow variables or derivatives. The lack of accuracy and generality of such models
is a major obstacle in the successful prediction of turbulent ow properties in modern uid dynamics.
A constant stress layer exists in the near wall region. Due
to the damping of the vertical velocity uctuations near
the wall, the Reynolds stress term will become negligible
and we nd that a linear velocity prole exists. This is
only true for the very near wall region.

cic to heat transfer into a Poiseuille ow, his insight

helped lead other scientists to an exact solution of the
thermal boundary-layer problem.[4] Schuh observed that
in a boundary-layer, u is again a linear function of y, but
that in this case, the wall tangent is a function of x.[5] He
expressed this with a modied version of Lvques prole,

u(y) = (x)y
This results in a very good approximation, even for low
P r numbers, so that only liquid metals with P r much
less than 1 cannot be treated this way.[4] In 1962, Kestin
and Persen published a paper describing solutions for heat
transfer when the thermal boundary layer is contained entirely within the momentum layer and for various wall
temperature distributions.[6] For the problem of a at
plate with a temperature jump at x = x0 , they propose a
substitution that reduces the parabolic thermal boundarylayer equation to an ordinary dierential equation. The
solution to this equation, the temperature at any point in
the uid, can be expressed as an incomplete gamma function.[3] Schlichting proposed an equivalent substitution
that reduces the thermal boundary-layer equation to an
ordinary dierential equation whose solution is the same
incomplete gamma function.[7]

5 Convective transfer constants

from boundary layer analysis

Paul Richard Heinrich Blasius derived an exact solution

to the above laminar boundary layer equations.[8] The
thickness of the boundary layer is a function of the
In 1928, the French engineer Andr Lvque observed Reynolds number for laminar ow.

that convective heat transfer in a owing uid is aected 5.0x

Re
only by the velocity values very close to the surface.[2][3]
For ows of large Prandtl number, the temperature/mass = the thickness of the boundary layer: the region of
transition from surface to freestream temperature takes ow where the velocity is less than 99% of the far eld
place across a very thin region close to the surface. There- velocity v ; x is position along the semi-innite plate,
fore, the most important uid velocities are those inside and Re is the Reynolds Number given by v x/ ( =
this very thin region in which the change in velocity can density and = dynamic viscosity).
be considered linear with normal distance from the sur- The Blasius solution uses boundary conditions in a dimensionless form:
face. In this way, for

Heat and mass transfer

5
vx vS
v vS

vx
v

vx vS
v vS

vx
v

= 1 at y = and x = 0

vy
v

= 0 at y = 0

boundary conditions, replacing v with T or cA (absolute

temperature or concentration of species A). The subscript
S denotes a surface condition.
vx vS
v vS
vx vS
v vS

=
=

x=0

T TS
T TS

T TS
T TS

cA cAS
cA cAS

= 0 at y = 0

cA cAS
cA cAS

= 1 at y = and

Using the streamline function Blasius obtained the following solution for the shear stress at the surface of the
plate.
)
(
x
= 0.332 vx Re1/2
0 = v
y
y=0

And via the boundary conditions, it is known that

vx vS
v vS

T TS
T TS

cA cAS
cA cAS

We are given the following relations for heat/mass ux

out of the surface of the plate
( )
T
= 0.332 TxTS Re1/2
y
y=0
)
(
cA
= 0.332 cAxcAS Re1/2
y
y=0

So for P r = Sc = 1
Velocity Boundary Layer (Top,orange) and Temperature Boundary Layer (Bottom, green) share a functional form due to similarity in the Momentum/Energy Balances and boundary conditions.

= T = c =

5.0x

Re

Where T , c are the regions of ow where T and cA are

less than 99% of their far eld values.[10]

Because the Prandtl number of a particular uid is not

often unity, German engineer E. Polhausen who worked
with Ludwig Prandtl attempted to empirically extend
these equations to apply for P r = 1 . His results can be
applied to Sc as well.[11] He found that for Prandtl number greater than 0.6, the thermal boundary layer thickness
In fact, the Blasius solution for laminar velocity prole
was approximately given by:
in the boundary layer above a semi-innite plate can be
easily extended to describe Thermal and Concentration
boundary layers for heat and mass transfer respectively.
Rather than the dierential x-momentum balance (equation of motion), this uses a similarly derived Energy and
Mass balance:
Note that in many cases, the no-slip boundary condition
holds that vS , the uid velocity at the surface of the plate
equals the velocity of the plate at all locations. If the plate
is not moving, then vS = 0 . A much more complicated
derivation is required if uid slip is allowed.[9]

