Chapter 7, TR&TM, Potable Water PDF

ASSOCIATION OF WATER TECHNOLOGIES
Technical Manual
CHAPTER 7
Potable Water
CHAPTER 7
Potable Water
Bennett P. Boffardi, Ph.D.
Table of Contents
1.0
Regulations
1.1
National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations
7-1
7-23
2.0
Water Sources
2.1
Water Quality
2.2
Water Chemistry
2.2.1
Description of Common Impurities
2.2.2
Suspended Solids
2.2.3
Dissolved Gases
2.2.4
Dissolved Solids
2.2.5
Microorganisms
2.2.6
pH
2.2.7
Solubility
2.2.8
Conductivity
2.2.9
Common Impurities
2.2.10 Hardness
2.2.11 Magnesium
2.2.12 Alkalinity
2.2.13 Bicarbonate
2.2.14 Carbonate
2.2.15 Hydroxide
2.2.16 Sodium/Potassium
2.2.17 Silica
2.2.18 Iron
2.2.19 Manganese
2.2.20 Aluminum
2.2.21 Fluoride
2.2.22 Lead
2.2.23 Arsenic
2.2.24 Nitrate
2.2.25 Zinc
2.2.26 Sulfide
2.2.27 Organics
7-26
7-26
7-27
7-27
7-27
7-28
7-28
7-28
7-29
7-29
7-29
7-29
7-29
7-30
7-30
7-30
7-30
7-30
7-30
7-30
7-30
7-31
7-31
7-31
7-31
7-31
7-32
7-32
7-32
7-32
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Technical Manual
CHAPTER 7
Potable Water
3.0
Raw Water Clarification

3.1
Theory of Flocculation and Coagulation
3.2
Particle Charge
3.3
Particle Size
3.4
Concentration
3.5
Contaminant Ratios
3.6
Removal Mechanisms
3.7
Inorganic Coagulants
3.8
Factors Which Affect Coagulation and Flocculation
3.8.1 Particle Size
3.8.2 Particle Density
3.8.3 Particle Charge
3.8.4 Particle Concentration
3.8.5 Water Characteristics
3.9
Treatment Processes
3.9.1 Chemical Dosages
3.9.2 Coagulant Aid
3.9.3 Order of Addition
3.9.4 Mixing Energy
3.9.5 Sedimentation Time
3.9.6 Filtration
3.10 Typical Clarification Equipment Design
3.10.1 Conventional Clarifiers
3.10.2 Solids Contact Clarifiers
3.10.3 Dissolved Air Flotation
7-33
7-35
7-35
7-36
7-37
7-37
7-37
7-39
7-42
7-42
7-42
7-42
7-42
7-42
7-43
7-43
7-43
7-43
7-43
7-44
7-44
7-44
7-45
7-49
7-51
4.0
Filtration
4.1
Types of Filtration Systems
4.2
Direct Filtration
4.3
Auxiliary Scour
7-53
7-53
7-53
7-56
5.0
Disinfection
5.1
Destroying Pathogens in Water
5.2
Disinfection Methods
5.2.1 Heat Treatment
5.2.2 Radiation Treatment
5.2.3 Chemical Treatment
5.2.4 Chlorine
5.3
Concentration and Contact Time
5.3.1 Chloramination
5.3.2 Ozone
5.3.3 Chlorine Dioxide
5.3.4 Potassium Permanganate
5.4
Disinfection By-Products
7-58
7-60
7-60
7-60
7-60
7-61
7-63
7-63
7-64
7-64
7-64
7-65
7-66
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Technical Manual
CHAPTER 7
Potable Water
6.0
Indices
6.1
Larson-Skold Index
6.2
Driving Force Index
6.3
Casil Index
6.4
Aggressive Index
6.5
Calcite Saturation Index
7-67
7-70
7-71
7-71
7-71
7-72
7.0
Lead
7.1
The Problem
7.2
Health Effects
7.3
Lead Chemistry
7.3.1 Corrosion
7.3.2 Effect of Flow
7.3.3 Effect of Dissolved Oxygen
7.3.4 Effect of Chlorine
7.3.5 Effect of Hardness Ions
7.3.6 Effect of pH-Alkalinity
7.3.7 Effect of Temperature
7.3.8 Effect of Orthophosphate Ions
7.3.9 Effect of Polyphosphate
7.3.10 Effect of Sulfate, Chloride and Nitrate
7.4
Treatment Strategies
7.4.1 Nonchemical Treatment Options
7.4.2 Chemical Treatment Options
7.4.2.1 Ph/Alkalinity Option
7.4.2.2 Inhibitors
7.4.2.3 Orthophosphate
7.4.2.4 Zinc/Polyphosphate
7.4.2.5 Silicates
7-73
7-73
7-74
7-74
7-74
7-75
7-75
7-75
7-76
7-76
7-76
7-77
7-78
7-78
7-78
7-79
7-79
7-79
7-80
7-80
7-83
7-84
8.0
Iron/Manganese and Arsenic Removal

8.1
Arsenic Removal
7-85
7-87
9.0
Copper
9.1
Copper Reactions
9.1.1 Copper Corrosion
9.1.1.1 General Corrosion
9.1.1.2 Localized Corrosion
9.1.2 Pitting
9.1.2.1 Pit Initiation
9.1.2.2 Pit Propagation
9.1.2.3 Pit Formation
9.2
Solder Flux
9.3
Aluminosilicate
9.4
Treatment
7-89
7-89
7-90
7-90
7-92
7-94
7-96
7-96
7-97
7-98
7-98
7-98
7-3

Technical Manual
CHAPTER 7
Potable Water
10.0 Corrosion
10.1 Uniform or General Corrosion
10.2 Galvanic Corrosion
10.2.1 Area Effect
10.3 Pitting
10.3.1 Steel
10.3.2 Initiation
10.3.3 Propagation
10.3.4 Termination
10.3.5 Reinitiation
10.4 Copper
10.5 Tuberculation
10.6 Flow Assisted Corrosion
10.7 Impingement
10.8 Cavitation
10.9 Dealloying
7-102
7-103
7-103
7-104
7-105
7-105
7-105
7-105
7-106
7-106
7-106
7-106
7-107
7-108
7-109
7-109
11.0 Chemical Treatment

11.1 Polyphosphates
11.2 Zinc Based Treatments
11.3 Non-Zinc Based Treatments
7-111
7-112
7-119
7-120
12.0 Section 503 Rule
7-122
7-4

Technical Manual
CHAPTER 7
Potable Water
CHAPTER 7
Potable Water
1.0
Regulations
The National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NPDWRs or primary standards) are
legally enforceable standards that apply to public water systems (40 CFR Part 141).
Primary standards protect public health by limiting the levels of contaminants in drinking
water.
Listed below in Tables 1-1 through 1-6 are the regulated contaminants and their
Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs) for:
Microorganisms
Disinfectants
Disinfection Byproducts
Inorganic Chemicals
Organic Chemicals
Radionuclides
7-5

Technical Manual
CHAPTER 7
Potable Water
Table 1-1: Microorganisms
Contaminant
MCLG1
(mg/L)2
MCL or
TT1
(mg/L)2
Cryptosporidium
zero
TT 3
Gastrointestinal illness (e.g.,

diarrhea, vomiting, cramps)
Human and fecal

animal waste
Giardia lamblia
zero
TT3

Human and animal

fecal waste
Heterotrophic
Plate Count
n/a
TT3
HPC has no health effects; it is an

analytic method used to measure
the variety of bacteria that are
common in water. The lower the
concentration of bacteria in
drinking water, the better
maintained the water system is.
HPC measures a
range of bacteria that
are naturally present in
the environment
Legionella
zero
TT3
Legionnaire's Disease, a type of

pneumonia
Found naturally in
water; multiplies in
heating systems
Total Coliforms
(including fecal
coliform and E.
Coli)
zero
5.0%4
Not a health threat in itself; it is

used to indicate whether other
potentially harmful bacteria may be
present5
Coliforms are naturally

present in the
environment; as well
as feces; fecal
coliforms and E. coli
only come from human
and animal fecal waste
Turbidity
n/a
TT3
Turbidity is a measure of the

cloudiness of water. It is used to
indicate water quality and filtration
effectiveness (e.g., whether
disease-causing organisms are
present). Higher turbidity levels are
often associated with higher levels
of disease-causing
microorganisms such as viruses,
parasites and some bacteria.
These organisms can cause
symptoms such as nausea,
cramps, diarrhea, and associated
headaches.
Soil runoff
Viruses (enteric)
zero
TT3

Human and animal

fecal waste
Potential Health Effects from

Ingestion of Water
7-6
Sources of
Contaminant in
Drinking Water
CHAPTER 7
Technical Manual
Potable Water
Table 1-2: Disinfectants

MRDLG1
(mg/L)2
Contaminant
MRDL1
(mg/L)2
Potential Health
Effects from
Ingestion of Water
Sources of
Contaminant in
Drinking Water
Chloramines
(as Cl2)
MRDLG=41
MRDL=4.01
Eye/nose irritation;
stomach discomfort,
anemia
Water additive
used to control
microbes
Chlorine (as
Cl2)
MRDLG=41
MRDL=4.01
Eye/nose irritation;
stomach discomfort
Water additive
used to control
microbes
Chlorine
dioxide (as
ClO2)
MRDLG=0.81
MRDL=0.81
Anemia; infants &

young children:
nervous system
effects
Water additive
used to control
microbes
Table 1-3: Disinfection Byproducts

MCLG1
(mg/L)2
MCL
or TT1
(mg/L)2
Bromate
zero
0.010
Increased risk of cancer
Byproduct of
drinking water
disinfection
Chlorite
0.8
1.0
Anemia; infants & young

children: nervous system
effects
Byproduct of
drinking water
disinfection
Haloacetic acids
(HAA5)
n/a6
0.060
Byproduct of
drinking water
disinfection
Total
Trihalomethanes
(TTHMs)
none7
---------n/a6
0.10
---------0.080
Liver, kidney or central

nervous system problems;
increased risk of cancer
Byproduct of
drinking water
disinfection
Contaminant
Potential Health Effects

from Ingestion of Water
7-7
Sources of
Contaminant in
Drinking Water

Technical Manual
CHAPTER 7
Potable Water
Table 1-4: Inorganic Chemicals

MCLG1
(mg/L)2
MCL or
TT1
(mg/L)2
Potential Health
Effects from
Ingestion of Water
Sources of
Contaminant in
Drinking Water
0.006
0.006
Increase in blood
cholesterol; decrease in
blood sugar
Discharge from
petroleum refineries; fire
retardants; ceramics;
electronics; solder
07
0.010
as of
01/23/06
Skin damage or
problems with
circulatory systems,
and may have
increased risk of getting
cancer
Erosion of natural
deposits; runoff from
orchards, runoff from
glass & electronics
production waste
7 million
fibers
per liter
7 MFL
Increased risk of
developing benign
intestinal polyps
Decay of asbestos
cement in water mains;
erosion of natural
deposits
Increase in blood
pressure
Discharge of drilling
wastes; discharge from
metal refineries; erosion
of natural deposits
Beryllium
0.004
0.004
Intestinal lesions
Discharge from metal

refineries and coalburning factories;
discharge from
electrical, aerospace,
and defense industries
Cadmium
0.005
0.005
Kidney damage
Corrosion of galvanized
pipes; erosion of natural
deposits; discharge from
metal refineries; runoff
from waste batteries and
paints
Contaminant
Antimony
Arsenic
Asbestos
(fiber >10
micrometers)
Barium
7-8
CHAPTER 7
Technical Manual
Potable Water
Table 1-4: Inorganic Chemicals, Continued
MCLG1
(mg/L)2
MCL or
TT1
(mg/L)2
Chromium
(total)
0.1
0.1
Copper
1.3
TT8;
Action
Level=1.3
Contaminant
Potential Health
Effects from
Ingestion of Water
Sources of
Contaminant in
Drinking Water
Allergic dermatitis
Discharge from steel

and pulp mills; erosion of
natural deposits
Short term exposure:

Gastrointestinal
distress
Corrosion of household
plumbing systems;
erosion of natural
deposits
Long term exposure:

Liver or kidney damage
People with Wilson's
Disease should consult
their personal doctor if
the amount of copper in
their water exceeds the
action level
Cyanide (as free
cyanide)
0.2
0.2
Nerve damage or
thyroid problems
Discharge from
steel/metal factories;
discharge from plastic
and fertilizer factories
Fluoride
4.0
4.0
Bone disease (pain and

tenderness of the
bones); Children may
get mottled teeth
Water additive which

promotes strong teeth;
erosion of natural
fertilizer and aluminum
factories
7-9
CHAPTER 7
Technical Manual
Potable Water
MCLG1
(mg/L)2
MCL or
TT1
(mg/L)2
Potential Health
Effects from
Ingestion of Water
Sources of
Contaminant in
Drinking Water
Lead
zero
TT8;
Action
Level=0.015
Infants and children:

Delays in physical or
mental development;
children could show
slight deficits in
attention span and
learning abilities.
Adults: Kidney
problems; high blood
pressure
Corrosion of household
plumbing systems;
erosion of natural
deposits
Mercury
(inorganic)
0.002
0.002
Kidney damage
Erosion of natural
refineries and factories;
runoff from landfills and
croplands
10
10
Infants below the age of

six months who drink
water containing nitrate
in excess of the MCL
could become seriously
ill and, if untreated, may
die. Symptoms include
shortness of breath and
blue-baby syndrome.
Runoff from fertilizer

use; leaching from septic
tanks, sewage; erosion
of natural deposits
Contaminant
Nitrate
(measured as
Nitrogen)
7-10
CHAPTER 7
Technical Manual
Potable Water
MCLG1
(mg/L)2
MCL or
TT1
(mg/L)2
Selenium
Thallium
Contaminant
Nitrite (measured
as Nitrogen)
Potential Health
Effects from
Ingestion of Water
Sources of
Contaminant in
Drinking Water
Infants below the age of

six months who drink
water containing nitrite
in excess of the MCL
could become seriously
ill and, if untreated, may
die. Symptoms include
shortness of breath and
blue-baby syndrome.
Runoff from fertilizer

use; leaching from septic
tanks, sewage; erosion
of natural deposits
0.05
0.05
Hair or fingernail loss;

numbness in fingers or
toes; circulatory
problems
Discharge from
petroleum refineries;
erosion of natural
mines
0.0005
0.002
Hair loss; changes in

blood; kidney, intestine,
or liver problems
Leaching from oreprocessing sites;

discharge from
electronics, glass, and
drug factories
7-11
CHAPTER 7
Technical Manual
Potable Water
Table 1-5: Organic Chemicals
Potential
Health Effects
from
Ingestion of
Water
MCLG1
(mg/L)2
MCL or
TT1
(mg/L)2
Acrylamide
zero
TT9
Nervous system
or blood
problems;
increased risk of
cancer
Added to water during

sewage/wastewater
treatment
Alachlor
zero
0.002
Eye, liver,
kidney or spleen
problems;
anemia;
increased risk of
cancer
Runoff from herbicide

used on row crops
Atrazine
0.003
0.003
Cardiovascular
system or
reproductive
problems

used on row crops
Benzene
zero
0.005
Anemia;
decrease in
blood platelets;
increased risk of
cancer
Discharge from
factories; leaching from
gas storage tanks and
landfills
Benzo(a)pyrene (PAHs)
zero
0.0002
Reproductive
difficulties;
increased risk of
cancer
Leaching from linings of

water storage tanks and
distribution lines
Carbofuran
0.04
0.04
Problems with
blood, nervous
system, or
reproductive
system
Leaching of soil
fumigant used on rice
and alfalfa
Contaminant
7-12
Sources of
Contaminant in
Drinking Water
CHAPTER 7
Technical Manual
Potable Water
Table 1-5: Organic Chemicals, Continued
Potential
Health
Effects from
Ingestion of
Water
MCLG1
(mg/L)2
MCL or
TT1
(mg/L)2
Carbon
tetrachloride
zero
0.005
Liver problems;
increased risk
of cancer
Discharge from
chemical plants and
other industrial
activities
Chlordane
zero
0.002
Liver or
nervous
system
problems;
increased risk
of cancer
Residue of banned
termiticide
Chlorobenzene
0.1
0.1
Liver or kidney
problems
Discharge from
chemical and
agricultural chemical
factories
2,4-D
0.07
0.07
Kidney, liver, or
adrenal gland
problems

used on row crops
Dalapon
0.2
0.2
Minor kidney
changes

used on rights of way
1,2-Dibromo-3chloropropane (DBCP)
zero
0.0002
Reproductive
difficulties;
increased risk
of cancer
Runoff/leaching from
soil fumigant used on
soybeans, cotton,
pineapples, and
orchards
Contaminant
7-13
Sources of
Contaminant in
Drinking Water
CHAPTER 7
Technical Manual
Potable Water
Potential Health
Effects from
Ingestion of
Water
MCLG
(mg/L)2
MCL or
TT1
(mg/L)2
o-Dichlorobenzene
0.6
0.6
Liver, kidney, or
circulatory system
problems
Discharge from industrial

chemical factories
p-Dichlorobenzene
0.075
0.075
Anemia; liver,
kidney or spleen
damage; changes
in blood

chemical factories
1,2-Dichloroethane
zero
0.005
Increased risk of
cancer

chemical factories
1,1-Dichloroethylene
0.007
0.007
Liver problems

chemical factories
cis-1,2-Dichloroethylene
0.07
0.07
Liver problems

chemical factories
trans-1,2-Dichloroethylene
0.1
0.1
Liver problems

chemical factories
Dichloromethane
zero
0.005
Liver problems;
increased risk of
cancer
Discharge from drug and

chemical factories
1,2-Dichloropropane
zero
0.005
Increased risk of
cancer

chemical factories
Di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate
0.4
0.4
Weight loss, liver

problems, or
possible
reproductive
difficulties
Discharge from chemical

factories
Contaminant
7-14
Sources of
Contaminant in
Drinking Water
CHAPTER 7
Technical Manual
Potable Water
Contaminant
MCLG1
(mg/L)2
MCL or
TT1
(mg/L)2
Potential
Health Effects
from
Ingestion of
Water
Sources of
Contaminant in
Drinking Water
Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
zero
0.006
Reproductive
difficulties; liver
problems;
increased risk of
cancer
Discharge from rubber

and chemical factories
Dinoseb
0.007
0.007
Reproductive
difficulties

used on soybeans and
vegetables
Dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD)
zero
0.00000003
Reproductive
difficulties;
increased risk of
cancer
Emissions from waste

incineration and other
combustion; discharge
from chemical factories
Diquat
0.02
0.02
Cataracts

use
Endothall
0.1
0.1
Stomach and
intestinal
problems

use
Endrin
0.002
0.002
Liver problems
Residue of banned
insecticide
Epichlorohydrin
zero
TT9
Increased cancer
risk, and over a
long period of
time, stomach
problems

chemical factories; an
impurity of some water
treatment chemicals
7-15
CHAPTER 7
Technical Manual
Potable Water
Contaminant
MCLG1
(mg/L)2
MCL or
TT1
(mg/L)2
Potential
Health Effects
from
Ingestion of
Water
Sources of
Contaminant in
Drinking Water
Ethylbenzene
0.7
0.7
Liver or kidneys
problems
Discharge from
petroleum refineries
Ethylene dibromide
zero
0.00005
Problems with
liver, stomach,
reproductive
system, or
kidneys;
increased risk of
cancer
Discharge from
petroleum refineries
Glyphosate
0.7
0.7
Kidney
problems;
reproductive
difficulties

use
Heptachlor
zero
0.0004
Liver damage;
increased risk of
cancer
Residue of banned
termiticide
Heptachlor epoxide
zero
0.0002
Liver damage;
increased risk of
cancer
Breakdown of heptachlor
Hexachlorobenzene
zero
0.001
Liver or kidney
problems;
reproductive
difficulties;
increased risk of
cancer

refineries and agricultural
chemical factories
Hexachlorocyclopentadiene
0.05
0.05
Kidney or
stomach
problems
Discharge from chemical

factories
7-16
CHAPTER 7
Technical Manual
Potable Water
MCLG1
(mg/L)2
MCL or
TT1
(mg/L)2
0.0002
0.0002
Methoxychlor
0.04
Oxamyl (Vydate)
Contaminant
Lindane
Potential
Health Effects
from
Ingestion of
Water
Sources of
Contaminant in
Drinking Water
Liver or kidney
problems
insecticide used on
cattle, lumber, gardens
0.04
Reproductive
difficulties
insecticide used on fruits,
vegetables, alfalfa,
livestock
0.2
0.2
Slight nervous
system effects
insecticide used on
apples, potatoes, and
tomatoes
Polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs)
zero
0.0005
Skin changes;
thymus gland
problems;
immune
deficiencies;
reproductive or
nervous system
difficulties;
increased risk of
cancer
Runoff from landfills;

discharge of waste
chemicals
Pentachlorophenol
zero
0.001
Liver or kidney
problems;
increased cancer
risk
Discharge from wood

preserving factories
Picloram
0.5
0.5
Liver problems
Herbicide runoff
Simazine
0.004
0.004
Problems with
blood
Herbicide runoff
7-17
CHAPTER 7
Technical Manual
Potable Water
Contaminant
MCLG1
(mg/L)2
MCL or
TT1
(mg/L)2
Potential
Health Effects
from
Ingestion of
Water
Sources of
Contaminant in
Drinking Water
Styrene
0.1
0.1
Liver, kidney, or
circulatory
system problems
Discharge from rubber

and plastic factories;
leaching from landfills
Tetrachloroethylene
zero
0.005
Liver problems;
increased risk of
cancer
Discharge from factories

and dry cleaners
Nervous system,
kidney, or liver
problems
Discharge from
petroleum factories
Toxaphene
zero
0.003
Kidney, liver, or
thyroid problems;
increased risk of
cancer
insecticide used on
cotton and cattle
2,4,5-TP (Silvex)
0.05
0.05
Liver problems
Residue of banned
herbicide
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene
0.07
0.07
Changes in
adrenal glands
Discharge from textile

finishing factories
1,1,1-Trichloroethane
0.20
0.2
Liver, nervous
system, or
circulatory
problems

degreasing sites and
other factories
1,1,2-Trichloroethane
0.003
0.005
Liver, kidney, or
immune system
problems

chemical factories
Toluene
7-18
CHAPTER 7
Technical Manual
Potable Water
Contaminant
MCLG1
(mg/L)2
MCL or
TT1
(mg/L)2
Potential
Health Effects
from
Ingestion of
Water
Sources of
Contaminant in
Drinking Water
Trichloroethylene
zero
0.005
Liver problems;
increased risk of
cancer

degreasing sites and
other factories
Vinyl chloride
zero
0.002
Increased risk of
cancer
Leaching from PVC

pipes; discharge from
plastic factories
Xylenes (total)
10
10
Nervous system
damage
Discharge from
petroleum factories;
discharge from chemical
factories
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Table 1-6: Radionuclides
Contaminant
MCLG1
(mg/L)2
MCL or
TT1
(mg/L)2
Potential Health Effects

from Ingestion of Water
Sources of
Contaminant in
Drinking Water
Alpha particles
none7
15
---------- picocuries
zero
per Liter
(pCi/L)
Erosion of natural
deposits of certain
minerals that are
radioactive and may
emit a form of
radiation known as
alpha radiation
Beta particles
and photon
emitters
none7
---------zero
Decay of natural and

man-made deposits of
certain minerals that
are radioactive and
may emit forms of
radiation known as
photons and beta
radiation
Radium 226 and

Radium 228
(combined)
none7
---------zero
Uranium
zero
4
millirems
per year
5 pCi/L
Erosion of natural
deposits
30 ug/L Increased risk of cancer, kidney Erosion of natural

as of
toxicity
deposits
12/08/03
Notes
1
Definitions:
Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) - The highest level of a contaminant that is allowed in
drinking water. MCLs are set as close to MCLGs as feasible using the best available treatment
technology and taking cost into consideration. MCLs are enforceable standards.
Maximum Contaminant Level Goal (MCLG) - The level of a contaminant in drinking water
below which there is no known or expected risk to health. MCLGs allow for a margin of safety
and are non-enforceable public health goals.
Maximum Residual Disinfectant Level (MRDL) - The highest level of a disinfectant allowed in
drinking water. There is convincing evidence that addition of a disinfectant is necessary for
control of microbial contaminants.
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Maximum Residual Disinfectant Level Goal (MRDLG) - The level of a drinking water
disinfectant below which there is no known or expected risk to health. MRDLGs do not reflect
the benefits of the use of disinfectants to control microbial contaminants.
Treatment Technique - A required process intended to reduce the level of a contaminant in

drinking water.
2
Units are in milligrams per liter (mg/L) unless otherwise noted. Milligrams per liter are
equivalent to parts per million.
3
EPAs surface water treatment rules require systems using surface water or ground water
under the direct influence of surface water to: 1) disinfect their water, and 2) filter their water or
meet criteria for avoiding filtration so that the following contaminants are controlled at the
following levels:
Cryptosporidium: (as of 1/1/02 for systems serving >10,000 and 1/14/05 for systems
serving <10,000) 99 % removal
Giardia lamblia: 99.9 % removal/inactivation
Viruses: 99.99 % removal/inactivation
Legionella: No limit, but EPA believes that if Giardia and viruses are
removed/inactivated, Legionella will also be controlled
Turbidity: At no time can turbidity (cloudiness of water) go above 5 nephelolometric
turbidity units (NTU); systems that filter must ensure that the turbidity go no higher
than 1 NTU (0.5 NTU for conventional or direct filtration) in at least 95 % of the daily
samples in any month. As of January 1, 2002, turbidity may never exceed 1 NTU,
and must not exceed 0.3 NTU in 95 % of daily samples in any month.
HPC: No more than 500 bacterial colonies per milliliter.
Long Term 1 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment (Effective Date: January 14,
2005); Surface water systems or (GWUDI) systems serving fewer than 10,000
people must comply with the applicable Long Term 1 Enhanced Surface Water
Treatment Rule provisions (e.g. turbidity standards, individual filter monitoring,
Cryptosporidium removal requirements, updated watershed control requirements for
unfiltered systems).
Filter Backwash Recycling: The Filter Backwash Recycling Rule requires systems
that recycle to return specific recycle flows through all processes of the systems
existing conventional or direct filtration system or at an alternate location approved
by the state.
More than 5.0 % samples total coliform-positive in a month. (For water systems that collect
fewer than 40 routine samples per month, no more than one sample can be total coliformpositive per month.) Every sample that has total coliform must be analyzed for either fecal
coliforms or E. coli if two consecutive TC-positive samples, and one is also positive for E.coli
fecal coliforms, system has an acute MCL violation.
5
Fecal coliform and E. coli are bacteria whose presence indicates that the water may be
contaminated with human or animal wastes. Disease-causing microbes (pathogens) in these
wastes can cause diarrhea, cramps, nausea, headaches, or other symptoms. These pathogens
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may pose a special health risk for infants, young children and people with severely
compromised immune systems.
6
Although there is no collective MCLG for this contaminant group, there are individual MCLGs
for some of the individual contaminants:
Trihalomethanes: bromodichloromethane (zero); bromoform (zero);

dibromochloromethane (0.06 mg/L). Chloroform is regulated with this group but has
no MCLG.
Haloacetic acids: dichloroacetic acid (zero); trichloroacetic acid (0.3 mg/L).
Monochloroacetic acid, bromoacetic acid and dibromoacetic acid are regulated with
this group but have no MCLGs.
MCLGs were not established before the 1986 Amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act.
Therefore, there is no MCLG for this contaminant.
8
Lead and copper are regulated by a treatment technique that requires systems to control the
corrosiveness of their water. If more than 10 % of tap water samples exceed the action level,
water systems must take additional steps. For copper, the action level is 1.3 mg/L and for lead
is 0.015 mg/L.
9
Each water system must certify, in writing, to the state (using third-party or manufacturers
certification) that when acrylamide and epichlorohydrin are used in drinking water systems, the
combination (or product) of dose and monomer level does not exceed the levels specified, as
follows:
Acrylamide = 0.05 % dosed at 1 mg/L (or equivalent)

Epichlorohydrin = 0.01% dosed at 20 mg/L (or equivalent)
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1.1
Potable Water
National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations
National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations (NSDWRs or secondary standards)

shown in Table 1-7, are non-enforceable guidelines regulating contaminants that may
cause cosmetic effects (such as skin or tooth discoloration) or aesthetic effects (such as
taste, odor or color) in drinking water. EPA recommends secondary standards to water
systems, but does not require systems to comply. However, states may choose to adopt
them as enforceable standards.
Table 1-7: List of National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations
Contaminant
Secondary Standard
Aluminum
0.05 to 0.2 mg/L
Chloride
250 mg/L
Color
15 (color units)
Copper
1.0 mg/L
Corrosivity
noncorrosive
Fluoride
2.0 mg/L
Foaming Agents
0.5 mg/L
Iron
0.3 mg/L
Manganese
0.05 mg/L
Odor
3 threshold odor number
pH
6.5-8.5
Silver
0.10 mg/L
Sulfate
250 mg/L
Total Dissolved Solids
500 mg/L
Zinc
5 mg/L
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Pursuant to the Consumer Confidence Rule, once a year the public water utility
suppliers that serve some community water systems are required to distribute a drinking
water quality report (or Consumer Confidence Report) containing the following
information (40 CFR Part 141, Subpart O):
Facility pumping the water

Regulated substances
Disinfection level
Total organic carbon removed
Bacteria count from the distribution system
Tap water results for lead and copper
Other compounds measured in the distribution system
A sample water quality report is shown in Table 1-8.
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Table 1-8: Water Quality Report
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Water Sources
Water, in the process of falling rain and washing to the earth, will dissolve minerals,
gasses and liquids.
Part of the rainfall that percolates through the soil and rock strata eventually enters the
aquifer strata to become ground water. This ground water is commonly called well
water.
Other rainfall forms drainage pools and small streams that eventually swirl together to
form rivers and lakes. These bodies of water flow downhill at every opportunity until
they find their way to the sea. Collectively, the streams, rivers and lakes are called
surface waters.
Warm, dry air will evaporate the seawater and other surface waters to form clouds,
which will once again bring water back to the land to fall as rain.
All theses bodies of water differ in the type and amount of dissolved substances which
they carry. Thus, no two sources of water are identical.
Potable water, or water that is considered suitable for drinking and other domestic uses,
is referred to as municipal water. The US Geological Survey classifies ground or
surface waters by their hardness. Soft waters have hardness between 0 and 60 mg/L as
calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Moderately hard waters have hardness between 60 and
120 mg/L as CaCO3. Hard waters have hardness between 120 and 180 mg/L as
CaCO3. Very hard waters have hardness greater than 120 mg/L as CaCO3.
2.1
Water Quality
Pure water does not exist in nature. Water has a strong affinity for dissolving minerals
and other substances with which it comes in contact. This dissolving activity begins
when rain and snow fall to the earth and the water flows into streams or seeps into
underground strata.
Surface streams have little opportunity to pick up an appropriate amount of minerals,
but they tend to sweep away a lot of mud and silt, and therefore contain large amounts
of suspended solids.
Water that trickles through the earth has suspended material filtered out as it passes
through the ground, but it dissolves minerals such as calcium, magnesium and silica.
Water quality is judged by the type and level of dissolved material it contains. There are
many constituents that may be present in the water. Some of these constituents occur
in nature, and some are generated by human technology. Some of the more commonly
used parameters for measuring municipal water quality are:
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Suspended solids
Dissolved gases
Dissolved solids (minerals and organic matter)
Microorganisms
Most ground waters, or flowing surface waters generally contain:
Dissolved oxygen
High turbidity
Lower levels of hardness
Lakes, while they are similar to other surface waters, may have additional
characteristics:
They often have areas of restricted flow or shallow basins where slimy
masses of organisms can thrive.
They tend to have lower turbidity than streams because there is more
opportunity for the suspended solids to settle.
In comparison with surface waters, ground waters generally contain:
Higher alkalinity
Higher hardness
Greater concentrations of iron and manganese
In addition, dissolved solids from chemical spills and dumping can infiltrate surface
waters and ground waters. No water supply is ever totally free from the danger of this
type of contamination.
2.2
Water Chemistry
2.2.1 Description of Common Impurities

Water quality is judged by the types and concentration of constituents in the water.
There are many constituents that may be present in the water. Some of the more
commonly used parameters for measuring water quality are:
2.2.2 Suspended Solids
Suspended solids are materials dispersed in water that can be removed from the water
with filters. These materials often consist largely of tiny particles of mud, humus,
sewage and industrial waste products. Very fine suspended solids are called turbidity.
The Surface Water Treatment rule (SWTR) requires that drinking water should have
less than 0.5 mg/L turbidity in order to appear clear.
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2.2.3 Dissolved Gases

Dissolved gases are gases dispersed throughout a body of water. The most common
forms of dissolved gases present in water are oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
2.2.4 Dissolved Solids
Dissolved solids are soluble materials, other than gases, which are dispersed or
dissolved in water and cannot be removed by conventional filters. These materials
include minerals and organic substances. All waters contain varying concentrations of
dissolved salts that dissociate and form charged particles called ions. Dissolved solids
are commonly referred to as TDS or total dissolved solids.
2.2.5 Microorganisms
Microorganisms are tiny plants and animals that are difficult or impossible to detect
individually without a microscope. They include algae, beneficial bacteria which
decompose wastes, and harmful bacteria.
The largest public health impact of unsafe drinking water is diarrhea. The majority of
water-associated outbreaks of disease can be related back to the microbiological quality
of drinking water. These include infectious and parasitic diseases such as cholera,
typhoid, dysentery, hepatitis, giardiasis, guinea worm and schistosomiasis. Most strains
of bacteria are harmless. However, there are a number of viruses of concern including
Norwalk-like viruses (or small round structured viruses), which are the most common
cause of sporadic and epidemic viral gastroenteritis in adults. Other viruses include the
Hepatitis A virus, Enteroviruses, Rotaviruses and Adenoviruses. The most important
protozoan pathogens are Cryptosporidium and Giardia with the majority of recent
outbreaks of illness associated with drinking water being due to Cryptosporidium.
Cryptosporidium is a protozoan that can cause an acute form of gastroenteritis, known
as cryptosporidiosis, in humans and animals. The first diagnosed case of
cryptosporidiosis in humans was reported in 1976 and a number of high profile,
waterborne outbreaks of the disease has been reported since then. Contaminated
groundwater was suspected to be the cause of the first documented waterborne
outbreak of cryptosporidiosis at Braun Station, Texas in 1984. In 1993, Cryptosporidium
caused 400,000 people in Milwaukee to experience intestinal illness; 4,000 were
hospitalized and at least 50 deaths have been attributed to the disease.
Algae are photosynthetic organisms which range in size from 2 m to those large
enough to be seen by the naked eye. They thrive in an aquatic or moist environment
with a high nutrient availability, and they are ubiquitous in surface waters at low
concentrations. However, many surface waters suffer eutrophic conditions in that either
an influx of fertilizer or sewage effluent significantly increases the supply of nutrients
such that excessive algal growth occurs.
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2.2.6 pH
pH is a measurement of the hydrogen ion concentration of the water. The pH scale is
from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is considered neutral. pH below 7 are considered acidic and
above 7 are alkaline. pH is very important in water chemistry because it has a direct
affect on calcium solubility, the corrosion of the steel distribution system and the
homeowners copper system. For example, the higher the pH, the lower will be the
calcium solubility or the greater the scaling tendency of the water.
2.2.7 Solubility
Solubility refers to the amount of substance that can be dissolved in water. When the
solubility level of a compound is exceeded, precipitation or scale deposition may result.
2.2.8 Conductivity
Conductivity is a direct method of measuring the dissolved solids content of water by
measuring its ability to conduct an electrical current. The higher the dissolved solids
content, the higher the conductivity. Conductivity units are usually expressed as
microSiemen/cm (S/cm).
2.2.9 Common Impurities
Common Impurities normally found in potable water supplies are shown in Table 2-1.
Table 2-1 Common Impurities
Cations
Calcium, Ca2+
Magnesium, Mg2+
Sodium, Na+
Potassium, K+
Iron, Fe2+, Fe3+
Manganese,
Mn2+
Aluminum, Al3+
Arsenic, As+5
Lead, Pb+2
Zinc, Zn2+
Anions
Carbonate, CO32Chloride, ClSulfate, SO42Phosphate, PO43Nitrate, NO3Fluoride, FSilica, SiO2
Bicarbonate,
HCO3Sulfide, S2Hydroxide, OH-
2.2.10 Hardness
Hardness is a term originally used to describe the soap-consuming power of water.
Hardness is commonly defined as the concentration of calcium and magnesium salts in
water, expressed as calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Calcium hardness is a major problem
because it precipitates readily out of the water to form a layer of calcium carbonate
deposits on piping, tanks and other hot surfaces.
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2.2.11 Magnesium
Magnesium salts behave almost identically as calcium salts. The magnesium salts all
tend to have slightly greater solubilities than their calcium counterparts, and this,
coupled with the normally lower concentration of magnesium in potable waters, reduces
the amount of magnesium found in scale.
2.2.12 Alkalinity
Alkalinity is the measurement of OH- , CO32-, and HCO- anions in a water sample. At any
given pH, there will be a mixture of these three species. Alkalinity is very important in
water chemistry because it defines the corrosiveness or scale-forming tendency of the
water. Alkalinity and pH are related, but they are not the same.
2.2.13 Bicarbonate
Bicarbonate ions are very soluble in water and the reaction of calcium with bicarbonate
to form calcium bicarbonate is slow. As bicarbonate, there is little tendency for scaling.
However, the bicarbonate ion decomposes at high pH and/or high heat to yield
carbonate, so what starts as bicarbonate is detected as calcium carbonate. As calcium
carbonate, this salt is less soluble and can lead to deposition problems.
2.2.14 Carbonate
When a carbonate ion combines with calcium to form calcium carbonate, it is the least
soluble of all the calcium salts in potable waters. As a result, calcium carbonate
becomes the most serious and commonly encountered scale.
2.2.15 Hydroxide
Hydroxide refers to OH- radical alkalinity in water. OH- alkalinity does not exist at a pH
below 8.3.
2.2.16 Sodium/Potassium
Sodium and potassium ions are very soluble compounds in potable waters and cause
minimal, if any problems. Sodium ions can increase hypertension in humans and
therefore, their concentration must be restricted. This restriction can apply to hard
water that has been softened using a water softener (sodium cycle ion exchange).
2.2.17 Silica
Silica refers to silica dioxide (SiO2). Its common form is sand and it is the major
component in the manufacture of glass. Silica dissolves in water to form a very weakly
ionized species, silicic acid, that may be represented by the formula SiO22H2O. Silica
is a natural inhibitor in potable waters.
2.2.18 Iron
Surface water systems will usually contain less than 0.5 mg/L iron in a soluble form
(Fe2+), but may contain several mg/L of insoluble iron (Fe3+). Well waters may contain
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0.1 to 10 mg/L dissolved iron, as well as several mg/L of non-dissolved iron. Once the
well water reaches atmospheric oxygen, the dissolved iron will convert to insoluble iron,
producing red water.
The other source of iron originates from corrosion of steel surfaces. This iron comes
into solution as the ferrous ion and is rapidly converted to the ferric state in which it
becomes an insoluble particle.
2.2.19 Manganese
Manganese ions behave very much like iron ions. In surface waters, manganese can
be present in both a soluble (Mn2+) and insoluble form (MnO2), but the insoluble form is
much more likely to occur. The soluble form is more likely to occur in well waters that
are low in oxygen content. The insoluble manganese oxide is responsible for producing
black water. Manganese scale will usually be seen as a black film or coating on steel
surfaces.
2.2.20 Aluminum
Aluminum is not usually found in natural waters except at very low concentrations.
However, appreciable levels can enter the potable water system through the use of
alum [(Al)2(SO4)314H2O] used to facilitate clarification.
2.2.21 Fluoride
Fluoridation of potable waters has been practiced since 1945. It is added in small but
controlled amounts to lessen tooth decay. Optimal fluoride concentration in potable
waters is 1.0 mg/L. The most common methods of adding fluoride to the public water
works is through the addition of sodium fluoride (NaF), sodium silicofluoride (Na2SiF6),
or hydrofluosilicic acid (H2SiF6).
2.2.22 Lead
Lead is a metal found in natural deposits and in household plumbing. The greatest
exposure to lead is swallowing or breathing in lead paint chips and dust. Lead is
rarely found in source waters. It is also known to enter drinking water through the
corrosion of plumbing materials. Lead can cause a variety of adverse health effects.
In babies and children, exposure to lead in potable water above the action level of
0.015 mg/L at the consumers tap can result in delays in physical and mental
development, along with slight deficits in attention span and learning abilities. In
adults, it can cause increases in hypertension, and if consumed over many years,
can lead to kidney problems.
2.2.23 Arsenic
Arsenic is a silver-grey brittle crystalline solid and is found in many rock-forming
minerals. It can also be present in many water sources, typically where water has
flowed through arsenic-rich rocks. If ingested, arsenic can lead to skin disorders
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including hyper/hypopigmentation changes, keratosis and skin cancer. The characteristic chemical features of the high-arsenic ground waters are high iron, manganese,
bicarbonate and often phosphorus concentrations. The maximum contaminate level
(enforceable) for arsenic in potable water is 0.05 mg/L.
2.2.24 Nitrate
Nitrate is increasingly polluting ground and surface waters primarily as a result
of diffuse pollution from agricultural fertilizers. Nitrate is an oxidized inorganic
contaminant which is very soluble in water. Health problems associated with nitrate
appeared in the 1940s where infants who had ingested high nitrate water had
developed methaemoglobinaemia (blue-baby syndrome). The maximum
contaminate level (enforceable) for nitrate in potable water is 10 mg/L measured as N.
2.2.25 Zinc
Zinc may be present in potable waters as a component of the corrosion inhibitor
program. Orthophosphate is also often present in potable waters from the treatment
chemicals.
These two combine to form zinc phosphate. Zinc phosphates solubility decreases as
the pH and temperature increases. Therefore, when using both zinc and
orthophosphate, it is important to control pH to avoid precipitation. Zinc phosphate salt
is extremely insoluble, as is the compound zinc hydroxide. The secondary maximum
contaminate level for zinc in potable water is 2 mg/L. The maximum contaminate
level for phosphate is 10 mg/L as PO4. The zinc concentration overrides the PO4
concentration.
2.2.26 Sulfide
Sulfides accelerate corrosion by reacting with metal piping surfaces to form nonprotective insoluble metal sulfides. It attacks iron, copper and galvanized steel piping to
produce black water even though oxygen is absent.
2.2.27 Organics
Low concentration (mg/L range) organic compounds are commonly found in surface
waters. These organics generally come from decaying organic material such as tenants
and vary seasonally in concentration. These compounds are usually negatively
charged and therefore are removed through clarification. Organics can be very difficult
to measure and/or identify. Organic loading can be determined by measuring Total
Organic Carbon (TOC), and inferred by monitoring turbidity.
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Raw Water Clarification
Raw water clarification is the chemical and physical treatment of naturally occurring
waters for the removal of suspended solids, colloidal particles and dissolved
materials, which render the water hazardous or objectionable for use as potable
water.
Potable water must be purified through clarification to eliminate contaminants, which
cause:
Taste and odor
Color
Hazy appearance
Water-borne disease
Excessive hardness
Corrosion of distribution system
The specific equipment and chemicals required for clarification are dependent on the
source of the water and the nature of the contaminants.
Naturally occurring waters contain a broad range of impurities such as suspended
particles, colloidal color bodies, and dissolved organic and inorganic compounds. The
quantity and ratio of these compounds varies with the specific source of the water, and
may also vary significantly from season to season, or even from day to day.
The most common sources of raw water are surface waters such as lakes and rivers,
and ground water from wells.
In general, river waters contain the most variable source of water, as they consist
of a moving body of water which can keep much of the suspended material in
suspension. As the river travels farther from its origin, more suspended matter, as well
as contributions from tributaries, may be picked up. River waters are also prone to
short term fluctuations in the amount of solids due to rain water run-off.
In contrast, the long residence time of a lake allows the majority of settleable
solids to drop out. The natural process leaves the water lower in suspended solids and
the remaining solids with very low particle size. Some lakes are very prone to seasonal
color problems due to algae formation during the summer months or from the decay of
fallen leaves during the winter months. Lakes can also be affected by rain causing
short-term increases in turbidity.
Well waters are typically low in suspended solids, although they may contain sufficient
iron and manganese to impart color and turbidity to the water. Well waters are also
higher in dissolved minerals than many surface waters. Seasonal changes in
well water quality may be related to the fluctuations in the depth of the water table,
although short term effects from rain water run-off are less pronounced.
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The process of raw water clarification involves both physical and chemical treatments of
a water source for the removal of these impurities.
Although each of these processes uses different purity standards, a water treatment
plant may be required to supply water from a single clarification process.
Therefore, the finished water quality would have to meet the standards of the most
demanding process.
Raw water clarifiers are designed to remove two categories of impurities from the influent
water source:
Suspended solids, which range in size from coarse silt to very small particles such
as bacteria and colloidal silica
Color bodies, which may consist of colloidal or dissolved organic and inorganic
compounds
Suspended solids in water are usually measured as turbidity, which is an index of the ability of
particles in the water to scatter light, causing a hazy appearance.
Color in water is measured as the amount of light which is absorbed by the water,
usually at a specific wavelength.
It is quite possible for a specific water to be high in color and low in turbidity or vice
versa. In addition, a raw water source will contain dissolved organic and inorganic
compounds which are not typically removable during clarification, but may be addressed
by additional treatment steps following the clarifiers.
There is a class of polymers called polyelectrolytes that are used to aid in various
liquid/solids separation applications. A polyelectrolyte is a polymer producing highly
charged ions. There are three types of polyelectrolytes:
Cationic: Positively charged polymers
Anionic: Negatively charged polymers
Neutral: Containing both cationic and anionic sites on the polymer
Cationic polymers are polyelectrolytes that produce positively charged ions when
dissolved in water. Cationic polymers are widely used because most suspended
colloidal solids are negatively charged.
Anionic polymers are polyelectrolytes that produce negatively charged ions when
dissolved in water. These polymers are primarily used with aluminum and iron
coagulants.
Neutral polymers are polyelectrolytes that are balanced or neutral in charge. Upon
dissolving in water they release both positive and negative charged ions.
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All three types of polyelectrolytes can be used to aid in various liquid/solids separation
applications.
3.1
Theory of Flocculation and Coagulation
Removal of suspended contaminants from water streams is a necessary step to the

achievement of economic and environmental objectives. Water turbidity (suspended
solids) in nature generally results from colloidal clay dispersion, and most of the natural
color comes from decayed wood, leaves (tannins, lignins, etc.,) and organic soil matter.
In addition to these contaminants, there are viruses, algae, bacteria, starches, metal
oxides, oils and other pollutants that can significantly increase the levels of suspended
solids.
Many of these same materials - pigments, tannins, lignins, metal oxides, oils, starches
and bacteria cells are also found in industrial waste waters, and the concentration is
nearly always higher than in natural waters.
Because of the similarity of solids in some natural water streams, the same basic
factors apply to their removal. They are:
3.2
Particle charge and degree of hydration