T
Energy: vx T
x + vy y =

k 2T
Cp y 2
2

cA
cA
A
Mass: vx c
x + vy y = DAB y 2

For the momentum balance, kinematic viscosity can

be considered to be the momentum diusivity. In the
energy balance this is replaced by thermal diusivity
= k/CP , and by mass diusivity DAB in the mass
balance. In thermal diusivity of a substance, k is its
thermal conductivity, is its density and CP is its heat
capacity. Subscript AB denotes diusivity of species A
diusing into species B.
Under the assumption that = DAB = , these Plot showing the relative thickness in the Thermal boundary layer
equations become equivalent to the momentum balance. versus the Velocity boundary layer (in red) for various Prandtl
Thus, for Prandtl number P r = / = 1 and Schmidt Numbers. For P r = 1 , the two are equal.
number Sc = /DAB = 1 the Blasius solution applies

1/3
and therefore c = Sc1/3
directly.
T = P r
Accordingly, this derivation uses a related form of the From this solution, it is possible to characterize the con-

69

PREDICTING CONVECTIVE FLOW CONDITIONS AT THE BOUNDARY LAYER IN A CYLINDER USING DIMENSIONAL ANALYSI

vective heat/mass transfer constants based on the region

of boundary layer ow. Fouriers law of conduction and
Newtons Law of Cooling are combined with the ux
term derived above and the boundary layer thickness.
( )
q
T
=
k
= hx (TS T )
A
y

8 Predicting Transient Boundary

Layer Thickness in a Cylinder
Using Dimensional Analysis

y=0

By using the transient and viscous force equations for a

cylindrical ow you can predict the transient boundary
This gives the local convective constant hx at one point layer thickness by nding the Womersley Number ( Nw
on the semi-innite plane. Integrating over the length of ).
the plate gives an average
Transient Force = vw

hx =

1/2
0.332 xk Rex P r1/3

1/2

hL = 0.664 xk ReL P r1/3

Viscous Force =

v
1

Following the derivation with mass transfer terms ( k = Setting them equal to each other gives:
convective mass transfer constant, DAB = diusivity of
vw = v
1
species A into species B, Sc = /DAB ), the following
Solving for delta gives:
solutions are obtained:

v
1/2
1/3

kx = 0.332 DAB
1 = w
=
x Rex Sc
w

1/3
= 0.664 DAB
kL
x ReL Sc
1/2

In dimensionless form:

These solutions apply for laminar ow with a L = L w = Nw

v
1
Prandtl/Schmidt number greater than 0.6.[10]
Where Nw = Womersley Number; = density; v = velocity; 1 = length of transient boundary layer; = viscosity;
L = characteristic length.

Naval architecture

Many of the principles that apply to aircraft also apply to

ships, submarines, and oshore platforms.
For ships, unlike aircraft, one deals with incompressible
ows, where change in water density is negligible (a pressure rise close to 1000kPa leads to a change of only 2
3 kg/m3 ). This eld of uid dynamics is called hydrodynamics. A ship engineer designs for hydrodynamics
rst, and for strength only later. The boundary layer development, breakdown, and separation become critical
because the high viscosity of water produces high shear
stresses. Another consequence of high viscosity is the slip
stream eect, in which the ship moves like a spear tearing
through a sponge at high velocity.

9 Predicting Convective Flow Conditions at the Boundary Layer

in a Cylinder Using Dimensional
Analysis
By using the convective and viscous force equations at
the boundary layer for a cylindrical ow you can predict
the convective ow conditions at the boundary layer by
nding the dimensionless Reynolds Number ( NR ).
Convective Force =
Viscous Force =

v 2
L

v
22

Setting them equal to each other gives:

Boundary layer turbine

This eect was exploited in the Tesla turbine, patented

by Nikola Tesla in 1913. It is referred to as a bladeless turbine because it uses the boundary layer eect and
not a uid impinging upon the blades as in a conventional turbine. Boundary layer turbines are also known
as cohesion-type turbine, bladeless turbine, and Prandtl
layer turbine (after Ludwig Prandtl).

v 2
L

v
22

Solving for delta gives:

2 = L
v
In dimensionless form:

vL
L
=
NR
2
=
Where NR = Reynolds Number; = density; v = velocity;
2 = length of convective boundary layer; = viscosity;
L = characteristic length.