Particle size
Concentration
Contaminant ratios
Particle Charge
Most solids present in water are negatively charged. This charge is electrostatic in
nature, and the degree of charge depends upon the types of solids and the electrolytic
environment. When a colloidal particle is dispersed in water, it can ionize, absorb and
attract low molecular weight ions to its surface. Most of these adsorbed counter ions
are held tightly to the colloidal surface (Stern layer). The remainder will be attracted to
the particle and extend into the solution (diffuse layer or Gouy-Chapman layer) until
electroneutrality is established, as shown in Figure 3-1.
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Figure 3-1: Double layer theory-Gouy and Stern

The net negative charge exhibited by colloidal particles is the strongest force inhibiting
their removal. It is the interparticle repulsion that prevents colloids from colliding and
forming larger masses. By particle or complete neutralization of this surface charge,
colloids can collide through Brownian motion and mixing, and can be attracted to each
other by hydrogen bonding and Van der Waals forces of attraction, enabling them to
form larger masses.
When considering charge and its effect on colloidal removal, it is of equal importance to
consider the degree of hydration of the colloid. Particles that strongly absorb water
(hydrophilic) are much harder to remove than solids that do not hydrate (hydrophobic).
Colloidal clay and metal oxide dispersion are examples of hydrophilic colloids. Colloidal
material, starches, and certain industrial organic pollutants are examples of hydrophilic
colloids.
Natural color in surface water can be either hydrophobic or hydrophilic depending upon
its molecular weight and the degree of ionization. So, also, can oil and water
emulsions, depending upon particle size and the quantity and ionic character of the
emulsifier.
3.3
Particle Size
Suspended solids in water can vary in size from 1x10-6 to 0.1 mm (0.001 to 100
microns) in diameter as shown in Table 3-1.
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Table 3-1: Particle Size vs. Time to Settle

Particle size (mm)
Order of Size
Time to Settle
Diameter (mm)
1.0
Coarse Sand
3 Seconds
0.1
Fine Sand
38 Seconds
0.01
Silt
33 minutes
0.001
Bacteria
55 Hours
0.0001
Colloidal
230 Days
0.00001
Colloidal
6.3 Years
As the particle size for a given suspension decreases, removal becomes more difficult
because charge has more effect on the smaller particles. When the solids are large, the
ratio between the mass and surface charge is large, indicating that there is insufficient
surface charge to cause interparticle repulsion.
Through collision, bonding and physical forces, these particles can coalesce to a size
more suitable for removal. As the particles get smaller, the mass-to-surface charge
ratios decrease to the point where surface charges are sufficient to cause interparticle
repulsion, preventing coalescence.
3.4
Concentration
As the solids in water increase, the chemical coagulant dosage required to remove the
solids increases proportionately. However, this only applies to small order of magnitude
increases. If solids increase substantially, the amount and/or the type of chemical
needed to produce the most effective results may change significantly.
This change occurs because, at lower concentrations, the distance separating the
negative colloids is sufficiently large that interparticle repulsion inhibits removal. A
cationic material will neutralize these repulsion forces. As solids concentration
increases, the distance between colloids is reduced so that they are in proximity to each
other. In this case, the interparticle repulsion forces have been dampened by
concentration, and a chemical that can bridge this distance may be all that is required
for effective removal.
3.5
Contaminant Ratios
Theoretically, the removal of turbidity, color, oil, etc. can be examined separately to
determine the most economical removal method. However, from a practical standpoint,
water streams are composed of many different and varying contaminants. To develop
an effective treatment method it is important that an investigation be undertaken for their
combined removal.
3.6
Removal Mechanisms
By understanding the nature of suspended solids present in potable waters and the four
major factors that affect their removal, the mechanisms that take place when removal
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occurs can also be better understood. Colloidal solids removal can be achieved by any
of the following steps:
Destabilization
Microfloc formation
Agglomeration
Physical entrapment
To coalesce colloids, the interparticle repulsion forces must be neutralized. Certain
cationic chemicals can be used to decrease the net negative charge. This is
destabilization, as shown by Figure 3-2.
Figure 3-2: Microfloc and macrofloc formation

In a hydrophilic colloidal system where colloids are strongly hydrated, it may be
necessary to add a chemical that not only neutralizes surface charge, but also forms an
insoluble complex with the colloid.
Once the colloids have been destabilized, collisions can occur. Through chemical
bridging, hydrogen bonding, and Van der Waals forces of attraction, these particles can
then form small microflocs. Continued mixing enables the microflocs to combine to form
macrofloc.
Not all colloids undergo destabilization, microfloc formation and agglomeration. A
portion of the colloids are removed by being physically entrapped in macroflocs already
formed.
These first three steps are known by the familiar terms of coagulation and flocculation.
Coagulation involves destabilization, but does include microfloc formation resulting from
interparticle bridging, and macrofloc formation caused by agglomeration. A simplified
flow diagram is schematically shown in Figure 3-3.
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Figure 3-3: Coagulation and flocculation flow diagram

There are a variety of chemicals used to coagulate and flocculate suspended matter.
Most of these chemicals can be placed in two groups: inorganic coagulants and organic
polyelectrolytes.
3.7
Inorganic Coagulants
Most widely used inorganics are the di- and tri-valent metal salts of calcium, aluminum
and iron. The principal difference between calcium, aluminum and iron salts is their
hydrolysis products. When calcium salts are added to water, calcium ions are formed.
When aluminum or iron salts are added, they form trivalent metal complexes with water.
These complexes contain a number of repeating metal ion units and can more properly
be referred to as polyaluminum hydrates or polyferric hydrates. Polymetal hydrates of
significant length have been reported. They are cationic and can destabilize a colloidal
suspension. They also have a sufficient chain length to bridge the distance between
particles. In addition, their strong hydrogen bonding ability enables them to form large
macroflocs that can trap other stable colloids.
Other inorganic coagulants that have wide application are bentonite clays and activated
silica. These products are used in conjunction with other inorganics such as calcium,
aluminum and iron salts. Bentonite clay acts as a nucleus for floc formation and can
also function as a weighting agent. Activated silica functions mostly as a flocculant
improving macrofloc formation initiated with other inorganic coagulants. Table 3-2 lists
common inorganic coagulants used in potable water.
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Table 3-2: Common Inorganic Coagulants Used in Potable Water

Common Name
Chemical Formula
Comments
Aluminum sulfate
Al2(SO4)314H2O
Most common coagulant;
often used with cation
polymers
Ferric chloride
FeCl3
May be more effective
than alum in some
applications
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3
Often used with lime
softening
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)37H2O
Less pH dependent than
alum
Aluminum polymers
Includes polyaluminum
chloride and
polyaluminum sulfate
Cationic polymers
Synthetic
polyelectrolytes; large
positively charged
molecules
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4
Used with alum to
improve coagulation
Sodium silicate
Na2O(SiO)x
X can range from 0.5 to
4.0; ingredient of
activated silica; coagulant
aid
When the coagulants are added to water, a series of complex hydrolysis reactions
occur. When the coagulants contain A1 3+ or Fe3+ , which are highly charged counterions, for most particles these species only exist under acidic conditions of low pH. At
the range of normal water pHs these ions react to give various hydrolysis products
such as Al(OH)2+ and A1 13 O 4 (OH) 12 7+ , which can strongly adsorb on negative
particles and so reduce the particle charge in this way. In most cases, precipitation of
insoluble hydroxides, Al(OH)3 and Fe(OH)3 also occurs.
Al2(SO4)3 14H2O Al(H2O)63+
Al(OH)(H2O)52+
A113O4 (OH)247+
Al(OH)3(s) Al(OH)4Precipitation of hydroxides also plays a key role in flocculation. Large numbers of
colloidal hydroxide particles are produced which flocculate to form gelatinous flocs,
which then enmesh most of the original particles in the water. This is the sweep
flocculation mechanism and is very important when the particle concentration is quite
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low, such as, for low turbidity waters. Under these conditions, particle collision rates
are low and hence flocculation, even for fully destabilized particles, would be slow.
The formation of many new particles (hydroxide precipitates) gives considerable
enhancement to the flocculation rate. The charge neutralization of stable particles
is rapid and can be achieved at quite low coagulant dosages, but the dosage
should be proportional to the contaminant concentration. Sweep flocculation should
occur at higher dosages and is much slower, but the required dosage should not be
greatly dependent on particle concentration.
The different mechanisms outlined above have led to the definition of four zones of
coagulant dosage, with the following consequences for negatively charged particles:
Zone 1: Very low coagulant dosage; particles still negative and hence, stable
Zone 2: Dosage sufficient to give charge neutralization and hence, coagulation
Zone 3: Higher dosage giving charge neutralization and restabilization
Zone 4: Still higher dosage giving hydroxide precipitate and sweep

flocculation
Synthetic organic flocculants (polyelectrolytes) consist of long-chain macromolecules.

These macromolecules possess electrical charges or ionizable groups. The molecular
weights are in the range of 106 - 107, enabling them to attain remarkable performance
levels compared to natural polymers. Figures 3-4 to 3-6 show the various charged
polymers.
Figure 3-4: anionic polymer
Figure 3-5: Neutral polymer
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Figure 3-6: Cationic polymer

Where R in Figure 3-6 = H, or CH3.
3.8
Factors Which Affect the Coagulation and Flocculation Processes
The Nature of the Suspended Matter

3.8.1 Particle Size: Settling velocity is directly related to the effective size of the
particles, as shown in Table 3-1. In addition, the ratio of surface area to mass
i n c r e a s e s dramatically as particle size decreases. As primary coagulants are
absorbed to the surface of the solids, a high surface area solid will require a high
dosage for charge neutralization.
3.8.2 Particle Density: The mutually attractive force between particles is governed by
the mass of the particles. A denser solid has greater mass per unit of size, so the
attractive force is also greater.
Also, as water density will vary with temperature, the density differential between the
solids and the water will change, as well. Low density solids may be unsettleable under
cold water conditions.
3.8.3 Particle Charge: The strength of the anionic surface charge determines the
degree of repulsion between particles. As this charge is on the surface of the particles,
a high surface area suspension may have more demand for charge destabilization.
Particle Concentration: The more particles in suspension, the closer the particles are to
each other. This allows for a greater chance of interparticle contact. This promotes
efficient separation, as particle contact is a critical step in coagulation and flocculation.
Very low solids water is more difficult to coagulate as the chance of interparticle
collisions is remote, even under strong mixing conditions.
3.8.4 Water Characteristics
Temperature
The viscosity of water is a function of temperature and is a primary variable in the
settling velocity of a particle. Viscosity also alters the amount of mixing energy imparted
by a mixing device. As viscosity increases, mixing energy is reduced.
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pH and Ionic Content

The performance of primary coagulants is often affected by the pH and alkalinity of the
water. Alum functions best at a pH of 5.5 to 6.5. However, in many cases, the optimum
alum dosage will drive the pH below the optimum range and will require the addition of
caustic soda to raise the pH to an optimum performance value.
Other ions in solution can also affect the performance of coagulants. High chlorination
levels can affect the performance of some polymers.
3.9
Treatment Process
3.9.1 Chemical Dosages

Primary coagulant dosage is the amount of charge reduction chemical which is added to
reduce the surface charge on the particles and bring about coagulation. Too little
dosage will result in incomplete coagulation that coagulates only a portion of the solids.
Too high a dosage will result in cationic charge dispersion which restabilizes the
suspension.
pH Adjustment may be required for inorganic primary coagulants to assure the optimum
pH for their precipitation as a metal hydroxide. This adds solids to the suspension,
which aid in providing interparticle contact and entrapment of the particles. If the pH is
out of the optimum range, the inorganic species will be soluble, resulting in carryover
and incomplete coagulation.
3.9.2 Coagulant Aid
The addition of a polymeric bridging agent can bind coagulated flocs together resulting
in larger, denser floc and improved fines capture.
3.9.3 Order of Addition
Each reagent added for the purpose of coagulation and flocculation has a specific
function to perform. It is important that each reagent be allowed to function in the
manner it was designed to perform in the right sequence. A coagulant aid should not be
added until the primary coagulant has succeeded in forming microflocs. Otherwise it
may interfere with the initial coagulation resulting in incomplete coagulation.
pH adjustment chemicals can be added before or a f t e r a n i n o r g a n i c p r i m a r y
c o a g u l a n t , b u t sufficient time must be allowed for the first to fully mix in before the
second one is added.
3.9.4 Mixing Energy
The strength and duration of mixing is important to optimum coagulation. A period of
high energy mixing is required to fully disperse the primary coagulants evenly
throughout the suspension. This allows for charge neutralization of all the particles in the
suspension. This period of high energy mixing is also required to bring about
interparticle collisions, which promotes coagulation.
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The high energy mixing is then followed by a period of low energy mixing, which allows
for continued particle contact, building large settleable floc. If the low energy mixing is
of too high an energy level, the flocs will be sheared, limiting their size and settling
velocity.
Once a large settleable floc is formed, it must be handled gently and allowed to settle. If
it is subjected to a period of turbulence, the floc may be sheared apart into smaller floc,
reducing its settling rate.
3.9.5 Sedimentation Time
The purpose of coagulation and flocculation is to increase the settling velocity of very
small particles by bringing them together into flocs, which have a larger effective
diameter and so a higher settling velocity. Once this is accomplished, the flocs are
permitted to settle out in the sedimentation basin, allowing clarified water to pass on.
3.9.6 Filtration
Following sedimentation, some small particles may remain in suspension. These are
often removed by passing the water through sand filters, which capture the remaining
floc.
In some cases, filtration will directly follow the coagulation step if the solids
concentration of the water is fairly low.
3.10
Typical Clarification Equipment Design
Clarification equipment designs vary, but systems may incorporate most of all the
following steps:
1. A pump and influent piping to transfer water from the source to the clarifier
2. Chlorination, powdered carbon, or permanganate feed for organic and biological
control
3. Primary coagulant addition in an area of high energy mixing to coagulate solids
4. pH adjustment chemical to replace alkalinity lost to the coagulant chemical
5. A period of low energy mixing for floc development
6. Coagulant aid addition to build large settleable floc
7. A period of settling to separate the solids from the water
8. A rake to scrape solids to a hopper for removal from the bottom of the unit
9. Overflow weirs to remove clarified water from the surface of the settling area
10. Filters to remove remaining fine particles
11. A holding tank or clearwell to provide a reservoir of clarified water
12. Additional chlorination and pH adjustment for biological and corrosion control
Raw water clarifier design falls into two major categories:
Conventional
Solids Contact
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3.10.1 Conventional Clarifiers

Conventional clarifiers are designed to provide turbidity removal by dividing the
treatment into stages:
1. Initially, raw water is drawn from the source through a pumping station. At this
time, prechlorination may take place for biological control and to degrade
organics.
2. As the flow is pumped to the clarifier, primary coagulants will be added to bring
about particle charge destabilization and initiate coagulation. This may take
place in a flash mix chamber with a high energy mixer to rapidly disperse and
agitate the water and chemicals. If a specific chamber is not provided, chemicals
may be added in line into a turbulent influent stream or in conjunction with a
static mixer.
In either case, the desired result is to rapidly mix the chemical throughout the water and
allow initial coagulation to take place.
The flocculation zone is next. This is designed to provide for low energy mixing to allow
interparticle contact to build the floc to a size which will settle well. The flocculation
zone will often consist of a basin which contains a series of slowly churning paddle
mixers. Mixing energy will usually decrease as the flow passes through the flocculators.
In some plants, rather than use mechanical flocculation, the flow will pass through a
channel which will cause it to pass over and under a series of baffles. As the water
progresses through the channel, the baffles will be spaced further apart to reduce
mixing rate, allowing floc size to build.
If a coagulant aid is required, it will be added at the inlet of the flocculators. As the flow
leaves the flocculators, it should contain large, well formed floc which has captured the
turbidity. The flow will then enter a sedimentation basin to permit the dense floc to settle
out of the water. The sedimentation basin must be large enough to allow sufficient time
for the floc to be deposited on the bottom of the clarifier before the flow leaves the
basin. Although this may only require a retention time of 2 to 4 hours, some
sedimentation basins will provide for 12 or even 24 hours of holding time.
It is important that the flow leaving the flocculators and entering the sedimentation is not
agitated, as this would break up the floc and slow down the settling rate. Also, the flow
must be uniform and laminar to make full use of the settling volume.
Clarified water will then be discharged from the settling basin. In many cases, the flow
will be filtered to remove residual turbidity prior to entering a clearwell. If the pH has
been driven down by an inorganic coagulant, it may be adjusted at the clearwell. In
addition, additional chlorine may be added to assure biological control through the
distribution system and corrosion control chemicals may also be added at the clearwell.
The size of the clearwell is important to the control of the clarifiers as clarifier flow rate is
often adjusted to maintain the water level. If the clearwell is small, a change in the water
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consumption in the plant can result in an instant flow surge to the clarifier, which can
cause a short term upset.
Another aspect of the operation is the removal of settled solids from the settling basins.
This may be accomplished on a regular basis through the use of a bottom sludge
scraper and sludge discharge pump. In other cases the sludge is removed on an
intermittent basis by taking a basin out of service and washing the sludge down a drain
to be disposed of. Sludge removal is an important operation as a buildup of solids will
reduce the effective volume of the basin, shortening the settling time.
The sludge which is removed from the basins must be disposed of and will often be
dewatered to reduce the volume prior to disposal. Conventional water clarifiers are very
effective at providing for chemical coagulation of turbid waters. Due to their reliance on
long settling periods for solids removal, they require a large area of land being taken up
for flocculators, settling basins, filters and a clearwell. Where the land area is available,
conventional clarifiers are cost-efficient for chemical usage and require minimal operator
involvement. Figures 3-7 to 3-10 are examples of typical clarifiers.
Figure 3-7: Schematic of horizontal flow clarifiers in

(a) horizontal and (b) radial configuration
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Figure 3-8: Schematic of lamella plate clarifier
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Figure 3-9: Schematic of floc blanket clarifier

(a) hopper bottom and (b) flat bottom
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Figure 3-10: Schematic of a Pulsator clearifier

3.10.2 Solids Contact Clarifiers
Where land area is at a premium, it becomes desirable to clarify water in a much
smaller space. This can be accomplished in a solids contact clarifier which can produce
excellent finished water quality in one-third the area of a conventional clarifier. This is
possible because a solids contact clarifier has the ability to form a larger, denser floc
than a conventional clarifier by bringing the influent solids into contact with a slurry of
previously treated solids. This increases the number of interparticle contacts
significantly, resulting in efficient turbidity removal.
A solids contact clarifier incorporates a flocculation zone and sedimentation basin in one
structure, but may also make use of a pumping station, flash mixing, filters, clearwell
and sludge disposal in the same manner as a conventional clarifier. A number of solids
contact designs are in use, but most of them are variations on two basic types:
Upflow blanket clarifiers

Solids recycle clarifiers
An upflow blanket clarifier will initially provide for coagulation and flocculation in a
central mixing chamber. This typically consists of a cone or bell shaped hood which is
suspended in the center of the clarifier. The flow must then pass out from under the
hood and rise up to the surface of the clarifier where it is collected in the effluent
launders.
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However, as the flow leaves the hood it will encounter a slurry of previously treated
solids, which will provide for a high amount of interparticle contacts with the flocculated
turbidity. This increases the density of the floc and ultimately incorporates it into the
slurry or sludge blanket.
As the flow rises upward toward the surface, the flow velocity or rise rate is slowed
down due to the geometry of the clarifier. This allows the sludge blanket to separate
from the hydraulic flow of the water as the settling velocity of the floc reaches
equilibrium with the rise rate of the water. Below this level the slurry is maintained in
suspension by the flow of the water, while above this level the water is moving too slow
to carry the floc any higher. This can result in a very well defined interface between the
slurry and the clarified water.
As the hydraulic loading changes, the blanket level will adjust itself to a new equilibrium
level. As long as this level does not change too quickly, or if it is not below the level of
the hood, the unit can absorb some flow fluctuations.
Although a sludge blanket is built up from previously treated solids, the total amount of
solids must be maintained within narrow limits to assure stable operation. Therefore,
sludge solids are discharged regularly to maintain equilibrium. Effectively, the same
amount of solids must be blown down from the unit as are added from the influent
solids, as well as any chemical solids which are added. Many of these units incorporate
a sludge concentrator section into which a portion of the sludge blanket is allowed to
settle. This section is then emptied occasionally by opening a valve which allows the
solids to be discharged. Another design allows excess solids to accumulate in a hopper
at the bottom of the unit for discharge.
Solids recycle clarifiers also use slurry of previously treated floc to provide for increased
particle contact. However, it takes the process one step further by drawing a portion of
the sludge blanket into the reaction hood so it is in contact with the influent solids during
the flocculation stage. This provides for more vigorous particle contact and a very
efficient turbidity removal.
To recycle the solids into the reaction hood, many clarifiers make use of a turbine pump
in a draft tube, which draws slurry from the bottom of the clarifier up through the draft
tube and into contact with the influent water. The slurry and influent water then mix in
the reaction hood to drive the reaction. Many of these units have a slurry pumping rate
which is greater than the influent flow rate so the slurry is cycling around through the
reaction zone at a high rate.
Large recycle clarifiers will use a bottom sludge rake to drive the slurry toward the
turbine so it can be drawn up into the reaction zone. As the flow and slurry leave the
reaction hood, they may encounter a hydraulically suspended blanket in the same
manner as in an upflow blanket clarifier. However, due to the high flocculation
efficiency, it is less dependent on the action of this sludge bed for turbidity capture.
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In fact, some solids recycle clarifiers discharge the flow and slurry in such a way that the
flow does not pass up through a blanket at all. As the flow leaves the reaction hood, the
slurry drops to the bottom of the unit to be recycled while the clarified water rises up and
out of the unit through the effluent launders.
As with the upflow blanket clarifiers, it is necessary to discharge excess sludge regularly
to maintain stable operation. In addition, the operation of a solids recycle clarifier
requires a balance between slurry recycle rates and sludge blanket inventory as the
efficiency of the reaction is dependent on the solids to strip turbidity out of the influent
water. For this reason, solids contact clarifiers will typically require a greater operator
involvement than a conventional clarifier.
3.10.3 Dissolved Air Flotation
Dissolved air flotation (DAF) is a process for the removal of particles/flocs by making
the solid particles float rather than sink, as in clarification. The process functions
by attaching air bubbles to particles so as to reduce the density of the combined bubble
- particle agglomerate. When the density is reduced to below that of water, the
particles rise to the surface where sludge accumulates and can be removed by
skimming. The more bubbles that are attached per particle, the faster the particle
will rise and subsequently the higher the loading rate at which the process can be
operated. The success of the process depends on two factors:
1.) Generation of enough bubbles and
2.) Conditions under which the bubbles and particles stick together
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A typical DAF plant is split into two key components as shown in Figure 3-11.
Figure 3-11: Schematic of a dissolved flotation unit

The flotation unit serves to separate the particle - bubble agglomerates from the water
and the saturator dissolves air into water under an elevated pressure, which is
typically 60 - 120 psi. Pressure saturated water is introduced into the flotation unit
through a valve or nozzle that reduces the pressure very quickly. This causes the
excess saturated gas to precipitate as tiny bubbles of 30-80 m in diameter. The
water is taken from the clarified outlet such that a partial recycle occurs. The ratio
of flow from the saturator to the feed is a key operational variable, known as the
recycle ratio (R). Immediately after the nozzle/reducing valve, the saturator feed
is mixed with the incoming feed water. The precipitated bubbles stick to the particles
and the bubble - particle agglomerates rise to the water level and accumulate as a
float. The difference in density between the float layer and the water lifts part of the
float above the water level. Interstitial water from this part of the float drains, therefore
increasing the solids concentration. At predetermined time intervals the float layer
becomes too large and is removed by skimming or hydraulic lift.
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Filtration
After the raw water has been treated in a clarifier, it is passed through filters to further
remove the remaining suspended solids. Since some upsets always occur in clarifiers,
the filters are installed downstream of the clarifier unit to entrap the carried particulate
matter.
Water filtration is a physicochemical process for separating suspended and colloidal
impurities from water by passage through a bed of granular media. Filtration is
comprised of three principal mechanisms:
1. Transport mechanisms, which move the particles through the voids in the filter
media so that they come in contact with the surface of the filter media or the
existing deposit
2. Attachment mechanism, by which the transported particles adhere to the surface
of the filter media or the existing deposit
3. Detachment mechanism, created by the hydrodynamic forces of the water
flowing through the filter bed. These forces detach certain parts of the previously
adhered particles, which are less strongly linked to the filter media or previous
deposits. The detached particles then move further into or through the filter.
The interrelationship of the clarifier process upstream of the filters shows up very
strongly in the performance of the filtration process. If the operation of the clarifiers is
carried out poorly, the colloids will pass through the best of filters. If the quality of the
incoming water is such that the floc particles have little resistance to shear stresses, floc
will penetrate completely through the filters. If any of these pretreatment processes
cause large quantities of strong floc to reach the filters, there may be little floc
penetration into the filters and very short filter runs will result.
4.1
Types of Filtration Systems
4.2
Direct Filtration
The gravity type filter is most commonly used in potable water systems. The filtering
media usually consists of the following:
Sand
Anthracite coal
Dual Media (coal + sand)
Mixed Media (coal + sand + garnet)
These media are usually supported by different grades of gravel or very coarse
anthracite. These supporting layers are called subfill. The suspended matter is
entrapped within the voids of the filtering media grains. The accumulating load of
suspended particulate matter causes an increasing loss of pressure during the filter run.
When this loss reaches a predetermined limit, the filter is taken off line for cleaning. The
filter is then cleaned by "back-washing" or reversing the flow from the bottom. By
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backwashing, the suspended matter is washed out of the filter. The backwash effluent
may either be collected for pumping back to the clarifier, or may be discharged to the
sewer.
Backwashing is carried out at high flow rates that range from 10-20 gpm/ft2, depending
on the water temperature. The rapidity with which the pressure loss builds up during a
filter run depends on the hydraulic loading (gpm/ft2), the size of the filter media grains,
and the amount and nature of the suspended matter removed from the water.
The size of the filtering media grains is usually given by the effective size and the
uniformity coefficient. Effective size is that size in millimeters where 10 % by weight of
the filter media particles are finer and 90 % by weight are larger. The uniformity coefficient is the ratio of that size of filter media particles in millimeters, which has 60 % of
the sample by weight finer than itself to the effective size.
Gravity type filters are either rectangular or circular, and are made of steel, wood or
concrete. They are open at the top and operate at atmospheric pressure. In the bottom
is an underdrain collection system which collects the filtered water and distributes the
backwash water, as shown in Figure 4-1.
Figure 4-1: Schematic of gravity type filter

Sand gravity filters are designed to operate at flow rates up to 2 gpm/ft2 of filter area.
The sand filter media have an effective size varying from 0.35 mm to 1.0 mm, with a
typical value being 0.5 mm.
However, in backwashing single media sand beds, hydraulic stratification of the sand
grains occurs. The very finest sand accumulates on top of the bed and the coarser
grains lie below. More than 90 % of the suspended particulate matter is entrapped
within the voids of the top few inches of the filter media. When this occurs, the head loss
through the filter bed increases and the filter is taken off line for backwashing. This,
therefore, makes the top of the fine sand an effective filter but the lower layers remain
quite ineffective.
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Once a suspended particle has penetrated this top layer of fine sand, its chances are
greatly increased for passing through the entire bed because the void spaces become
larger and opportunities for contact decrease as the particle travels downwards. This is
the limitation of rapid sand filters.
The depth of the single filter media, either sand or anthracite, ranges between 24 to 36
inches on top of the subfill and underdrain collection system. The depth of the subfill
can range anywhere from 15 to 21 inches.
Pressure filters are essentially the same as sand filters except that they are round steel
shells and operate under the pressure of incoming water, which may be as high as 150
psi. Anthracite coal has special merits over fine sand. Because of its lower density,
which is a little more than half that of sand (specific gravity of coal is 1.4 and that of
sand is 2.65), and its irregular shape, the filter bed is more porous compared to sand
and is easily backwashed. Because of the angular grains of anthracite coal, the area is
greater per unit volume than the area of sand grains, which are more spherical. This
offers better floc entrapment and allows the use of a coarser anthracite media than the
sand.
Because of the coarse grain size (usually 0.68-0.72 mm), deeper parts of the bed are
effective in filtration as compared to the sand filter media. Also, higher filtration rates, up
to 3-4 gpm/ft2, may be used and longer runs are possible before excessive head loss is
experienced.
Because of the limitations with the sand filter media, where almost 90 % of the
particulate matter is entrapped within the top few inches of the filter bed, dual media and
triple media filter beds were developed.
The dual media concept was the first step toward development of coarse-to-fine
filtration. Basically, this provides a two layer filter in which the coarse upper layer of coal
acts as a roughing filter to reduce the load of the suspended particulate matter applied
to the sand below. Because of the different specific gravities of coal and sand, coal of
proper size in relation to sand remains on top of the sand during backwash. The dual
media depth should range between 18 to 24 inches for coal and 6 to 12 inches for sand.
The triple media filters use coal (specific gravity 1.4), sand (specific gravity 2.65), and
garnet (specific gravity 4.2). The total filter media depth (coal, sand, and garnet) varies
between 30-42 inches in an approximate proportion of 60, 30, and 10 %, respectively.
The effective size for coal is usually 0.84 to 2.0 mm, sand 0.4 to 0.8 mm, and garnet 0.2
to 0.4 mm.
Dual and triple media filters can be operated at 4 to 6 gpm/ft2 flow rates and produce
high water quality (turbidity less than 0.5 NTU). This may be the same as for sand
filters, if not better, but will result in longer runs.
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It is very important to select sizes of sand and coal that are compatible to each other
during backwashing. The size of the lower layers of sand (the size of the particle from
which 90 % are finer) should be such that it requires approximately the same or somewhat lower flow rates for fluidization than the size in the lower layers of coal (90 % finer
size). This would help in the fluidization of the entire bed at the selected backwash flow
rate.
Dual media filters can retain more removed material than a sand filter. In the dual coalsand media filters, performance in filtration and backwashing is better if both these
medias have good mixing near the interface of the two materials, rather than a distinct
layering. Because of intermixing, there is a gradual decrease in the voids of the filter
bed from layers of coal to coal + sand and sand. In order to have good intermixing at the
interface to achieve the goal of coarse-to-fine filtration, the effective size of the sand
should be properly selected. With the specific gravity of coal in the typical range of 1.40
to 1.75, the ratio of 90 % finer coal size to 10 % finer sand size (the effective size)
should be approximately equal to 3. If the ratio is 4, there will be considerable mixing,
and if the ratio is 2 to 2.5, it will result in a sharp interface.
4.3
Direct Filtration
With water having low turbidities (10-20 NTU), direct filtration can be carried out with,
and at times without, the use of synthetic organic polymers. Many cooling water side
stream filters are operated on this principle. These polymers act like filtration aids and
form a microscopic film on the filter media grains where removal of particulate matter
occurs by its deposition on the surface. These polymers also increase the strength of
the floc. Because of high velocity in the filter bed, good opportunities for contact exist
and, therefore, the polymer may be added directly to the filter influent and not in any
upstream flocculator. Generally these polymers are fed at very low dosage rates,
usually less than 0.1 mg/L. However, for good results, the polymer dosages should be
controlled precisely.
4.4
Auxiliary Scour
Since backwashing alone does not provide efficient cleaning of the filter media due to
very little abrasion between the particles, an auxiliary scouring arrangement should
always be provided. Even with sufficient backwash rates, the deposited filtered matter
may break up into large masses which may transport to the bottom and form mud balls.
An auxiliary scour efficiently cleans the filter media. Hydraulic surface or subsurface
washing and air lancing are the most common types of auxiliary scour techniques.
The surface wash arrangement can be a fixed type or a rotary type. In the case of a
fixed type surface wash arrangement, the wash water is introduced at 45-75 psig
through nozzles installed on the fixed piping grid. In the case of a rotary washer, the
orifices are installed on two radial pipe arms supported in the center on a fixed swivel.
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These surface washers are located about 1-2 inches above the filter bed. The wash
water flow rate is approximately 0.5 gpm/ft2 in the case of a rotary washer and
2-4 gpm/ft2 in the case of a fixed washer. Rotary surface washers offer better cleaning
than the fixed type surface washers. Because of the water jet reaction coming out of the
nozzles, the arms rotate, resulting in sweeping and scouring of the entire top of the bed.
The sub-surface wash arrangement is stationary and is located 6 to 12 inches below the
top of the bed. It has four radial arms with nozzles installed on each arm. The water jets
scour the upper layers from below. The surface and sub-surface washers are usually
started about one minute before starting the backwash and are turned off a minute or
two before the termination of the backwash step.
Air scouring is carried out by distributing the air from the bottom of the filter media so
that it flows and scours the entire media. Air may be introduced to the filter through a
separate header-lateral distributor assembly, or may be introduced through the common
underdrain system that distributes both the air and water, either simultaneously or
sequentially.
When air scouring is used simultaneously with backwash water, there is a possibility of
losing the filter media to the drain. Therefore, it is always safer to carry out air scouring
sequentially. The water level should be lowered approximately 6-8 inches above the
filter bed before starting the air scouring to prevent the loss of filter media. Then the
filter should be backwashed. To prevent the disturbance in the subfill, the air should be
introduced at 1-1.5 SCFM/ft2, followed by two step backwash - the first step at
2-3 gpm/ft2 and the second step at 7-8 gpm/ft2.
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Disinfection
Disinfection is the treatment process used in potable waters to destroy or inactivate

disease-causing (pathogenic) organisms. Diseases caused by pathogenic organisms in
water are called waterborne diseases; the more common diseases are summarized in
Table 5-1. The consequences of waterborne diseases range from mild illness to death.
Disinfection is not sterilization. Sterilization is the destruction of all living microorganisms.
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Table 5-1: Common Waterborne Diseases
Waterborne
Disease
Gastroenteritis
Typhoid
Dysentery
Causative
Organism
Salmonella
(bacteria)
Salmonella
typhosa
(bacteria)
Shigella (bacteria)
Source of Organism
in Water
Symptom
Animal or human feces
Acute diarrhea and vomiting
Human feces
Inflamed intestine,
enlarged spleen,
high temperature fatal
Human feces
Diarrhea rarely fatal
Human feces
Vomiting, severe diarrhea,

rapid dehydration,
mineral loss
-high mortality
Human feces,
Shellfish grown in
polluted waters
Yellowed skin,
enlarged liver,
abdominal pain,
low mortality,
last up to 4 months
Human feces
Mild diarrhea,
chronic dysentery
Cholera
Vibrio comma
(bacteria)
Infectious hepatitis
Virus
Amoebic
dysentery
Entamoeba
Histolytica
(protozoan
Giardiasis
Giardia lamblia
(protozoan)
Animal or human feces
Cryptosporidiosis
Cryptosporidium
(protozoa)
Human and animal

feces
Legionellosis
Legionella
pneumophila and
related bacteria
Diarrhea, cramps, nausea,

and general weakness-not
fatal,
last 1 to 30 weeks
Acute diarrhea,
abdominal pain, vomiting,
low grade fever
Acute respiratory illness
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Destroying Pathogens in Water
Most pathogens are accustomed to living in the temperatures and conditions found in
humans and other warm-blooded animals. In general, they do not survive outside warmblooded animals. However, there are some significant exceptions. Of those pathogens
that do not survive for very long, significant numbers can still survive in potable waters
long enough to cause sickness, or even death, if ingested. In addition, certain viruses
and protozoans that form cysts can survive for long periods, even under adverse
conditions. Some pathogenic organisms also tend to be resistant to disinfection
processes, therefore, disinfection alone cannot always be assumed to ensure safe
potable water.
Some pathogens can be destroyed by simply storing water in open tanks for extended
periods of time. Some pathogens are removed by sedimentation in those tanks and
others experience natural die-off. This is not usually a practical treatment method
because of the large investment required for the storage facilities. In addition, other
nuisance organisms, such as algae, can actually multiply in the water while it is in
storage.
A significant number of pathogens are removed during the processes of coagulation,
flocculation, sedimentation and filtration. As a result, these processes are normally
required in addition to disinfection if the source water turbidity and pathogen loading are
significant.
5.2
Disinfection Methods
There are three methods that can be utilized to disinfect potable waters:
Heat treatment
Radiation treatment
Chemical treatment
However the most common method is chemical treatment using chlorine or other
oxidizing chemicals.
5.2.1 Heat Treatment
This procedure is not used by the supplier of potable water as a means of disinfection.
When potable water supplies are suspected of contamination, a boil-out order is
suggested by the water supplier to the public as a means to provide safe water.
5.2.2 Radiation Treatment
Ultraviolet radiation (UV) can be used to disinfect potable waters. UV radiation is
readily absorbed and scattered by turbidity in the water. Thus, the water flow must be
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close to the radiation source to be effective. There are no residual effects from the
radiation. The killing action occurs during the brief exposure to UV radiation.
There is a growing interest in the use of UV, as it has been shown to inactivate a
wide range of microorganisms including Cryptosporidium without producing any
disinfection by-products.
The UV spectrum is arbitrarily divided into three radiation bands. The lowest
wavelength, and therefore highest frequency radiation, is the UVC band, that has the
strongest biocidal properties. The wavelengths for the three bands are shown in
Table 5-2.
Table 5-2: UV Wavelengths
Band
UVA
UVB
UVC
Visible
Wavelength (nm)
400-315
315-280
280-200
400-700
UV radiation owes its bactericidal effect to its ability to penetrate the cell wall and
act directly on the nuclear DNA. The radiation does not destroy the bacterial cell
material, but disrupts the DNA by causing adjacent chemical groups on the double
helix of the DNA molecule to fuse and prevent the molecule from replicating. This
means that the bacterium is unable to reproduce and is thus inactivated or not viable.
The bacterium is not killed by the radiation.
Chlorine residual should still be used for disinfection, with UV as the primary
disinfectant and a chlorine residual providing protection in the distribution system.
5.2.3 Chemical Treatment
Chlorine is the most common oxidant used in potable water treatment. However, it is
not the only chemical used for disinfection. Other oxidants used include:
Chlorine/chloramine
Ozone
Chlorine dioxide
Potassium permanganate
The general effectiveness of these oxidants is shown in Table 5-3, as well as their
advantages and disadvantages in Table 5-4.
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Table 5-3: General Effectiveness of Potable Water Oxidants

Purpose
Cl2 NH2Cl O3
ClO2
Iron removal
E
N
E
E
Manganese removal
S
N
E
E
Sulfide removal
E
N
S
S
Taste and odor control
S
N
E
E
Color removal
E
N
E
E
Flocculation aid
E
N
E
U
Trihalomethane formation potential
N
N
E
E
control
Synthetic organics removal
S
N
S
S
Biological growth control
E
S
N
E
E=effective; S=Somewhat effective; N=Not effective; U=Unknown
KMnO4
E
E
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
Table 5-4: Advantages and Disadvantages of Potable Water Oxidants

Oxidant
Chlorine
Advantages
Strong oxidant,
Easy to feed,
Persistent residual,
Disadvantages
Chlorinated by-products,
Taste and odor,
Effectiveness influenced by pH
Chloramine
No trihalomethane formation,
Easy to feed
Ozone
Strong oxidant,
No total organic halide formation,
No taste and odor,
Little pH effect,
Coagulant aid
Weak oxidant,
Possible total organic halide
formation,
Effectiveness influenced by pH,
Taste and odor
Short half-life,
On-site generation,
Complex generation and
feeding,
Energy intensive,
Corrosive
Chlorine dioxide
Strong oxidant,
No pH effect
Easy to feed,
No trihalomethane formation
Total organic halide formation,