10

See also

Boundary layer separation

Boundary-layer thickness
Boundary layer suction
Boundary layer control
Coand eect
Facility for Airborne Atmospheric Measurements
Logarithmic law of the wall
Planetary boundary layer
Shape factor (boundary layer ow)
Shear stress

11

References

[10] Geankoplis, Christie J. Transport Processes and Separation Process Principles: (includes Unit Operations).
Fourth ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall Professional Technical Reference, 2003. Print.
[11] Pohlhausen, E. (1921), Der Wrmeaustausch zwischen
festen Krpern und Flssigkeiten mit kleiner reibung und
kleiner Wrmeleitung. Z. angew. Math. Mech., 1: 115
121. doi: 10.1002/zamm.19210010205

Chanson, H. (2009). Applied Hydrodynamics: An

Introduction to Ideal and Real Fluid Flows. CRC
Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Leiden, The Netherlands, 478 pages. ISBN 978-0-415-49271-3.
A.D. Polyanin and V.F. Zaitsev, Handbook of Nonlinear Partial Dierential Equations, Chapman &
Hall/CRC Press, Boca Raton London, 2004.
ISBN 1-58488-355-3
A.D. Polyanin, A.M. Kutepov, A.V. Vyazmin, and
D.A. Kazenin, Hydrodynamics, Mass and Heat
Transfer in Chemical Engineering, Taylor & Francis, London, 2002. ISBN 0-415-27237-8

[1] http://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_
manuals/aviation/pilot_handbook/. Missing or empty
|title= (help)

Hermann Schlichting, Klaus Gersten, E. Krause, H.

Jr. Oertel, C. Mayes Boundary-Layer Theory 8th
edition Springer 2004 ISBN 3-540-66270-7

[2] Lvque, A. (1928). Les lois de la transmission de

chaleur par convection. Annales des Mines ou Recueil
de Mmoires sur l'Exploitation des Mines et sur les Sciences
et les Arts qui sy Rattachent, Mmoires (in French) XIII
(13): 201239.

John D. Anderson, Jr., Ludwig Prandtls Boundary

Layer, Physics Today, December 2005

[3] Niall McMahon. Andr Lvque p285, a review of his

velocity prole approximation.
[4] Martin, H. (2002). The generalized Lvque equation
and its practical use for the prediction of heat and mass
transfer rates from pressure drop. Chemical Engineering
Science 57 (16). pp. 32173223. doi:10.1016/S00092509(02)00194-X.
[5] Schuh, H. (1953). On asymptotic solutions for the heat
transfer at varying wall temperatures in a laminar boundary layer with Hartrees velocity proles. Jour. Aero. Sci.
20 (2). pp. 146147.
[6] Kestin, J. & Persen, L.N. (1962). The transfer of heat
across a turbulent boundary layer at very high prandtl
numbers. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 5: 355371.
doi:10.1016/0017-9310(62)90026-1.
[7] Schlichting, H. (1979). Boundary-Layer Theory (7 ed.).
New York (USA): McGraw-Hill.
[8] Blasius, H. (1908). Grenzschichten in Flssigkeiten mit
kleiner Reibung. Z. Math. Phys. 56: 137. (English
translation)
[9] Martin, Michael J. Blasius boundary layer solution with
slip ow conditions. AIP conference proceedings 585.1
2001: 518-523. American Institute of Physics. 24 Apr
2013.

Anderson, John (1992). Fundamentals of Aerodynamics (2nd ed.). Toronto: S.S.CHAND. pp. 711
714. ISBN 0-07-001679-8.
H. Tennekes and J. L. Lumley, A First Course in
Turbulence, The MIT Press, (1972).
Lectures in Turbulence for the 21st Century by
William K. George

12 External links
National Science Digital Library Boundary Layer
Moore, Franklin K., "Displacement eect of a threedimensional boundary layer". NACA Report 1124,
1953.
Benson, Tom, "Boundary layer".
Learning Technologies.

NASA Glenn

Boundary layer separation

Boundary layer equations: Exact Solutions from
EqWorld
Jones, T.V. BOUNDARY LAYER HEAT TRANSFER

13

13
13.1

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13.2

Images

File:Ambox_important.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, based o of Image:Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat (talk contribs)
File:Boundarylayer.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Boundarylayer.png License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: http://www.symscape.com/node/447 Original artist: Syguy
File:Laminar_boundary_layer_scheme.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Laminar_boundary_
layer_scheme.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: F l a n k e r
File:Mergefrom.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Mergefrom.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Prandtl_portrait.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Prandtl_portrait.jpg License:
CC
BY 3.0 de Contributors:
DLR-Archiv Gttingen Original artist:
Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img
alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png
1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Thermal_Boundary_Layer_Thickness.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Thermal_Boundary_
Layer_Thickness.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Vijek
File:Velocity_and_Temperature_boundary_layer_similarity.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/
Velocity_and_Temperature_boundary_layer_similarity.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Created using Microsoft Powerpoint
based
Previously published: N/A Original artist: Vijek
File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: This le was derived from Wiki letter w.svg: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Wiki_letter_w.svg' class='image'><img alt='Wiki letter w.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_
letter_w.svg/50px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png' width='50' height='50' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/
Wiki_letter_w.svg/75px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/
100px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='44' data-le-height='44' /></a>
Original artist: Derivative work by Thumperward

13.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0