ClO3 and ClO2 by-products,
On-site generation,
Possible hydrocarbon odor
Moderately strong oxidant,
Pink water
Potassium
permanganate
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5.2.4 Chlorine
Chlorine is by far the most common oxidant used to disinfect potable waters. It is
supplied either under pressure as a liquefied gas (Cl2); as sodium hypochlorite (NaOClbleach) containing about 13 % available chlorine; as solid calcium hypochlorite
[Ca(OCl)2] containing 30 % available chlorine. The advantage of chlorine disinfectants
is that they form a residual, which remains in the water for long periods and protects it
against bacterial contamination in the distribution system.
Chlorine gas dissolves in water to form hypochlorous acid (HOCl), which further
dissociates to form hypochlorite ions (OCl):
Cl2 + H2O HOCl + HCl
HOCl H+ + OCl
At pH levels below 5, almost all the hypochlorous acid is undissociated, while at pH
levels above 9, dissociation is almost complete. Hypochlorous acid disinfects by
penetrating the bacterial cell walls and attacking the cytoplasmic layer. In the unionized
form, hypochlorous acid diffuses more readily through the cell wall than hypochlorite
(OCl) ion and therefore hypochlorous acid is a more efficient biocide.
Chlorine is usually fed at concentrations of 0.5-1.0 mg/L to provide a residual of
0.1-0.2 mg/L at the end of the distribution system. At these concentrations, there is
negligible chlorine after taste.
The concentration of chlorine required is dependent on the water source, the organism
and the required kill rate. The chlorine residual and contact times vary depending on the
species of bacteria, viruses and amoebic cysts present in the water, and generally a
safety factor is applied to take into account a more resistant species.
5.3
Concentration and Contact Time
The effectiveness of chlorination depends primarily on two factors:
Concentration, C
Contact Time, T
The destruction of the pathogens or kill is proportional to C x T. This means that if the
chlorine concentration is decreased, the contact time, the length of time the chlorine and
the organisms are in physical contact, must be increased to ensure that the kill remains
the same. Similarly, as the chlorine concentration increases, the contact time needed
for a given kill decreases.
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5.3.1 Chloramination
Chloramines can be generated by deliberately adding ammonia, usually in the form of
ammonium salt, such as ammonium sulfate [(NH4)2SO4], simultaneously with chlorine, a
process called chloramination.
Chloramines are less active disinfectants than chlorine, but are very stable and are
often used in distribution systems which have a large capacity and long retention time.
The reaction between ammonium ions and chlorine initially generates monochloramine,
then dichloramine and finally trichloramine, which are known collectively as combined
chlorine.
HOCl + NH4+ NH2Cl + H2O + H+
HOCl + NH2Cl HNCl2 + H2O
HOCl + NHCl2 NCl3 + H2O
The rate formation is pH dependent and chloramination is normally carried out using a
chlorine:ammonia (as N) ratio of 5 : 1 by weight, which minimizes both the free chlorine
residual and the free ammonia concentration. The presence of free ammonia in the
distribution system can give rise to the growth of nitrifying bacteria (Nitrosomonas),
which can result in an increase in nitrite concentration in the water with attendant health
risks.
5.3.2 Ozone
Ozone is a colorless gas that is produced by passing a high voltage electrical corona
discharge through dry air or oxygen. It is a more powerful oxidant than hypochlorous
acid and is approximately 5 times more effective as a disinfectant.
Practical ozone generation systems have maximum gaseous ozone concentrations of
about 50 mg/L; thus, the maximum practical solubility of ozone in water is about
40 mg/L.
Upon addition to water, ozone reacts with hydroxide ions to form hydroxyl radicals and
organic radicals. These radicals cause increased decomposition of ozone and are
responsible for nonselective oxidation of a variety of organic materials. Ozone
decomposition process occurs in second to minutes.
5.3.3 Chlorine Dioxide
Chlorine dioxide can be used as a primary or secondary disinfectant, and it is used for
controlling taste and odor, as well as zebra mussel control. Chlorine dioxide rapidly
inactivates most micro-organisms over a wide pH range. It is typically more effective
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than chlorine but is less effective than ozone. Chlorine dioxide is a powerful oxidant and
will react with a wide range of organic and inorganic compounds. It is used by some
municipalities as an initial oxidant for water having high humic and fulvic substance
levels in order to reduce the formation of THMs. In some cases, it is used only when
the THM precursor level in the raw water is high. The main cause of THMs is
chlorination of precursors, primarily humic and fulvic acids, found in raw water.
Chlorine dioxide is generated on-site. During its production, a small amount of chlorate
(ClO3) and chlorite (ClO2) is formed. There is evidence that these substances can
cause adverse health effects in some individuals.
Chlorine dioxide is capable of oxidizing iron and manganese, removing color, and
lowering THM formation potential. It also oxidizes many organic and sulfurous
compounds that cause taste-and-odor problems. Chlorine dioxide does add a specific
taste to water that is objectionable to some individuals. The maximum residual that does
not cause tastes or odors is usually about 0.4 -0.5 mg/L as ClO2.
5.3.4 Potassium Permanganate
Potassium permanganate is an oxidant that was first used in 1910 for water treatment in
London. However, widespread use of potassium permanganate did not occur until the
1960s, when its effectiveness for controlling tastes and odors had become recognized.
When added to water, permanganate turns the water purple until it finally dissipates
after the completion of the oxidizing action. For this reason, it should be fed as early in
the treatment process as possible to allow completion of the reaction before the water
enters the distribution system. Concentrations as low as 0.05 mg/L permanganate may
still have some noticeable color.
Permanganate is frequently used as the initial chemical fed into surface water systems
because it will control many taste-and-odor-causing substances in the raw water. In
particular, it will eliminate a number of taste-and-odor conditions that will not be
controlled or may be accentuated by chlorine. It also effectively removes hydrogen
sulfide, iron, and manganese. When permanganate alone is not completely successful
in controlling tastes and odors, it may be used in combination with activated carbon.
Permanganate is also being used for trihalomethane control. Feeding permanganate as
the initial oxidant allows chlorine to be applied later in the treatment process, when the
precursors have been reduced. THMs can usually be significantly reduced by this
process. Permanganate is also widely used by groundwater systems to oxidize iron
and manganese. It has also been found effective for controlling zebra mussels and
algae in reservoirs.
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Disinfection By-Products
Disinfection by-products (DBPs) are formed when chemical disinfectants react with
natural organic matter. These by-products are varied and can include the
trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs). These two groups of DBPs in
particular have led to concern by the USEPA regulators, since theses by-products have
been shown to cause cancer in animals.
U.S. EPA has published the Stage 1 Disinfectants/Disinfection By-Products Rule to
regulate total THM at a maximum allowable annual concentration of 0.08 mg/L. The
EPA has also imposed a limit on the total of five HAAs (monochloro-, dichloro-, trichloro, monobromo- and dibromo-acetic acids) to 60 g/L. While THMs and HAAs are often
the major DBPs formed, recent studies have identified over 500 different DBPs. Which
one is formed will be very dependent on the water quality and the disinfectant used. The
chemical structures of the major groups of DBPs are shown in Figure 5-1.
Figure 5-1: Chemical structure of the major disinfection by-products
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Indices
In 1936, W. F. Langelier developed the Langelier Saturation Index (LSI). The LSI is
based on the theoretical tendency of water to deposit or dissolve calcium carbonate.
The index is derived from the solubility product of calcium carbonate, the
dissociation constant of water, the second dissociation constant of carbonic acid
H+ + CO3 HCO3
and stoichiometric equilibrium between alkalinity and protons versus the carbonate,
bicarbonate, and hydroxyl species.
By restricting the applicable pH to 6.5-9.5, a saturation pH, known as pHs, is
determined as:
pHs = (pK'2 pKs) + pCa + pAlk
Where: pX = log (X), or log(1/X)
Ca = calcium ion concentration in moles/liter
Alk = total alkalinity as equivalents/liter
K'2 = second dissociation constant of H2, CO3, corrected for ionic strength and
temperature
Ks = solubility product of CaCO3, corrected for ionic strength and temperature
The Langelier Saturation Index is:
LSI = pH - pHs
It is a logarithm of the ratio of the hydrogen ion concentration that the water must have if
saturated with calcium carbonate to the actual hydrogen ion concentration. A negative
value indicates an undersaturation of CaCO3 and, hence, a tendency to dissolve any
existing CaCO3 coating. A positive value indicates oversaturation, a tendency to
precipitate CaCO3 and to form a protective layer.
When using the LSI, it is imperative to remember that this parameter states a
difference between actual pH and a pH at which CaCO3 equilibrium is theoretically
achieved for that water. It provides no information on the driving force or tendency for
the CaCO3 to dissolve or crystallize in the given water.
Differences between observed conditions and prediction may result from temperature
effects, specific uncharged or ionic constituents in the water, or crystal growth
inhibition. Increased temperatures will decrease the solubility of calcium carbonate, as
well as increase reaction velocities, and consequently, establish local equilibrium
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situations much faster than at normal temperatures. There may be a difference in pH

between the CaCO 3 saturation point and the point at which crystal growth actually
begins. This difference, called the metastable region, may increase in the presence of
other dissolved ions, especially those that form slightly soluble salts with calcium or
carbonates such as magnesium or sulfate, causing a poor correlation between the
calculated LSI and actual conditions of solubility.
An index similar to the LSI was developed by Ryznar, and is known as the Ryznar Stability
Index (RSI), uses the same parameters with a reverse sign and a doubling of the of
saturation pH, pHs.
RSI = 2pHs 2 pH
Ryzner also developed a curve based upon field observations, showing carbonate
scale or corrosion of distribution mains as a function of the index. This curve is shown
in Figure 6-1.
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Figure 6-1: Ryznar Stability Index for various degrees of scale and corrosion
Calculations of the LSI or RSI can be accomplished using the equation for pHs
pHs = (9.3 + A + B) (C + D)
The values for A, B, C, and D are shown in Table 6-1.
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Table 6-1: Values used for constants A, B, C, D to calculate pHs
6.1
Larson-Skold Index
The Larson-Skold index is based upon evaluation of in situ corrosion of the steel
distribution lines transporting Great Lakes waters. The index is the ratio of equivalents
per million (epm) of sulfate (SO42) and chloride (Cl-) to the epm of alkalinity in the form
bicarbonate plus carbonate:
Larson-Skold index = (epm Cl- + epm SO42) / (epm HCO3 + epm CO32)
Extrapolation to waters other than the Great Lakes, such as those of low alkalinity or
extreme alkalinity, goes beyond the range of the original data. Unlike the LSI, this
index does not refer to the solubility of CaCO3 but rather to the faster rates of steel
corrosion because of conductivity effects. It is not applicable to waters that are soft or
have a low dissolved solids concentration. The Larson-Skold index might be interpreted
by the following guidelines:
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Index < 0.8: chlorides and sulfates probably will not interfere with
natural film formation.
0.8 < index < 1.2: chlorides and sulfates may interfere with natural
film formation. Higher than desired corrosion rates might be
anticipated.
Index > 1.2: the tendency toward high corrosion rates of a local
type should be expected as the index increases.
The Driving Force Index
The Driving Force Index (DFI) is defined as:

DFI = (Ca2+) x (CO32)/K's x 1010
DFI = 10LSI
where the calcium and carbonate concentrations are expressed in mg/L as CaCO3 and
K's is the CaCO3 solubility product, corrected for ionic strength and temperature. This
index is a ratio of the actual ion product to that which would exist during equilibrium
conditions.
Values greater than 1.0 indicate a tendency for deposition of CaCO3 while values lower
than 1.0 indicate a CaCO3 dissolution condition.
6.3
Casil Index (CI)
The Casil Index is a modification to the calcium carbonate solubility indices that
accounts for the effect of other parameters for soft waters. It is defined as:
CI = Ca2+ + Mg2+ + HSiO3 (Anions/2)
where each concentration is expressed in milliequivalents per liter (meq/L).
Negative values are considered indicators of very corrosive water, values between 0
and 0.1 indicate slightly corrosive waters; and values above 0.1 indicate noncorrosive
conditions.
6.4
Aggressive Index (AI)
The aggressive index was formulated to determine the quality of water that can be
transported through asbestos-cement pipe without adverse structural effects. However,
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it does not incorporate temperature or TDS effects, nor does it indicate the tendency of
the pipe to release fibers or allow Ca(OH)2 leaching.
Aggressive Index = pH + log (AH)
Where A = total alkalinity as mg/L CaCO3
H = calcium hardness as mg/L CaCO3
According to the AI, values greater than 12 define nonaggressive waters; values less
than 10 define highly aggressive waters; and values between 10 and 12 define
moderately aggressive waters.
6.5
Calcite Saturation Index (CSI)
With the advent of computers, a more realistic approach has been developed to
calculate the degree of calcium carbonate saturation. This approach is based upon
thermodynamic principles.
The solubility of calcium carbonate is defined as:
[Ca2+] x [CO32] = Ksp
where Ca2+ is the activity of the calcium ion; CO32 is the carbonate activity; and Ksp is
the thermodynamic solubility product for the temperature under study.
[Ca2+] x [CO32] is also known as the Ion Activity Product (IAP), and at equilibrium:
IAP =Ksp
The degree of calcite saturation can be expressed as:
CSI = IAP/Ksp
If water is undersaturated with respect to calcite, then IAP < Ksp; fi the water is at
equilibrium, then IAP = Ksp; if the water is oversaturated, then IAP > Ksp.
To calculate the activities of calcium and carbonate, all of the ion-pairs of each species
must be taken into account. For example, calcium ions will ion-pair with bicarbonate,
carbonate, phosphate, sulfate, and other anionic species in the water. The same is true
for sulfate. Sulfate ions will ion-pair with all cations in solution. These calculations are
easily performed with proprietary software. As a rule of thumb, the logarithm of the CSI
is approximately equal to LSI.
Log (CSI) = LSI
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Lead
The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) passed by Congress in 1974 required the U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency to protect public health by setting drinking water standards for public water supplies. These standards are the recommended maximum
contaminant levels (MCLs) for each contaminant which may have an adverse effect on
human health. The SDWA also required that revised National Primary Drinking Water
Regulations (NPDWR) establish maximum contaminant level goals (MCLGs) and
related MCLs. MCLGs are non-enforceable health-based goals. MCLs are enforceable
limits, set as close as feasible to MCLGs.
In late 1985, the EPA proposed regulations to set MCLGs for other contaminants. Lead
was included for regulation in the NPDWR. New amendments to the SDWA were
signed into law in June 1986. The Act contains a provision banning the use of materials
containing lead in public water supplies and in residences connected to public water
supplies. The amendment forbids the use of pipe, solder or flux that is not lead-free in
the installation or repair of any public water system or in any plumbing system providing
water for human consumption. The term lead-free means solder and fluxes must
contain not more than 0.2 percent lead, and pipes and fittings not more than 8 percent
lead.
Public notice is required when construction materials are used in contact with public
water supply that contain lead and/or where the water is sufficiently corrosive to cause
lead leaching. Both the prohibition of lead usage and the public notice requirements
were effective June 19, 1988.
7.1
The Problem
The major source of lead in drinking water is the result of the corrosive action of the
water on materials containing lead in the distribution system, and not from the source
water, per se. Water leaving the potable water treatment plant is usually relatively leadfree. However, pipes, solder, fluxes and alloys containing lead (brass faucets and
bronze fittings) are corroded by water, thereby causing lead to be discharged from the
consumers tap.
New homes, particularly those with newly-installed soldered piping, generally have high
lead levels in the drinking water. The highest lead contamination occurs during the first
24 months following installation and levels off after five years. The release of lead from
solder joints is also attributed to galvanic corrosion occurring between the solder and
copper pipe.
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Health Effects
There is a preponderance of evidence that links lead contamination in drinking water to

adverse health effects on humans. Even at levels below the MCLG, lead can cause
serious damage to the brain, kidneys, nervous system and red blood cells. There is no
convincing evidence that lead has any beneficial biological effect in humans.
Elevated blood-lead levels have long been linked to a wide range of deleterious health
effects, particularly among young children. These effects range from relatively subtle
changes in biochemistry at 10 g/dL and below, to severe retardation and even death at
very high levels (80-100 g/dL). It cannot be emphasized enough that lead can interfere
with blood-forming processes, vitamin D metabolism, kidney function, neurological
processes and reproductive functions in both sexes. There is a negative impact of lead
on cognitive performance (IQ tests, performance in school) which occurs at moderateto-high blood-lead levels (30 to 40 g/dL).
Lead has long been associated with elevated blood pressure, hypertension, strokes and
heart attacks in adults.
In addition, lead can cross the placental barrier and is a fetotoxin. Thus, pregnant
women exposed to lead risk complications during pregnancy and damage to the fetus.
7.3
Lead Chemistry
7.3.1 Corrosion
Lead is one of the worlds oldest metals. It had been used to transport water since the
days of the Roman Empire and only recently has been banned for use as a water
conduit. Its passive oxide makes lead highly resistant to corrosion and attack by natural
waters. However, even though only minute amounts of lead dissolve in water, lead is an
active accumulative toxicant, and when consumed through drinking water, adversely
affects human health.
The corrosion reaction for lead can be represented as:
Pb0 Pb+2 + 2e
This oxidation reaction takes place at the anodic sites. Simultaneously, a reduction
reaction occurs at the cathodic sites. In water having neutral to alkaline pH, the cathodic
reaction is the reduction of dissolved oxygen:
1/2 O2 + H2O +2e 2OH
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However, it must be stressed that there are many other factors that influence lead
corrosion. These include both the physical and chemical characteristics of the water,
such as velocity, residence time, temperature, pH, hardness and alkalinity.
Galvanic corrosion also will occur with lead. Lead, and more specifically soft solder
(50:50 tin:lead), is anodic to copper. Galvanic attack at lead/copper joints will cause a
leaching of lead from the solder into the drinking water. It is the corrosion products from
galvanic attack that raise lead levels in first-drawn waters that have lain stagnant within
household plumbing for a period of time.
7.3.2 Effect of Flow
Lead concentrations in waters exposed to lead surfaces generally will be higher in
standing water than in flowing water. A rapid pickup of lead occurs within a short period
of time in non-flowing water systems. The NPDWR action level of 0.015mg/L can be
exceeded in standing water within 1.5 hours. Thus, allowing water to flow through
household plumbing for a few minutes before being used may reduce the lead levels
below the action level.
7.3.3 Effect of Dissolved Oxygen
Lead corrosion increases with the oxygen content of the water. Figure 7-1 shows that
lead corrosion in distilled water is directly proportional to the oxygen content in air above
the water.
Figure 7-1: Effect of oxygen concentration on lead solubility in DI water at 75 F

7.3.4 Effect of Chlorine
The impact of chlorine disinfection on lead corrosion has not been widely studied.
However, it is not unreasonable to expect some effect on lead corrosion since chlorine
does accelerate the corrosion of other metals in the systems, such as copper and low
carbon steel. Since chlorine is an oxidant, it could accelerate the reaction of metallic
lead to lead(II). Once the lead(II) concentration increases, the formation of sparingly
soluble lead salts will determine the final lead concentration in drinking water.
Chloramine species formed from the interaction of chlorine and nitrogen containing
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compounds could act as oxidants. If lead chloramines do form, they may increase lead
solubility by dissociating into lead amine complexes.
7.3.5 Effect of Hardness Ions
It is well known that soft waters are more corrosive than hard waters. This statement
applies essentially to all metals. The impact of water hardness ions on lead corrosion is
shown in Figure 7-2. The data shows a decrease in lead concentration with an increase
in hardness. In most natural waters, an increase in hardness is associated with the
buildup of an adherent calcium carbonate barrier. This type of protective layer is
sufficient to suppress lead corrosion. Hard waters (hardness greater than 120 mg/L as
CaCO3) are less corrosive to lead than soft waters. However, irrespective of water
hardness, waters containing carbonic acid will dissolve calcium carbonate deposits and
accelerate corrosion.
Figure 7-2: Effect of hardness ions on lead solubility

7.3.6 Effect of pH-Alkalinity
The solubility of lead as a function of pH is dependent upon the alkalinity of the drinking
water. Soluble lead (Pb2+) is the dominant species only when pH and alkalinity are low.
In low alkaline waters (< 60 mg/L as CaCO3), total lead concentration is highly pH
sensitive. Lead solubility decreases rapidly with increasing pH at low alkalinity. With
high alkalinity waters (100 mg/L as CaCO3), the solubility of lead is insensitive to pH
over a range of 6.5 to 8.
The stable species is lead carbonate, PbCO3 (cerussite). The effect of pH is more
marked where Pb3(OH)3(CO3)2 is stable (hydrocerussite). The effect of alkalinity on lead
solubility depends upon the form of the lead carbonate deposited on the pipe surface.
Where PbCO3 is stable, increasing alkalinity reduces lead concentration; whereas, the
trend is reversed where Pb3(OH)2(CO3)2 is stable.
7.3.7 Effect of Temperature
Lead solubility increases with temperature, as shown in Figure 7-3. It may not be correct
to assume hot water lines will have higher lead levels than cold water lines. The hot
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water lines may have leached lead over many years of use and/or a more stable salt
may have formed on solder joints (i.e., lead carbonate and/or calcium carbonate).
Figure 7-3: Effect of temperature on lead solubility
7.3.8 Effect of Orthophosphate Ions

The presence of orthophosphate ions in a water-carbonate system has a very large
influence on lead solubility. The impact of orthophosphate ions significantly changes the
broad generalization of pH and alkalinity on lead solubility, since a number of sparingly
soluble lead phosphate compounds can be formed, many of which have much lower
solubilities than lead carbonates. The most probable lead phosphate compound formed
on lead surfaces is Pb5(PO4)3OH (hydroxypyromorphite).
The effect of orthophosphate in waters of high alkalinity requires careful consideration
because ion pairing exerts an important influence. The major lead ion pair species is
PbCO3, cerussite. Since waters that are high in alkalinity are usually hard, ion pair
formation between calcium and orthophosphate (CaHPO40, Ca2HPO4+) can reduce the
effective concentration of orthophosphate in solution. Therefore, a relatively high
concentration of orthophosphate is needed to reduce the solubility of
hydroxypyromorphite below that of cerussite. In high-hardness, high-alkaline waters, the
addition of orthophosphate to control lead may be limited.
It should be noted that in high-hardness waters, the addition of orthophosphate may
cause the precipitation of calcium phosphate, Ca5(PO4)3OH (hydroxyapatite).
An estimate of the level of orthophosphate required to control lead can be obtained from
Figures 7-4 and 7-5. Table 7-1 lists the unit conversion from Log mg Pb/L to mg Pb/L
for Figures 7-4 and 7-5. These contour plots show the sensitivity of lead solubility to
orthophosphate concentration and alkalinity. At neutral pH, increasing the
orthophosphate concentration beyond 2 mg/L produces a relatively small decrease in
lead solubility. Note that in low-alkaline waters, the addition of 1 mg/L orthophosphate
can have a significant reduction in lead solubility.
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Treatment programs containing both zinc and orthophosphate showed no improvement

in lead solubility compared to orthophosphate alone. However, zinc/orthophosphate
treatments would be effective in controlling low carbon steel corrosion in distribution
systems, in addition to decreasing lead solubility.
Table 7-1: Unit conversion for contour lined in Figures 7-4 and 7-5
Log mg Pb/L
-0.4
-0.5
-0.6
-0.7
-0.8
-0.9
-0.10
-0.11
-0.12
-0.13
mg Pb/L
0.398
0.316
0.251
0.200
0.158
0.126
0.100
0.079
0.063
0.050
Log mg Pb/L
-0.14
-0.15
-0.16
-0.17
-0.18
-0.19
-0.20
-0.21
-0.22
-0.23
mg Pb/L
0.040
0.032
0.025
0.020
0.016
0.013
0.010
0.008
0.006
0.005
7.3.9 Effect of Polyphosphate

Studies using polyphosphate showed that polyphosphates considerably inhibited lead
solubility compared to the control, but were less effective than orthophosphate. The
American Water Works Association (AWWA) does not approve of using polyphosphate
to control lead corrosion. They consider polyphosphate to be an antagonist.
7.3.10 Effects of Sulfate, Chloride and Nitrate
The levels of sulfate, chloride and nitrates in potable water are low and their impact on
lead solubility is probably negligible.
7.4
Treatment Strategies
There are several approaches that can be used to control lead solubility. However, lead
is only one of the many different alloys in the distribution and household system.
Consideration must be given to control not only lead corrosion, but also prevent
deterioration of the entire system. Corrosion by-products, per se, can affect the quality
of the potable water since all waters are corrosive to some degree. How aggressive
water is depends upon its physical and chemical characteristics, as well as those of the
materials with which the water comes in contact. Consideration must be given to
whether a particular treatment option is beneficial to only one aspect of the system or is
it an optimization taking into account all possible effects. Remember, not all effects
need be a problem and may be beneficial.
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There are relatively few options available to minimize lead and/or control
corrosion/scale in both the distribution and house plumbing systems. These include the
use of lead-free solder, which is now mandated (95:5 tin:antimony solders), replacing
lead lines, flushing the system prior to use and chemical treatment. Chemical treatment
can consist of pH control, alkalinity control and the addition of specific corrosion
inhibitors.
7.4.1 Nonchemical Treatment Options
A method to minimize lead in drinking water is to use lead-free materials which do not
require lead-soldered joints, and to use lead-free solders to join copper lines in new
plumbing. The 1986 amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act requires the use of
lead-free materials (e.g., soft solder) in public water systems. There are solders
available that contain little or no lead and have sufficiently low melting points to allow
the use of the same heating methods used to join copper plumbing as the 50:50 tin:lead
solders. These new solders include 95:5 tin:antimony, 96.5:3.5 and 95:5 tin:silver, 95:5
tin:copper and solders containing the combination of these materials.
Another method to reduce lead levels in potable water is to replace the lead service line
or lead plumbing in both the distribution and home plumbing systems. This approach
suffers from the inordinate cost associated with replacing lead service lines in the
distribution system by the utility. Also, homeowners are reluctant to replace expensive
residential plumbing systems.
Since the high lead levels in first-drawn water are the result of stagnant water, flushing
the system prior to water consumption will reduce the lead concentrations. This is an effective method to reduce lead in drinking water. The homeowner must be proactive and
flush the water from the faucet prior to consumption. Flushing takes time and results in
higher water usage. The consumer is not likely to follow this procedure because the
consumer most likely wants to minimize the amount of water wasted. Only in the
morning will first-drawn water probably be flushed.
7.4.2 Chemical Treatment Options
Chemical treatment is the most viable approach to minimize lead in drinking water and
also control both corrosion and deposits to improve the water's aesthetic quality.
Corrosion products leached from the distribution or household systems can render
potable water undesirable by altering the taste or color or increasing its staining
characteristics. Some of these contaminants include iron, manganese, copper, zinc and
the buildup of deposits which constrict flow.
7.4.2.1
pH/Alkalinity Option
Modifying water quality through pH and/or alkalinity adjustments is the most common
method of reducing corrosion in water distribution systems. In low-alkaline waters, lead
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solubility can be reduced substantially by increasing pH to above 8.5. However, the

reduction in lead solubility may not be sufficient to meet the MCL. In high-alkaline
waters, lead solubility may be reduced by increasing pH, but the potential for calcium
carbonate precipitation and subsequent scale formation is great.
Although pH adjustment is simple in principle, it presents some major disadvantages.
pH adjustment to either low or high alkaline waters will affect the disinfection capability
of chlorine. The high pH will cause most of the added chlorine to be present as
hypochlorous ion (OCl), which is a less active disinfectant than hypochlorous acid
(HOCl), which dominates at neutral pH (70 percent of the chlorine exist as HOCl at pH
7). To ensure that disinfection is adequate at high pH, excess chlorine must be added to
achieve disinfection equivalent to that which occurs at neutral pH. The increase in pH
will generate an increase in trihalomethane (THM) concentrations formed during
chlorination. To minimize THM concentrations, it will be necessary to remove THM
precursors prior to chlorination. Also, excess chlorination is detrimental to copper alloys
in the consumers system and produces a more noticeable odor.
Waters that are at least moderately hard and have sufficient alkalinity usually practice
corrosion control because they form a calcium carbonate barrier. Although this approach is assumed to be valid for the protection of copper and low carbon steel alloys, it
can produce serious problems for lead and lead-soldered joints. Theoretical calculations
show that waters having pH in the range 7.5 to 8.5 and a carbonate alkalinity of at least
100 mg/L as CaCO3 can dissolve lead to exceed the MCL. Lead concentrations could
easily attain 160 to 250 mg/L upon overnight standing.
Another aspect of pH adjustment to higher levels (greater than 7.5) is that this action
increases localized attack. Low carbon steel corrosion is essentially uniform in
oxygenated potable waters at pH of neutral or less. As the pH rises above 7.5, more of
the corrosion products adhere to the metal surface and localized attack begins to
predominate. Over time, severe tuberculation will occur, resulting in decreased flow
capacity and increased pumping cost.
7.4.2.2
Inhibitors
The most effective means to reduce both lead solubility and provide corrosion control to
the overall distribution system is through the use of chemical treatments. There are
three basic building blocks used in potable water systems: orthophosphate,
polyphosphate and silicates; all with or without zinc.
7.4.2.3
Orthophosphate
The use of orthophosphate can reduce lead solubility in both low-and high-alkalinity
waters. Figures 7-4 and 7-5 suggest that an orthophosphate concentration of
approximately 1 to 2 mg/L PO43 should be effective in reducing lead solubility over a
much lower pH range than would be possible by using pH-carbonate adjustment. The
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lower pH-orthophosphate approach (pH 7.2, 1 mg/L to 2 mg/L PO4) results in more
effective disinfection with chlorine while reducing THM formulations.
Although zinc/orthophosphate has no additional benefit compared to orthophosphate
alone in reducing lead solubility, zinc/orthophosphate is beneficial in suppressing
corrosion of other plumbing materials used in the total distribution system.
Zinc/orthophosphate is used primarily in waters where the potential for the formation of
calcium carbonate scale is low, because the inhibitor has no scale inhibitory properties.
These waters are usually soft and slightly acidic. Thus, they are considered to be
aggressive waters. Zinc/orthophosphate corrosion control programs are capable of suppressing attacks on low carbon steel, have some efficacy towards cast iron, mild
inhibition towards copper, and are capable of suppressing the release of asbestos fibers
from asbestos-cement pipe.
Boston, Massachusetts, undertook a corrosion control program using
zinc/orthophosphate to control lead solubility. Bostons water is highly corrosive, having
a pH of 6.7, low alkalinity and soft with a hardness of 14 mg/L as CaCO3. The city has a
significant number of lead service pipes still is use. Because of the widespread
existence of lead materials (piping, solder), the lead content in the drinking water coming from the consumers tap exceeds 0.05 mg/L MCL for a significant portion of the
citys residents. To combat the high lead levels, Boston began to treat its system with
zinc/orthophosphate. Unfortunately, the treatment was unsuccessful. The city then
began pH adjustment using NaOH. This treatment approach was extremely effective. A
review of the data from the zinc/orthophosphate program indicates that the failure was
due to the low pH (6.7). It is extremely important that a pH of 7.2 to 7.4 be maintained
when using zinc/orthophosphate to control steel corrosion and lead solubility. Be aware
that in the Boston study, low pH was the reason the zinc/orthophosphate treatment was
unsuccessful.
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Figure 7-4: Contour diagram of pH vs. orthophosphate at Dissolved Inorganic

Carbonate* at 50 mg/L as CaCO3 at 25 C (contour lines are log Pb mg/L)
*Dissolved inorganic carbonate (DIC) is the total concentration of all dissolved inorganic
carbonate species, including carbonic acid, bicarbonate, carbonate, complexes and ion
pairs. DIC is calculated from total alkalinity, pH, temperature and ionic strength (see
Standard Methods, edition after 1989).
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Figure 7-5: Contour diagram of pH vs. orthophosphate at Dissolved Inorganic

Carbonate* at 200 mg/L as CaCO3 at 25 C (contour lines are log Pb mg/L)
7.4.2.4
Zinc/Polyphosphate
Adding zinc/polyphosphate to municipal distribution systems is an effective treatment
program for controlling corrosion and scale, as well as stabilizing iron and manganese.
Although polyphosphates are not as effective as orthophosphate in reducing lead
solubility, the use of zinc/polyphosphate has broad applicability. Zinc/polyphosphate will
significantly reduce steel corrosion. Effective pH range is 6 to 7.5, but maintaining the
pH above neutral is recommended. Zinc/polyphosphate (in reality, the polyphosphate
species alone) will alleviate both red and black water problems by sequestering these
objectionable species. Treatment levels are usually 2 to 4 mg/L for each milligram per
liter of iron and manganese combined in the system. However, AWWA considers
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polyphosphate a calcium carbonate scale inhibitor and not effective as an inhibitor for
lead. Their position is that polyphosphates are an antagonist to lead increasing the
release of lead into the water.
The addition of zinc/polyphosphate greatly reduces tuberculation in the distribution
system, and hence, head losses (head losses is the pressure drop resulting from
moving water from one point to another). Waters that are prone to form calcium
carbonate scale can develop thick barrier layers which are non-uniform and porous,
resulting in underdeposit corrosion. The addition of zinc/polyphosphate inhibits the
formation of these barrier deposits.
7.4.2.5
Silicates
Treatments utilizing silicates seem to have a retarding effect on lead solubility, but
require a relatively long period of time (approximately 8-9 months) to show reductions in
lead concentrations. This long-term effect can be explained by the slow formation of a
kinetically-inhibited lead silicate film. Silicates are known to act as cementing agents
over corrosion products, and thus become effective only over long term exposure.
Silicate treatments historically have been used as corrosion inhibitors in soft, lowalkaline waters. Their effectiveness has not matched that of phosphate-based
treatments for protecting iron and steel. Silicate treatments are not recommended for
control of lead solubility in distribution systems.
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Iron/Manganese and Arsenic Removal
Iron and manganese are common impurities in well waters. Arsenic is a common
impurity in some of the wells found in the western states in the U.S.
For iron and manganese removal, the objective is primarily to convert dissolved or
reduced impurities to oxidized forms of these constituents to form Fe(OH)3 and MnO2
precipitants, which are filterable in subsequent unit operations. The most common
methods for small systems include aeration/filtration, cation exchange (softening), and
manganese greensand. Figure 8-1 summarizes some of these technologies.
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Table 8-1: Common Methods for Iron/Manganese Removal

Iron/Manganese
Comments
Removal
Technologies
Aeration plus Filtration Kinetics are slow
Long reaction times, up to 80 minutes, are required for Mn
Reaction time for Fe are 20 to 50 minutes for pH < 7
Requires contactor to ensure adequate reaction time
Wide range of applications in large municipal and small systems
Uses mixed media, sand or other filtration methods
Softening
Performance impacted by water chemistry, high hardness
Generally not used with high levels of Fe>1 mg/L or Mn>0.1 mg/L
Brine discharge may be an issue in some states
Not as practical for large water systems
Manganese
Historical field use for effective Fe/Mn reduction
Greensand with
Requires continuous or intermittent KMNO4 and/or Cl2 feed
KMnO4
Moderate to long reaction times
Slow filtration rates of 3 gpm/ft2 of greensand
Requires large diameter vessels and space
Fe and Mn precipitates can be very small, 1-3 requiring
coagulation
Difficult to control effluent Mn concentration, leaching
MnO2 Media
High efficiency Fe/Mn removal technology
(pyrolusite)
Uses Cl2 to enhance oxidation and removal
High MnO2 content is catalytically active
No KMNO4 usage
Very short contact time required (15 to 30 seconds)
High filtration rates 7-15 gpm/ft2
Requires higher backwash rates
Small footprint
NSF 61 Certification for some media
Sequestration
In-line chemical feed binds up dissolved Fe and Mn and keeps
(e.g., polyphosphates)
them in solution
Inexpensive
Suitable for Fe<1 mg/L, Mn<0.2 mg/L
Some states do not allow this approach
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It is important to note that what may be considered a proven technology for iron and
manganese removal may not be appropriate for high efficiency arsenic removal, which
is discussed later in this chapter.
8.1
Arsenic Removal
The Final Arsenic Rule establishes an arsenic MCL of 0.01 mg/L (10 g/L or 10 ppb)
(40 CFR 141.62(b)(16)). The compliance date is January 23, 2006 (40 CFR 141.6(j)).
The USEPA has identified seven Best Available Technologies (BAT) that can be used
for the removal of arsenic from drinking water.
1. Activated Alumina
2. Coagulation/Filtration (not a BAT for systems with fewer than 500 service
connections)
3. Ion Exchange
4. Lime Softening (not a BAT for systems with fewer than 500 service connections)
5. Reverse Osmosis
6. Electrodialysis
7. Oxidation/Filtration
Dissolved arsenic must be oxidized to an arsenate [As(V)] state before it can be
removed. Both chlorine (Cl2) and potassium permanganate (KMnO4) are effective in
oxidizing dissolved arsenic to arsenate. Care should be taken when applying chemical
oxidation to dissolved arsenic to produce arsenate, because such oxidation may also
produce trihalomethanes (THMs), haloacetic acids (HAAs) and bromates (BrO3), which
are potentially harmful by-products to human health. Table 8-2 describes the
methodologies to remove arsenate.
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Arsenate
Removal Technologies
Activated Alumina
Comments
Long history as an absorptive treatment for arsenic removal
Arsenic removal is pH-dependent, maximum removal capacity
is at pH 5.5
Adsorption capacity for arsenic decreases outside pH range
5-6
Fluoride, selenium, phosphate and other inorganic materials
compete for adsorption sites
Coagulation/Filtration
Conventional coagulation/filtration using iron salts removes up

to 90 % As(V) at pH 7 or less
Prior chemical oxidation is required to convert As(III) to As(V)
Fe/Mn removal relies on oxidation and precipitation effectively
removes arsenic
Fe coagulation most promising technique to remove As
Ion Exchange
Capable of removing all dissolved matter in water including

Arsenic
No pH adjustment is required
Strong-base anion resins have good affinity to HAsO42, [As(V)]
Lime Softening
Lime addition to raise pH > 11.5

Removal of As(III) depends upon precipitation of [Mg(OH2)]
Powered activated carbon may enhance removal efficiency
Process is plant and chemical intensive
Reverse Osmosis
Removes > 90 % As
Not selective and removes all dissolved matter
Electrodialysis
Process applies DC voltage to remove dissolved charged

matter
Removes As to low levels
Process is equipment, energy and labor intensive
Concentrate similar to RO must be disposed
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Copper
National Primary Drinking Water Regulations require that no more than 10 % of tap
water samples exceed the action level of 1.3 mg/L of copper. If this action level is not
achieved, then a treatment technique is required to control the corrosiveness of the
water.
Copper piping has had extensive use in home distributions systems since the end of
World War II, with over 6 million miles of copper plumbing placed into service. It
should be noted that only a relatively few cases of actual plumbing failures have
occurred.
The use of copper plumbing in homes is the result of coppers natural protective oxide,
its flexibility, its ease of joining and installation, and its relative corrosion resistance to a
variety of waters. As noted above, corrosion does occur under certain conditions, all of
which are not well understood. Pitting corrosion may lead to failure from pin-hole leaks.
Some of the problems caused by copper corrosion can be summarized as follows:
Small concentrations of copper cause the formation of blue or blue-green

stains on porcelain fixtures.
Concentrations greater than 1.0 mg/L react with soap to produce insoluble
green "curds."
A bitter, unpalatable taste results from copper ions when it is present in

concentrations greater than 1.0-1.5 mg/L in potable waters.
Traces of copper ions can accelerate the corrosion of both low carbon steel
and galvanized steel.
Traces of copper ion can cause pitting of aluminum pots and pans.
9.1
Copper Reactions
Copper corrosion in potable water systems occurs through the following reactions:
Cu0 Cu+ + e
Cu+ Cu2+ + e
Note that in an oxygenated environment, cuprous ions (Cu+) are unstable and are
transformed into cupric ions (Cu2+).
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The oxygen reduction occurs simultaneously:

O2 + 2H2O + 4e 4OH
This cathodic reaction occurs over a wide pH range of 6.5-9.5. Ultimately, a
protective cuprous oxide (Cu2O) is formed. The intermediate steps in the reaction
producing the protective oxide film are still being debated.
A common deposit observed on copper surfaces in the form of green or bluishgreen tubercles, consists of malachite [CuCO3Cu(OH)2] and calcium salts.
4CuCl + Ca(HCO3)2 + O 2 CuCO3Cu(OH)2 + CaCO3 + 2CuCl2
Under these deposits are pits that may form pin-hole leaks.
9.1.1 Copper Corrosion
Although there are eight recognized forms of corrosion, only three forms of
corrosion are prevalent with copper; general or uniform attack, erosion or
impingement, and pitting.
9.1.1.1
General Corrosion
General corrosion is characterized by an even, regular loss of metal from the
corroding surface. With respect to copper tubing, general thinning is an extremely
slow process. Copper corrosion rates are approximately 0.2 mpy. However, the
corrosion rate is very much dependent upon pH as shown in Figure 9-1.
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Figure 9-1 Influence of pH on general corrosion of copper tubing

Note that general corrosion accelerated rapidly at pHs below 5. Even at these low
pHs, the loss of copper is not rapid enough to cause failure. However, copper ions
released into the water will cause customer complaints of blue staining on porcelain.
Calcium and bicarbonate have the greatest influence on general corrosion. If the
Ksp for calcium carbonate is exceeded, then a calcium carbonate scale is deposited
and the water is noncorrosive. If no scale is formed and the ratio of the molar
concentration CO2 to HCO3 is low enough to yield a pH below 7, then corrosion
may occur.
Other cations such as magnesium, sodium and potassium exert no discernible
effect. Anions, especially chlorides, sulfate and bicarbonate do exert influence on
copper corrosion. Chlorides are a strong influence on copper corrosion, increasing
both general attack and as an initiator for pitting attack. Sulfate ions are less
corrosive to copper than chloride ions, but do increase corrosion attack.
Bicarbonate ions generally reduce the corrosive tendencies of chloride and sulfate
ions to copper.
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9.1.1.2
Localized Corrosion
Erosion-Corrosion
The natural protective cuprous oxide film is subject to erosion-corrosion from
increasing water velocity and temperature, as shown in Figure 9-2.
Figure 9-2 Effect of velocity and temperature on copper by sodium-zeolite softened

water
Erosive attack on copper usually has a distinct flow consisting of crescent or
horseshoe shaped indentations pattern shown in Figures 9-3 to 9-5.
Figure 9-3: Crescent of horse-shaped indentation on copper piping

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Figure 9-4: Crescent of horseshoe-shaped indentation on copper piping
Figure 9-5: Erosion corrosion at elbow of copper pipe joint

The root cause of the corrosive attack is the mechanical removal of the protective
oxide film by the high-velocity water. As the protective oxide film tries to reform or
repair itself, it is again removed. Repair and removal may occur simultaneously.
Erosion-corrosion usually occurs in areas where there is high water velocity flow.
These areas occur at tees, elbows, tube bends and faulty design or poor
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workmanship. Normal potable water velocities at ambient temperatures should be

3 to 5 feet per second.
9.1.2 Pitting
The pitting of copper piping is a random localized attack. There are three distinct,
commonly recognized types of pitting attack encompassing cold, hot and soft
waters.
Type I or cold-water pits are relatively deep and narrow with a film of reddish-brown
glassy cuprite (Cu2O) sandwiched between the copper surface and an exterior scale
layer of basic copper salts, most commonly malachite [CuCO3Cu(OH)2]. In some cases,
a deposit of cuprous chloride (CuCl) forms between the cuprite and the overlying
layer of basic copper salts, with the basic copper salts occasionally forming tubercles
directly over pits. Type I pits are usually formed in well waters of relatively high
conductivity, hardness, alkalinity and sulfate concentration, and of low total organic
carbon. Cold-water pitting is the most common cause of copper pipe failures.
Type II or hot-water pits are narrower than cold-water pits with a film of crystalline
cuprous oxide sandwiched between the copper surface and an exterior scale layer
invariably containing bronchantite [CuSO43Cu(OH)2]. These pits are usually formed in
waters with a pH <7, temperature >60 C, and a low bicarbonate-to-sulfate ratio. Hotwater pitting failures usually take some years to occur, in contrast to cold-water pitting in
which failures may occur in just a few months.
Type III or soft-water pits are fairly wide and shallow, with a film of crystalline, reddishbrown cuprite sandwiched between the attacked copper surface and an exterior scale
layer containing bronchantite, malachite, or both. Portions of the pipe surface are free
from visible scale. Soft-water pitting was previously thought to be very rare. This type of
pitting is characterized by the persistent release of voluminous insoluble corrosion
products that contaminate the water supply or actually cause pipe blockage. Waters
supporting soft-water pitting are cold, having low conductivity, low alkalinity, and
relatively high pH. Table 9-1 summarizes the three predominate types of pitting in
copper pipes.
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Table 9-1: Summary of three types of pitting on copper piping
Characteristics Type I Pitting
Type II Pitting
Type III Pitting
(Cold Water)
(Hot Water)
(Soft Water)
Pit shape
Deep and narrow

resulting in failure
Narrower than type I

resulting in failure
Wide and shallow, blue

water, voluminous byproducts, blockage
Scale
morphology on
attacked surface
Underlying Cu2O with

overlying malachite,
calcite, or other basic
copper salts,
occasionally CuCl
under Cu2O

bronchantite, and
malachite

bronchantite, and
malachite
Water quality
Hard, cold, well

waters, pH 7-7.8,
high SO4 relative to
Cl and HCO3, high
CO2
Hot waters, pH<7.2,

high SO4 relative to
HCO3, occasional Mn
deposits
Soft waters, pH>8.0
Initiating factors
Stagnation early in
pipe life, deposits
within pipe, high
chlorine residual,
water softeners, alum
coagulation
Higher temperatures,
high chlorine residual,
alum coagulation,
particles
Stagnation early in pipe

life, pH>8.0, alum
coagulation, low chlorine
residual
Ameliorating
factors
Natural organic
matter (NOM)
Lower temperature
NOM, avoid stagnation

early in pipe life
Treatments
Increase HCO3 and

pH
Higher pHs, increase

HCO3 and pH
Increase hardness and

alkalinity, elevate Cl2
residual to >0.5 mg/L
Table 9-1 should only be considered as a rule-of-thumb. Type I pitting (cold water) has
been observed to form under Type II conditions (hot water), and Type II pitting has
occurred under Type I conditions. In the final analysis, all pits include a layer of basic
copper salts overlaying a cupric layer, with the basic salt being predominately malachite
in cold-water pits and bronchantite in hot-and soft-water pits.
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9.1.2.1
Pit Initiation
The sequence of events leading to copper pitting is poorly understood. However, the
key to pit initiation has been thought to be formation of a porous cuprous oxide
membrane over a cuprous chloride layer lying adjacent to the copper surface. Once
formed, this structure presumably localizes certain corrosion processes and is selfperpetuating. It differs from the Cu2O film formation in general corrosion in that it has
physical breaks or other structural characteristics that confer porosity, allowing physical
migration of dissolved species directly to solution.
Formation of cuprous chloride under Cu2O is hypothesized to proceed as follows. First,
a film of cuprous chloride forms immediately when copper is immersed in potable
water containing chloride ion. This cuprous chloride is normally removed from the
surface via a number of pathways, including hydrolysis to Cu 2O, oxidation and
formation of cupric salts, and dissolution into bulk solution. These reactions typically
lead to formation of a passivating scale. Occasionally, however, cuprous chloride is
produced at a rate exceeding its loss via the aforementioned reactions. Under these
unusual conditions cuprous chloride will form under the Cu2O, and pitting will begin.
According to this theory, pit formation will be encouraged by conditions that decrease
loss of cuprous chloride or increase its production.
Several factors known to induce pitting are hypothesized to act via this mechanism. For
instance, pits frequently form on copper surfaces exposed to by-products of general
copper corrosion. Such sites include the base of copper tanks, lower surfaces of
horizontal pipes, and sections of horizontal pipe immediately underneath a section of
vertical pipe. Uniform copper corrosion above these sites produces certain by-products
that are believed to stimulate production of cuprous ions on the lower surface (the
identity of these compounds or their mechanism of action is not understood). This, in
turn, may increase the rate of cuprous chloride formation and initiate pitting attack.
9.1.2.2
Pit Propagation
Current theory of pit propagation is credited to Lucey, who in 1967 postulated that a
membrane cell was the driving force for copper pitting attack. The essential structural
components of this cell are a cuprous chloride deposit lying against the corroding
copper surface with an overlying cuprous oxide membrane.
Luceys theory was that copper pitting corrosion was markedly different from the way
other metals pit. It had been assumed that the anodic pit was surrounded by a large
cathodic surface. Since reduction of oxygen at the cathode produces hydroxyl ions,
which in turn precipitate calcium carbonate from hard waters, the anodes should tend to
be surrounded by thicker calcium carbonate deposits than those that occur elsewhere.
However, Lucey found on examining a large number of failed pipes and tanks that no
more calcium carbonate was deposited around the pits than on other parts of the
surface quite remote from the pitting. There was, however, a large amount of calcium
carbonate present in the tubercle above the pit. This suggested that the reduction of
oxygen took place immediately above the pit and not on the surrounding surface.
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Lucey postulated that the thin cuprous oxide present across the mouth of most copper
pits acted as a bipolar membrane electrode, with the under surface acting anodically
and the upper surface cathodically. Cuprous chloride produced within the pit is believed
to be anodically oxidized to cupric on the underside of the membrane, and the cupric
ions thus produced can further attack copper within the pit to form cuprous ions. The
sequence of reactions is illustrated in Figure 9-6.
Figure 9-6: Schematic of the arrangements of corrosion by-products involved in pitting

of copper
The reaction sequence is shown below:
Cu + Cl CuCl
2CuCl + H2O Cu2O + 2HCl
9.1.2.3
primary corrosion by-product

protective oxide
Pit Formation
CuCl Cu2+ + e + Cl
beneath Cu2O
Cu2+ + Cu0 2Cu+
Cu2+ + e 2Cu+
outside surface Cu2O
+
4Cu + O2 2Cu2O
Inside the pit cavity there coexists Cu, CuCl and Cu2O at a pH of 3.5.
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9.2
Solder Flux
Pitting in copper piping can also be induced by soldering flux. The pits that develop
usually contain significant amounts of chlorides, but no zinc. The active component in
the soldering flux is primary ammonium chloride. Regardless of the chloride used in the
flux, copper chloride coexists with cuprous oxide in the pit. Soldering flux pitting can be
mitigated by improved workmanship in removing the excess flux prior to sweat-fitting.
9.3
Aluminosilicate
The use of alum to generate aluminum hydroxide [Al(OH)3] as a coagulant to
precipitate silica is a common practice in potable water clarification. Silica is
naturally present in water at 5 to 50 mg/L as SiO2.
There are strong indications that the combinations of aluminum, free chlorine, low
organic matter (NOM), and a pH greater than 8.0 can initiate pitting with throughwall pinholes on copper pipe. The aluminum in the water can catalyze the cathodic
reaction between copper and chlorine after the aluminum is deposited on the copper
surface.
For pitting to occur, the aluminum concentration in the water must be between 10
and 500 g/L (ppb), chlorine level of 0.5-2 mg/L and a pH above 8.2 but below 10.
9.4
Treatment
There are two approaches to reduce the release of copper ions from copper piping.
The first approach is to increase the pH of the potable water to approximately 8. As
the pH of the water increases, the corrosion rate decreases. This is shown in
Figure 9-7.
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Figure 9-7: Influence of pH on corrosion rate of copper

Be aware that as the pH increases, so does the driving force for calcium carbonate
deposition. Therefore, there may be a need for the addition of an approved calcium
carbonate inhibitor for potable waters. Polyphosphates will provide calcium
carbonate protection and are an approved additive for use in potable waters.
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The second approach is the addition of orthophosphate. Orthophosphate ions will

form weak complexes with cupric ions, CuH2PO4 + and CuHPO4 0. As shown in
Figure 9-8, the minimum pH for copper orthophosphate solubility is 7.5.
Figure 9-8: Copper(II) solubility for different DIC levels with orthophosphate
addition, assuming formation of Cu(OH) 2 (s) and Cu 3 (PO 4 ) 2 2H 2 O(s) at 25C:
a) DIC = 4.8 mg C/L, I = 0.005;
b) DIC = 14.4 mg C/L,I=0.005;
c)DIC=48mg C/L, I = 0.01;
d) DIC = 96mg C/L, I = 0.02.
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Dissolved inorganic carbonate (DIC) is the total concentration of all dissolved inorganic
carbonate species, including carbonic acid, bicarbonate, carbonate, complexes and ion
pairs. DIC is calculated from total alkalinity, pH, temperature, and ionic strength (see
Standard Methods, edition after 1989).
From the data shown in Figure 9-8, the required orthophosphate dosage is
approximately 1-3 mg/L at pH 7, while 3-5 mg PO4/L may be required at pH 8. Note
that there is no approved chemistry to control calcium orthophosphate precipitation in
potable waters.
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Corrosion
Corrosion is defined as the deterioration of substance or its properties because of a

reaction with its environment.
With respect to potable water, the substance is usually a metal, such as carbon steel,
cast iron or a copper based metal. A substance also includes non-metals such as
plastics or concrete conduits.
Deterioration of properties includes loss of material or internal changes in the material
per se, without a weight change or visible deterioration.
However, in potable water systems, corrosion is commonly recognized by visible signs
of attack on steel and copper alloys.
The corrosion of metals by potable waters is electrochemical in nature. For iron/steel
the basic anodic reaction is:
Fe0 Fe2+ + 2e
For this reaction to occur, the electrons generated must be utilized simultaneously by a
cathodic reaction. Potable waters are usually oxygen saturated and have a pH in the
range of 5.5 to 9. Thus, the cathodic oxygen reduction reaction predominates:
O2 + 2H2O + 4e 4OH
The overall reactions are:
Fe + H2O + 1/2O2 Fe(OH)2
Fe(OH)2 + 1/2H2O + 1/ 4 O2 Fe(OH)3
Fe(OH)3 FeOOH + H2O
or
Fe2O3xH2O (red rust)
Oxygen plays an important role in that it is the primary reduction reaction. But oxygen
also is involved in the formation of a semi-permeable protective oxide film on the steel.
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Within the normal pH range of 5.5 to 9 for potable waters, corrosion rates on steel will
decrease with increasing pH. However, the reduction in corrosion with increasing pH is
not sufficient to eliminate the need for chemical treatment as shown in Figure 10-1.
Figure 10-1: Corrosion rate of iron as a function of pH

There are several forms of corrosion, but not all forms are germane to potable waters.
The most common forms of corrosion that apply to potable water are:
General or uniform corrosion

Galvanic
Pitting
Tuberculation
Flow assisted corrosion (erosion, impingement, cavitation)
Dealloying
10.1 Uniform or General Corrosion

Attack is uniform, highly visible and predicable. Attack occurs over the entire surface.
Material loss is proportional to time of exposure, and the rate of corrosion is constant.
Uniform corrosion is usually associated with waters having low pH. Low carbon steel
corrodes uniformly in soft (low calcium, low alkaline) waters.
Copper piping will corrode uniformly in acidic water (pHs less than 6), producing blue
water.
10.2 Galvanic Corrosion
Galvanic corrosion refers to corrosion damage between two dissimilar materials
(metals) in a conductive media (potable water). In a bimetallic couple, the less noble
(more active) material becomes the anode and tends to corrode at an accelerated rate
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compared with the uncoupled condition, and the more noble material will act as the
cathode and be protected.
Metals and alloys can be arranged in order of their tendency to be anodic, resulting in a
series called the Galvanic Series, shown in Table 10-1.
Table 10-1: Galvanic Series of Metals and Alloys in Seawater

Noble end
Active end
Platinum
Gold
Silver
Titanium
Stainless Steel (passive)
Nickel (passive)
Copper Alloys
Nickel (active)
Tin
Lead
Stainless Steel (active)
Steel
Cadmium
Aluminum
Zinc
Magnesium
The greater the difference between metals listed in the galvanic series, the greater the
driving force for corrosive attack. Coupling steel and magnesium in water will cause the
magnesium to corrode. This is the concept behind cathodic protection. The more
active metal corrodes (anode) and protects the more noble metal (cathode). Corrosion
occurs only at the anode and not at the cathode.
10.2.1 Area Effect
Another important factor in galvanic corrosion is the area relationship between the
cathodic to anodic areas. The larger the cathodic area compared to the anodic area,
the more oxygen reduction will occur, and hence the greater the galvanic current. Thus,
from a practical consideration, the most favorable ratio to limit galvanic corrosion should
be large anodic area to small cathodic area.
Consider the impact of coupling lead to copper. When soft solder is used to connect the
copper pipe to a copper fitting, the solder wets the narrow space between the copper
pipe and the fitting. Excess solder flows from the fitting to the inside of the copper pipe
in contact with potable water. Lead from soft solder is anodic to copper as shown in
Table 9-1. Also, the area where the excessive amount of soft solder is adhering to the
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copper pipe is extremely small compared to the total amount of copper surface in the
system. Thus, the area ratio is between the anode (lead) and the cathode (copper) is
unfavorable. Lead from the soft solder will corrode and leach into the potable water.
Galvanized steel (zinc coated steel) used to transport potable water will provide
corrosion protection as long as the zinc coating remains intact. Zinc is anodic to steel.
Over time, the zinc coating will dissolve in the water leaving behind bare (uncoated)
steel. The water will eventually attack the uncoated steel producing tubercles on the
steel surface.
10.3 Pitting
10.3.1 Steel
Pitting attack is a local form of corrosion. Pitting is an insidious, autocatalytic (selfsustaining), attack on most metal and alloys. Pits usually grow in the direction of
gravity. That is, pits develop and grow downward from horizontal surfaces. Fewer pits
develop on vertical surfaces, and rarely do they grow upward from the bottom of
horizontal surfaces.
Pitting attack occurs in stages:
Initiation
Propagation
Termination
Reinitiation
10.3.2 Initiation
The initial attack on steel surfaces is the result of a momentary increase in metal
dissolution at the surface due to an impurity, a broken surface film, or a random
variation in the water composition at a particular site. Some of the ions that can initiate
pitting on steel are: copper ions at concentrations greater than 0.1 mg/L,
orthophosphate ions at a few milligrams per liter in the absence of a cathodic inhibitor
(zinc or polyphosphate), and high concentrations of chlorine, which generates chloride
ions that are capable of piercing protective oxide surfaces.
10.3.3 Propagation
Once the pit has been initiated, it continues to grow by a self-sustaining mechanism. Pit
propagation is provided by ferrous ions (anodic reaction) being dissolved in the water:
Fe0 Fe2+ + e
The counter oxygen reduction cathodic reaction is occurring on the adjacent iron
surface:
O2 + 2H2O + 4 e 4OH
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The increase concentration of positive charges from the iron ions within the pit results in
the migration of chloride ions (Cl) to maintain electrical neutrality. The ferrous chloride
(FeCl2) that is formed hydrolyzes to ferrous hydroxide and hydrochloric acid:
Fe2+ + 2Cl Fe(OH)2 + HCl
The generation of HCl drops the pH within the pit to as low as 1.5, while the bulk
potable water remains neutral.
Hydrochloric acid stimulates further attack, which increases the dissolved ions within the
pit. As ions dissolve within the pit, the solution becomes more conductive. Corrosion
increases with conductivity. Eventually, the salt concentration within the pit becomes
highly concentrated. Since the solubility of oxygen in concentrated salt solutions is
virtually nil, no oxygen reactions occur within the pit. Thus, there is a difference in
oxygen concentration between the adjacent iron surface and within the pit. The area
with the lower oxygen content is the anode. Thus, a differential oxygen cell also exists
within the pit, further stimulating corrosion. There are at least three modes of attack
occurring within the pit: acid attack, increased conductivity, and oxygen differential
corrosion cell. Pitting is autocatalytic.
10.3.4 Termination
Pit development ceases when there is through-wall penetration or when the salt
concentration within the pit is extremely high and there is no more ionic mobility. Once
ionic mobility becomes limited, the internal resistance within the pit develops into a
resistor and corrosion stops.
10.3.5 Reinitiation
When the pit surface dries, the pit is no longer active and will terminate. When the pit is
rewetted, it may reinitiate due to the reestablishment of the conditions during the
propagation stage.
10.4 Copper
The chemistry of both general corrosion and pit formation on copper piping are
discussed in the section on Copper.
10.5 Tuberculation
Tuberculation is a form of crevice corrosion (oxygen concentration corrosion cell), which
occurs over the surface of steel in knob-like structure. Tuberculation is also known as
under deposit corrosion.
There are five structural features of a tubercle:
Outer crust
Inner shell
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Core material
Fluid-filled cavity
Corroded floor
The outer crust consists primarily of iron oxide (hematite), with other precipitates from
the water (carbonates, silicates, and other insolubles). The inner shell has a layer of
magnetite. The shell provides a barrier to oxygen. Outside the shell, the potable water
is saturated with oxygen. Beneath the shell, there is a very low oxygen concentration in
the fluid-filled cavity. The core material consists of ferrous hydroxide [Fe(OH)2] and
ferrous carbonate (FeCO3). The fluid-filled cavity is acidic from the hydrolysis of ferrous
hydroxide producing hydrochloric acid (HCl). The steel surface under the tubercle is the
corroded floor. The lower oxygen concentration in the tubercle caused the floor to be
anodic. The floor is also attacked by the acid. The attacked surface is broad but not
deep. The surface has a gouge appearance.
Tuberculation is under cathodic control. This means that the oxygen reduction reaction
is the driving force for tubercles. Chemical treatment programs that interfere with the
oxygen reduction reaction (cathodic inhibitors) will reduce the rate of tubercle formation.
Polyphosphates are cathodic inhibitors since they interfere with the oxygen reduction
reaction.
The internal volume of a tubercle is essentially devoid of oxygen. This environment is
very conducive for anaerobic bacteria. The most common microorganism to exist under
these conditions is sulfate reducing bacteria. The bacteria will reduce the sulfates to
sulfides. The overall reaction is:
4Fe + SO42 + 4H2O 3Fe(OH)3 + FeS + 2OH
Ferrous sulfide (FeS) is anodic to steel and will further stimulate corrosion.
10.6 Flow Assisted Corrosion (FAC)
Linear flow of potable water over smooth steel or copper surfaces will cause corrosion
to occur uniformly. At the water-metal surface interface, there is a static layer of water
molecules, which form a semiprotective film over the surface and remain stable.
If the flow over the metal surface is turbulent, the liquid motion impinges upon the
surface and removes the semiprotective film. Additional attack occurs by reacting with
the water. The constant corrosive attack and reformation of the semiprotective film
results in flow assisted corrosion. Mechanical factors play an important part in this
mode of attack. The semiprotective film is mechanically removed by the flowing water,
followed by reestablishment of the film. Film formation is formed from the minute
corrosive attack on the surface. Figure 10-2 shows the flow profile for both linear and
turbulent flow.
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Figure 10-2: Flow profile for linear (a) and turbulent flow (b)
The fluid dynamics in erosion-corrosion by potable waters can be an important factor in
determining the rate of material loss. When erosion-corrosion occurs, the effect of
velocity on the corrosion rate usually exhibits a breakaway phenomenon, wherein a
maximum velocity can be withstood without removal of the protective films. Above this
limiting breakaway velocity, the corrosion rates increase very rapidly.
Copper alloys, in general, are not very resistant to erosion-corrosion in potable water
where the velocity exceeds 5 ft/s.
10.7 Impingement
Impingement is localized erosion-corrosion caused by turbulence or impinging water
flow. Entrained air bubbles tend to accelerate this action, as do suspended solids. This
type of corrosion occurs in pumps, valves, and orifices, and at elbows and tees in
copper pipelines.
Impingement corrosion usually produces a pattern of localized attack with directional
features. With erosion-corrosion, attack occurs over the surface of the metal. The pits
or grooves tend to be undercut on the side, away from the source of water flow.
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The mechanism of impingement is similar to that of erosion-corrosion, as water flow

removes the protective films responsible for the corrosion resistance of the material. In
impingement, however, the flow is either turbulent or directed at roughly right angles to
the materials, whereas, in erosion-corrosion, the flow is roughly parallel to the surface.
When water is flowing over a pipe surface, there is usually a critical velocity below
which impingement does not occur and above which it increases rapidly. Impingement
may damage a protective oxide film and cause corrosion, or it may mechanically wear
away the surface film to produce a deep groove.
A specific form of impingement results from the dripping of water. Water drop
impingement is a form of mechanical erosion in which the water drops hit the surface at
high velocities.
The damage causes the momentary high-pressure pulse induced during collision of the
water drop with the metal surface. The impact creates sufficient contact stress to cause
yielding of the surface forming a crater. Both steel and copper alloys are not very
resistant to impingement attack.
10.8 Cavitation
Cavitation is also a form of mechanical damage to the surface of a metal caused by
collapsing bubbles in flowing water. It usually results in the formation of deep aligned
pits in areas of turbulent flow.
Cavitation occurs when the protective film is removed from the metal surface by the
high pressures, which has been generated by the collapse of water vapor bubbles.
Bubble formation occurs in an area of low pressure and moves to areas of higher
pressure. The bubbles collapse, forming high-pressure waves in the water, which
impinge on the metal surface, removing the protective film. The process continually
repeats attacking the meal surface.
Both steel and copper alloys, in general, are not very resistant to cavitation damage. It
occurs on the suction side of pumps when there is insufficient water supply to the pump.
10.9 Dealloying
Dealloying causes the selective removal of one constituent from an alloy while leaving
the original dimensions essentially unchanged. However, the affected areas are left very
weak. Dealloying is also known as selective leaching or by specific terms. For example,
brass will corrode in potable waters in certain conditions. This form of corrosion is
termed dezincification. In essence, the zinc is completely removed from an area, leaving
only copper. In actuality, it is thought that that brass, which contains both zinc and
copper dissolves, but the copper is redeposited by electrochemical deposition in the
cavity that had just been formed by the corrosion. The color of the deposited mass is
reddish or copper-colored in contrast to the yellow, unaffected alloy.
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The loss of iron from cast iron is known as graphitization. This form of corrosion
selectively leaches out the iron from cast iron, leaving behind graphite still in place. The
cast iron is now weakened at the site because graphite has minimal strength. This form
of attack occurs in soils containing sulfates or sulfate-reducing bacteria and acid waters.
The destruction of water mains occurs at sites where graphitization of cast iron has
occurred.
Another example is the removal of tin from lead-tin solders used in sweat fitting of
copper pipes. This form of attack causes lead to leach into the drinking water.
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Chemical Treatment
There are three basic chemicals used to control corrosion, scale, deposition and metal
stabilization in potable water: inorganic phosphate, zinc and silicates. There are a
multitude of combinations using these three chemical building blocks. For any chemical
treatment program to be used in potable waters, it must be approved by a certifying
agency. At present there are two certifying agencies: NSF and Underwriters
Laboratory.
NSF: changed name from National Sanitation Foundation
ANSI: American National Standards Institute
UL: Underwriters Institute
The NSF/UL Water Treatment and Distribution System Program are responsible for the
certification of drinking water treatment chemicals and drinking water system
components to ensure that these products do not contribute contaminants to drinking
water that could cause adverse health effects.
ANSI/NSF/UL Standard 60: Drinking Water Treatment Chemicals-Health Effects is an
American National Standard, which means that the NSF/UL Standard and the
processes used to develop it conform to ANSIs requirements for voluntary consensus
standards. The standards are copyrighted, but may be used by any organization or
individual for the purpose of product/material evaluation, testing and certification
ANSI/NSF/UL Standard 60 covers corrosion and scale control chemicals; pH
adjustment, softening, precipitation, and sequestering chemicals; coagulation and
flocculation chemicals; well-drilling products; disinfection and oxidation chemicals; and
miscellaneous and specialty chemicals for treatment of drinking water. The standard
addresses the health effect implications of treatment chemicals and related impurities.
Both the treatment chemical and the related impurities are considered contaminants for
evaluation purposes. The two principal questions addressed are:
1. Is the chemical safe at the maximum dose, and
2. Are impurities below the maximum acceptable levels?
Reaction by-products such as the disinfection by-products of chlorine, ozone, hydrogen
peroxide, or other chemicals are not covered by the scope of the standard.
The Standard sets the maximum phosphate content allowed in potable waters
expressed as orthophosphate (PO43) at 10 mg/L.
Maximum zinc content allowed in potable waters expressed as zinc ions (Zn2+) is
2 mg/L. The level of zinc in potable waters is primary compared to the phosphate
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content. That means a product that contains 5 percent zinc as Zn2+ and 10 percent
phosphates as PO43 can only add a maximum of 40 mg/L (2 mg/L Zn2+) even though
the phosphate level is 4 mg/L as PO43.
11.1 Polyphosphates
Polyphosphate is an inorganic phosphate added to potable water. The term
polyphosphate refers to commercially available condensed phosphates. The range of
materials within this classification is broad, extending from the simple diphosphate
(pyrophosphate) to linear long-chain polymeric structures consisting of about 21
repeating O-P units. Only linear polyphosphates are used in potable water, even though
cyclic structures (metaphosphates) and branched chains (ultraphosphates) exist.
The condensed inorganic polyphosphates can be viewed as coming from the
dehydration of orthophosphate. The manufacturing scheme usually involves reacting
phosphoric acid with a base such as sodium hydroxide or sodium bicarbonate to form
slurry with a carefully adjusted Na2O/P2O5 ratio. It is heated to controlled temperatures
in a furnace which thermally dehydrates the slurry to produce the desired product. The
dewatering results in the formation of the typical phosphorus-oxygen linkage. This
condensation reaction gives rise to the term "condensed phosphate." The condensed
phosphates can be either crystalline or glassy, depending upon reactant ratio
Na2O/P2O5 and furnace temperatures. The crystalline materials have a defined crystal
structure, whereas the glassy condensed phosphates are amorphous, devoid of a
defined crystal structure. A simple phosphate conversion scheme is shown in Figure 11-1.
Figure 11-1: Phosphate Conversion

7-112
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The crystalline orthophosphate and condensed phosphates used in potable water are
disodium phosphates (Na2HPO4), tetra potassium pyrophosphate (K4P2O7) and sodium
tripolyphosphates (Na5P3O10). The glassy condensed phosphates manufactured by the
fusion of orthophosphate require higher furnace temperatures than needed for the
production of crystalline condensed phosphates. The Na2O:P2O5 ratio which defines the
average chain length is shown in Table 11-1.
Table 11-1: Molecularly Dehydrated Phosphates
Na2O:P2O5
3:1
2:1
5:3
1.1:1
1:1
Compound
Na2PO4 Trisodium phosphate
Na4P2O7 Tetrapotassium
pyrophosphate
Na3P3O10 Sodium Tripolyphosphate
(NaPO3)n Sodium polyphosphate
(SHMP)
(NaPO3)n Sodium polyphosphate
Chain Percent
Length
P2O5
0
42
2
53
Form
Crystalline
Crystalline
3
12-14
57
67
Crystalline
Glass
infinite
68
Glass
Both the crystalline and glassy condensed phosphates have a linear chain structure
with a -P-O-P- backbone as shown in Figure 11-2. When the polymeric n group equals
0, the orthophosphate species exists (Na3PO4); with n equal to 1, the pyrophosphate
composition exists (Na4P2O7); with n equal to 2, tripolyphosphate species exist
(Na5P3O10). As the number of polymeric groups increases and the Na2O:P2O5 ratio
approaches 1:1, a family of glassy condensed phosphates (polyphosphates) are
formed. Commercial glassy polyphosphates used in potable water systems have an n
value of about 4 to 20, and more typically 12 to 14 with a 1.1:1 Na2O:P2O5 ratio.
Therefore, the terms sodium hexametaphosphate or SHMP which are common terms
in the water utility industry are a misnomer. The term implies six repeating units, where
in actuality it contains 12 to 14 repeating units due to the Na2O:P2O5 ratio of 1.1:1. A
longer chain polyphosphate having approximately 20 repeating units is called Glass H.
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Figure 11-2: Condensed inorganic polyphosphate

Figure 11-3 shows the stretched out form of the polyphosphate molecule.
Figure 11-3: Representation of stretched-our polyphosphate chain
7-114

Technical Manual
CHAPTER 7
Potable Water
Polyphosphates are used in a wide variety of applications in the water utility industry.
These include corrosion control, scale control, metal ion stabilization and dispersion.
Polyphosphates, when used alone, are good steel corrosion inhibitors. Relatively high
levels of polyphosphates are required to provide good corrosion protection. A minimum
concentration of calcium ions is needed to form the protective film on steel with a weight
ratio of at least 1:5 calcium:polyphosphate. The critical factor for inhibition by
polyphosphates is the calcium:polyphosphate ratio and not the polyphosphate
concentration per se. Since the calcium polyphosphate complexes are such large
molecules, diffusion of these species is too slow a process to provide adequate
protection. Thus, flow or turbulence is needed to provide rapid supply of inhibitor to the
metal surface. Since polyphosphates have surface active properties, they will adsorb on
old deposits. These deposits compete for the polyphosphate, thereby decreasing the
available supply for the formation of a protective film. This problem is overcome by initial
high dosage or pretreatment. Normal dosage levels of polyphosphate are 3 to 5 mg/L.
At this concentration, steel corrosion rates range between 4-2 mpy, respectively.
Care must be taken not to over feed, since loose deposits will be dislodged and
dispersed. Iron oxide deposits are susceptible to this action, causing increased red
water problems for a short period of time. Old, tightly adherent corrosion by-products
are not affected by the dispersion action of polyphosphates.
The optimum pH range to control steel corrosion is from 6.5 to 7.8. Polyphosphates are
cathodic inhibitors; that is, they interfere with the oxygen reduction reaction.
O2 + 2H2O + 4e 4OH
The need for calcium ion (or other multivalent ions) suggests the formation of a
positively charged complex which migrates to the cathode, forming an amorphous
polymeric phosphate film which is self-limiting. The cationic complex is accounted for by
assuming that the calcium ion lies in between the polyphosphate chain. The colloidal
particles are then the result of numerous cationic complexes loosely knit one to another
through the calcium ions. This film provides a diffusion barrier for oxygen to reach the
metal surface.
Calcium carbonate scale forms in municipal and homeowner distribution systems
because the water contains calcium and bicarbonate ions which react to produce the
scale or deposit:
Ca2+ + HCO2 CaCO3 + H+
Deposition occurs because the solubility of the reaction product has been exceeded.
The reduction in solubility can occur through an increase in temperature, as in the
homeowners hot water system because CaCO3 solubility decreases with an increase in
temperature. Scale can also develop at the interface of the bulk water and the
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Potable Water
distribution pipe. The solid/liquid interface becomes a favorable site for nucleation and
crystal growth. At the interface, the pH of the water is higher than bulk pH because the
oxygen reduction reaction produces hydroxyl ions. Calcium carbonate solubility
decreases with an increase in alkaline pH.
One of the attributes of polyphosphate is the control of calcium carbonate scale by
threshold treatment, as shown in Table 11-2.
Table 11-2: Calcium Carbonate Scale Control
Percent Calcium Carbonate Inhibition
Concentration as
1:10
Polyphosphate
1:3
PO4 mg/L
Zinc:Polyphosphate
(SHMP)
Zinc:Orthophosphate
0.1
14
10
0
0.2
55
58
0
0.3
71
69
0
0.4
81
80
0
0.5
95
93
0
0.6
100
97
0
0.7
100
0
Conditions: 500 mg/L calcium hardness; 500 mg/L alkalinity; pH =8.0; 65 C; 24 hours,
LSI=2.0; calcite saturation=53x.
The term threshold treatment applies to the use of polyphosphates in substoichiometric
quantities to control the precipitation of calcium carbonate. The dramatic retardation of
calcium carbonate scale by threshold substoichiometric concentrations of
polyphosphates cannot be explained by mole-to-mole relationships in the bulk water.
However, threshold mechanism can be viewed to be surface related; that is, critical
nuclei formation is stymied and sub-crystallite crystal growth is retarded.
Since calcium and the bicarbonate ions are charged particles, they tend to form ion
pairs. Also, in this same aqueous phase, the polyphosphate molecule has a net
electrical charge. As the ion pairs gather together in overall clusters, the polyphosphate
molecule is attracted to this cluster of calcium and bicarbonate ions. The arrival of the
polyphosphate molecule upsets the tentative energy equilibrium of the sub-nuclei-sized
ion clusters causing the individual calcium and bicarbonate ions to go back into solution.
The individual polyphosphate molecule is available to search out other clusters of
potential calcium carbonate nuclei. Thus, only one polyphosphate species can nullify
many groups of calcium carbonate clusters.
Another mechanism of threshold scale inhibitors occurs if the ion clusters are able to
reach a critical nuclei stage, form subcrystallites or eventually calcium carbonate
crystals. In this situation, the electrically charged polyphosphate molecule is attracted to
the growth of the crystallite and further growth is inhibited. Figure 11-4 represents a
7-116

Technical Manual
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Potable Water
idealized crystal surface. Atoms, ions, or molecules may be adsorbed onto a smooth
surface at an edge, step, or a kink. The Greek letter Tau () shows crystallites
descending and adsorbing on a surface or diffusion of a crystallite to the edge of a
terrace.
Figure 11-4: Schematic representation of ordered crystal growth depicting

terrace, step, and kink surface sites
When calcium bicarbonate ions are excessive or polyphosphate concentration is too
low, the calcium carbonate crystal becomes deformed due to adsorption of the
polyphosphate materials on the crystallite surface. Figure 11-5(a) shows the cubic
calcite crystals, which grow in the absence of an inhibitor. Figure 11-5 (b) is an example
of deformed crystals, which occur in the presence of an inhibitor. The deformed crystals
cannot grow and attach to the surface, and are easily dispersed by the flowing water.
Figure 11-5 (a): cubic calcite crystals
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Technical Manual
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Potable Water
Figure 11-5 (b): Distorted crystals form cauliflower morphology

in the presence of an inhibitor
Polyphosphates have the ability to stabilize dissolved iron and manganese, preventing
red or black water in the distribution system. These waters are objectionable to
consumers since it stains porcelain fixtures, the laundry wash, and lacks aesthetics for
drinking and personal care.
For polyphosphates to function effectively to control iron and manganese, it must be
added to the supply water before oxidation in the water purification and chlorination
steps. A ferric polyphosphate complex is rapidly formed in the presence of oxygen or
other oxidizers to produce a colorless colloidal particle. The manganese polyphosphate
complex in the presence of an oxidizer prevents the formation of manganese dioxide.
The complex remains as a colorless colloidal particle. The polyphosphate dosage
required for stabilizing iron or manganese is 1-2 mg/L for each milligram per liter of iron
and manganese combined in the system, as shown in Tables 11-3 and 11-4.
Table 11.3: Iron Stabilization
Concentrati
on
as PO4
mg/L
Percent Iron Stabilization

1:10
Polyphosph
1:3
Zinc:Polyphosp
ate
Zinc:Orthophosp
hate
(SHMP)
hate
0.5
6
7
3
1.0
82
84
13
1.5
88
87
18
2.0
100
100
25
Conditions: 2.0 mg/L Fe(II); pH=7.0; 25 C; 25 micron filtration
7-118
1:1
Orthophosph
ate:
Polyphosphat
e
27
CHAPTER 7
Technical Manual
Potable Water
Table 11.4: Manganese Stabilization
Concentrati
on
as PO4
mg/L
Percent Manganese Stabilization

1:10
Polyphosph
1:3
Zinc:Polyphosp
ate
Zinc:Orthophosp
hate
(SHMP)
hate
1:1
Orthophosph
ate:
Polyphosphat
e
100
100
100
0.5
85
75
79
1.0
92
85
85
1.5
95
98
90
2.0
100
100
97
2.5
100
Conditions: 2.0 mg/L Mn(II); pH=8.0; 25 C; 5 mg Cl2/L; 25 micron filtration
Although polyphosphates revert to orthophosphate, both species are excellent corrosion

inhibitors in their own right. Synergism exists between the species for corrosion control.
The incorporation of zinc into the polyphosphate glasses reduces this rate of reversion,
as shown in Table 11-5.
Table 11-5: Reversion Rates of Polyphosphate at 25 C
4.5 mg/L Polyphosphate
Hours PO4 mg/L % Reversion
0
0.07
1.7
24
0.18
4.4
48
0.26
6.4
72
0.39
9.6
96
0.41
10.1
0.3 mg Zn/L-3mg/L Polyphosphate

PO4 mg/L % Reversion
0.05
1.8
0.12
4.4
0.18
6.6
0.19
7.0
0.21
7.7
11.2 Zinc Based Treatments

There are two basic zinc containing treatments for potable water: zinc-polyphosphate and
zinc orthophosphate.
Zinc-polyphosphates have been an effective chemical treatment program for steel
corrosion control for almost 75 years. The addition of zinc ions to polyphosphates does
not appreciably change the general nature of the polyphosphate. However, dissolved
zinc markedly accelerates the establishment of a protective film. The film is very
persistent and tenacious at low concentrations. The film is not easily disrupted. The level
of zinc in the zinc-polyphosphate treatment is not critical and is usually at least 10 % of
the polyphosphate feed (e.g., 0.15 mg Zn/L and 1.5 mg polyphosphate/L). Film repair is
accelerated by the presence of zinc ions. Feed rates of 1-2 mg/L are normally used.
The pH range is 6.5 to 7.8. Because of the more rapid establishment of a protective film
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Potable Water
by zinc ions, the problem of red water in dead end areas is largely eliminated. Zinc
polyphosphates will deposit over tuberculated pipe, reducing the frequency of
mechanical cleaning. Zinc-polyphosphate provides good to excellent steel corrosion
inhibition. With 0.30 mg/L zinc and 3.0 mg/L polyphosphate, steel corrosion rates
average 3.5 mpy. Increasing the level of zinc to 0.5 mg/L with 5 mg/L polyphosphate,
corrosion rates decrease to as low as 1 mpy.
Zinc-polyphosphate treatments can be fed as two separate liquid feeds: zinc (as zinc
chloride or zinc sulfate) and polyphosphate. Physical mixture also can be used, which
consists of zinc oxide and a polyphosphate glass. A high pH liquid zinc-polyphosphate
formulation developed by a manufacturer consists of zinc and pyrophosphate. The use
of the two phosphorous containing polyphosphates (pyrophosphate) provides excellent
corrosion protection similar to using separate feeds with the higher phosphorus chain
molecule, or a physical mix.
It should be noted that the high pH liquid zinc-pyrophosphate will provide calcium
carbonate scale protection, iron/manganese stabilization, and reduced rates of
reversion. The decrease in reversion is the result of the shorter polymer chain length
plus improved stabilization from zinc being incorporated into the polymer.
If mechanical cleaning is necessary, the zinc-polyphosphate inhibitor will provide
immediate protection to the freshly exposed metal at low treatment concentrations.
Zinc-orthophosphate is a very effective multi-metal corrosion control treatment. It provides
corrosion protection to steel, copper and lead. Common ratios of zinc to orthophosphate
vary from 1:3 to 1:6. Excellent steel corrosion protection is afforded by various ratios of
zinc to orthophosphate. Zinc-orthophosphate treatments also form a rapid protective film
on metal surfaces, consequently preventing corrosion and "red water" problems. Its utility
lies in low hardness and low to moderate alkalinity waters. Zinc-orthophosphate has little
to no calcium carbonate scale inhibitory properties as shown in Table 11-2. The various
zinc:orthophosphate treatment programs will not stabilize iron but will stabilize
manganese, thus eliminating "black" water problems. A 1:3 zinc:orthophosphate
treatment program for iron/manganese stabilization are shown in Tables 11-3 and 11-4.
Steel corrosion rates for zinc-orthophosphate concentrations are excellent with zinc values
of approximately 0.5 mg Zn/L with various orthophosphate levels having ratios of
approximately 1:3 to 1:6 (1.5 mg PO4/L to 3 mg PO4/L). Under these conditions corrosion
rates are 1-2 mpy.
11.3
Non-Zinc Based Treatments
In essence there are three non-zinc chemical inhibitor treatment programs that are
applicable to potable water systems: 1) polyphosphate, 2) blended polyphosphateorthophosphate, and 3) silicates.
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Technical Manual
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Potable Water
Blended polyphosphate-orthophosphate is synergistic in controlling steel corrosion. The

polyphosphate component also provides calcium carbonate scale control, whereas the
orthophosphate species enhances steel, copper and lead protection. The pH range is 6 to
7.8 for steel corrosion control, and a pH above 7 for lead and copper inhibition. With active
treatment concentrations of 1.5 to 2 mg/L total phosphate, steel corrosion rates average 5
mpy. As the total phosphate concentration increases, steel corrosion rates decrease. At
4.5 mg/L total phosphate concentration, steel corrosion rates are reduced to approximately
2 mpy. Excellent manganese stabilization is achieved with this pair; however no iron
stabilization is possible due to the formation of iron phosphate and its subsequent
precipitation. This treatment is the best available technology to replace zinc containing
chemistry.
Sodium silicates have been used for many years as corrosion inhibitors in potable water
systems. Typical SiO2:Na2O ratio is 3.2:1. Silicates afford good corrosion protection to
carbon steel, galvanized steel and copper. They are also effective in controlling lead
leaching from soft solder. Silicate chemistry is usually applied in soft waters, such as found
in southeastern US. They are capable of providing corrosion protection over clean and
corroded surfaces. Sodium silicate has no calcium carbonate scale inhibitory property.
However, silicate chemistry is effective in stabilizing iron and manganese to prevent "red"
and "black" water problems.
In the treatment of potable waters, high levels of silica (8-16 mg SiO2/L) are maintained
above the naturally occurring silica in the water. In low alkaline waters, high
concentrations of silica may increase the pH of the system to 8 or above. The high pH can
impact upon trihalomethane (THM) formation during the addition of chlorine for
disinfection.
7-121
CHAPTER 7
Technical Manual
12.0
Potable Water
503 Section Rule
Over the years the U.S. EPA has promulgated many rules regulating the level of various
constituents in drinking water for the purpose of protecting human health and well being.
Also of concern to the U.S. EPA is the impact of the land application of waste water/sludge
discharge (or bio-solids) on landfill, and the contaminants that could potentially leach into
the ground water. Under the Clean Water Act of 1974, the U.S. EPA on February 19,
1993 promulgated a final rule to protect human health and the environment from hazards
posed by the disposal and use of sewage sludge applied to agricultural land. The rule is
commonly called the Section 503 Rule because the standards promulgated under the rule
are codified at 40 CRF (Code of Federal Regulations) Section 503.13.
The 503 Rule establishes requirements for final use and discharge of sewage from publicly
owned treatment works (POTWs) under three scenarios: 1) when the sludge is applied to land
for beneficial purposes; 2) when it is disposed of in surface impoundments; and 3) when it is
incinerated. The rule does not apply to the processing of sewage sludge before its ultimate
use or disposeal. It only applies to sewage sludge generated or treated by POTWs that treat
domestic sewage and municipal waste water.
The rule includes specific numerical limits for 10 pollutants for the land application of sewage
sludge. The 10 regulated pollutants are: arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury,
molybdenum, nickel, selenium and zinc. Tables 12-1 through 12-4 list their ceiling
concentration, cumulative loading rates, monthly average concentrations and annual loading
rates.
Table 12-1: Ceiling Concentration

Pollutant
mg/kg
Arsenic
75
Cadmium
85
Chromium
3000
Copper
4300
Lead
840
Mercury
57
Molybdenum
75
Nickel
420
Selenium
100
Zinc
7500
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Technical Manual
CHAPTER 7
Potable Water
Table 12-2: Cumulative Pollutant Loading Rates

Pollutant
Kilogram per Hectare
Arsenic
41
Cadmium
39
Chromium
3000
Copper
1500
Lead
300
Mercury
17
Molybdenum
18
Nickel
420
Selenium
100
Zinc
2800
Table 12-3: Pollutant Concentrations

Pollutant
Monthly Average
Concentration (mg/kg)
Arsenic
41
Cadmium
39
Chromium
1200
Copper
1500
Lead
3600
Mercury
17
Molybdenum
18
Nickel
42
Selenium
36
Zinc
2800
7-123

Technical Manual
CHAPTER 7
Potable Water
Table 12-4: Annual Pollutant Loading Rates

Pollutant
Annual Loading
Rates (kg per hectare
Arsenic
Cadmium
1.9
Chromium
150
Copper
75
Lead
15
Mercury
0.85
Molybdenum
0.90
Nickel
21
Selenium
Zinc
140
The pollutant of most concern is zinc, since it plays a dominant role in corrosion control of
potable water systems. Shown in Tables 12-5 and 12-6 are the type of calculations
performed to determine the acreage for safe land application. The calculations are shown
for a 100,000 gallon per day and a one million gallon per day (MGD) distribution system.
For a 0.1 MGD plant, using a zinc polyphosphate program, as little as 0.15 acres per year
is needed to dispose of the sludge. A 1 MGD plant will require 1.52 acres per year. Zinc
orthophosphate treatments require a higher concentration of zinc for corrosion control than
the zinc polyphosphate treatment. Therefore, more acreage is needed for sludge
application. A 0.1 MGD and a 1.0 MGD plant, practicing corrosion control with 0.25 mg
Zn/L and 1 mg PO4/L, will require 0.38 and 3.81 acres respectively for sludge application.
It is not uncommon for some utilities to treat their system based upon zinc concentration at
the end of the distribution system. This approach will increase the loading of zinc at the
waste water plant, thus requiring even more acreage for sludge application.
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Technical Manual
CHAPTER 7
Potable Water
Table 12-5: Load Application Rates For Water District

EPA Requirements:
Annual Load Rate per EPA Part 503:
Cumulative Load Rate per EPA Part 503:
140 Kilogram/Hectare
2.205 lbs/Kilogram
2.47 acres/hectare
Annual
140
2.505
308.7
2.47
125
Kg/hectare
lbs/Kg
lbs/hectare
acres/hectare
lbs/acre
20-year life
0.1
x 8.34
x 0.1
= 0.083
x 0.7
= 0.058
x 365
= 21.31
140
= 0.15
Cumulative
2,800
2.505
6,174
2.47
2,500
MGD
lbs/gallon
mg Zn/L residual (zinc polyphosphate treatment)
lbs/day of zinc
percent of water going to waste water plant
lbs/day of zinc
days/year
lbs zinc/year
lbs/year maximum annual load rate
Acres per year required for safe land application
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Technical Manual
CHAPTER 7
Potable Water
Table 12-6: Load Application Rates For Water District

EPA Requirements:
Annual Load Rate per EPA Part 503:
Cumulative Load Rate per EPA Part 503:
2.205 lbs/Kilogram
2.47 acres/hectare
Annual
140
2.505
308.7
2.47
125
Kg/hectare
lbs/Kg
lbs/hectare
acres/hectare
lbs/acre
20-year life
1.0
x 8.34
x 0.1
= 0.834
x 0.7
= 0.584
x 365
= 213.1
140
= 1.52
Cumulative
2,800
2.505
6,174
2.47
2,500
MGD
lbs/gallon
mg Zn/L residual (zinc polyphosphate treatment)
lbs/day of zinc
percent of water going to waste water plant
lbs/day of zinc
days/year
lbs zinc/year
lbs/year maximum annual load rate
Acres per year required for safe land application
Since polyphosphates, orthophosphate and silicates are not among the pollutants
regulated under the USEPA 503 rule, they will have no impact on sewage sludge disposal
practices.
7-126

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ASSOCIATION OF WATER TECHNOLOGIES

ASSOCIATION OF WATER TECHNOLOGIES

Raw Water Clarification

ASSOCIATION OF WATER TECHNOLOGIES

Iron/Manganese and Arsenic Removal

ASSOCIATION OF WATER TECHNOLOGIES

11.0 Chemical Treatment

12.0 Section 503 Rule

ASSOCIATION OF WATER TECHNOLOGIES

ASSOCIATION OF WATER TECHNOLOGIES

Table 1-1: Microorganisms

Gastrointestinal illness (e.g.,

Human and fecal

Gastrointestinal illness (e.g.,

Human and animal

HPC has no health effects; it is an

Legionnaire's Disease, a type of

Not a health threat in itself; it is

Coliforms are naturally

Turbidity is a measure of the

Gastrointestinal illness (e.g.,

Human and animal

Potential Health Effects from

ASSOCIATION OF WATER TECHNOLOGIES

Table 1-2: Disinfectants

Anemia; infants &

Table 1-3: Disinfection Byproducts

Increased risk of cancer

Anemia; infants & young

Increased risk of cancer

Liver, kidney or central

Potential Health Effects

ASSOCIATION OF WATER TECHNOLOGIES

Table 1-4: Inorganic Chemicals

Discharge from metal

ASSOCIATION OF WATER TECHNOLOGIES

Discharge from steel

Short term exposure:

Long term exposure:

Bone disease (pain and

Water additive which

ASSOCIATION OF WATER TECHNOLOGIES

Infants and children:

Infants below the age of

Runoff from fertilizer

ASSOCIATION OF WATER TECHNOLOGIES

Infants below the age of

Runoff from fertilizer

Hair or fingernail loss;

Hair loss; changes in

Leaching from oreprocessing sites;

ASSOCIATION OF WATER TECHNOLOGIES

Added to water during

Runoff from herbicide

Runoff from herbicide

Leaching from linings of

ASSOCIATION OF WATER TECHNOLOGIES

Runoff from herbicide

Runoff from herbicide

ASSOCIATION OF WATER TECHNOLOGIES

Discharge from industrial

Discharge from industrial

Discharge from industrial