Maintaining a Balance

Most organisms are active in a limited temperature range

1. Identify the role of enzymes in metabolism, describe their chemical
composition and use a simple model to describe their specificity on substrates
Metabolism: The sum of all chemical reactions occurring in the body
There are two types of metabolic reactions; anabolic and catabolic:
Anabolic reactions: building up large molecules from small ones.
Catabolic reactions: breaking down molecules into smaller parts.
These reactions occur through the use of a:
Catalyst: Substances that speed up the rate of a chemical reaction but are not
used up in the process.
Enzyme: A biological catalyst (a protein manufactured by cells, that speeds up
the rate of reactions in organisms but are not used up in the process).

Role of an Enzyme in Metabolism:

The role of an enzyme in a metabolism is to increase the rate of chemical
reactions by decreasing the activation energy of a reaction. If these reactions
were allowed to occur at their normal rate it would be too slow to keep an
organism alive.
Enzyme Chemical Composition:
Enzymes are proteins and are therefore made from amino acids. The amino
acids of a protein molecule form long chains that fold over to form a three
dimensional shape.
Every type of enzyme has a specific shape as it is made up of a specific pattern
of amino acids. Within their structure, enzymes have active sites that are usually
composed of three or four amino acids. The active sites are the areas that
substrates will bind to and catalyse chemical reactions. When an enzyme binds
to a substrate it makes a new molecule called the enzyme substrate complex.
Due to the specificity of their active sites, each type of enzyme will only catalyse
one reaction type.
Specificity on Substrates:
Enzymes act on substrates. It was once believed that only one specific enzyme
(or combination of enzymes) can react with one specific substrate (or
combination of substrates).
This is demonstrated by the lock and key theory proposed by German scientist
Emil Fischer in 1894.

It explains enzyme action by likening the enzyme to a lock and substrates to a

key. Only a specific key is able to open its matching lock. Just as the key is
specific to the lock so is a substrate specific to an enzyme. An enzyme will not
work unless the substrate matches its active site. Only then will the reaction be
catalysed.

However it was later discovered that the substrate enters in and binds to the
enzyme shaping the active site and properly aligning the enzyme for the reaction
to take place. Other substrates may fit into the active site, but unless they are
able to properly shape the enzyme, a reaction will not be catalysed.
Induced fit theory by US scientist Daniel Koshland, 1958

2. Identify the pH as a way of describing the acidity of a substance

pH: A measurement of the acidity or alkalinity of a substance

pH is a way of describing the acidity of a substance

3. Explain why the maintenance of a constant internal environment is important

for optimal metabolic efficiency
Enzymes usually function at a specific temperature and pH range. Where the
enzyme functions in the body determines what its optimum temperature and pH
range will be.
If an enzyme is subject to extreme pH and temperatures changes outside its
normal ranges, it firstly slows the rate of the reaction they are catalysing and then
result in change shape and block the active site of substrates.
This is called denaturing. Denaturing means that an enzyme is useless as the
substrate cannot bind with the active site and will no longer be able to function
properly or catalyse reaction. Once an enzyme is denatured the change is
permanent, the enzyme cannot be reformed into its original shape.
Changes in temperature and pH can breaks bond in the protein molecule and
overall disrupt their three-dimensional shape making them unspecific to the
substrate.
The maintenance of a constant internal environment is important for optimal
metabolic efficiency as it maintains the optimum level that the enzymes can react
at while maintaining their specificity.

Why is it important to be specific?

The specificity shown by enzymes confers upon living systems enormous
potential for very precise control of chemical reactions. This precise control is a
basic feature of life.

4. Describe homeostasis as the process by which organisms maintain a

relatively stable internal environment

Homeostasis: is the maintenance of a stable internal environment

It is a process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable environment.

In an organism enzymes control all the metabolic processes. Enzymes work
optimally in an environment where their optimum conditions are met. If the
environment surrounding the organism does not remain relatively stable then the
rate of enzyme catalysed reaction decreases. This decreased rate could affect an
entire metabolic pathway that might produce an essential compound and could
result in fatality. Therefore maintaining the homeostasis is important!
In multicellular organisms, cells need to maintain their internal balance regardless
of the external environment. An external environment may vary greatly but the
internal environment can be relatively unchanging and stable. This is because
when metabolic reactions occur in cells they cause changes in the intracellular
environment but our bodies have processes that quickly act to counter any
changes and return to the stable state. This continual maintenance is called
homeostasis. External environments have abiotic and biotic factors that affect it
but an organisms internal environment is more variable as it is controlled by the
organisms body processes.

N.B. : Enzymes often have the prefix ase

Subtrates often have the prefix ose
e.g. The substrate, cellulose is broken down by the enzyme, cellulase.

5. Explain that homeostasis consists of two stages: detecting changes from the
stable state, counteracting changes from the stable state

Negative Feedback System: is where the response to the stimulus is to reduce

and counteract the change. It causes the body to respond so that a reversal in
the direction of a change occurs.

Positive Feedback System: is where the response to a stimulus is to amplify the

change instead of reducing it. This does not result in homeostasis.
The Negative Feedback System

Homeostasis works in two stages:

Stage 1: Detecting change from a stable state:
In this stage a receptor detects a change in a specific variable from the desired
stable level of the variable.
Stage 2: Counteracting changes from the stable state:
An effector receives the message that an undesirable change must be counteracted
and the variable restored to its desired level.

This is how the negative feedback system occurs:

1. Stimulus: All organisms receive information from the various parts of their bodies
and from their environment in the form of stimuli. It can be either external or
internal.
2. Receptor: A variation in either the internal or external environment is detected by
a receptor. Sight, sound, touch, taste and smell are all receptors.
3. Control Centre (Central Nervous System CNS): Once a variation is detected,
a message is sent to the control centre. This then replies by sending a message
to the effector to counteract the variation.
4. Effector: The effector is normally either a muscle or gland that responds to the
message and counteracts the variation.
5. Response: This is the action of counteracting the variation.

6. Outline the role of the nervous system in detecting and responding to

environmental changes
The nervous system is made of the brain, the spinal cord and sensory and motor
neurons.
The nervous system enables the detection of external and internal environmental
changes to the body and then coordinates the responses the body will make to
counteract these changes.
It is made up of two interacting elements, the central nervous system and the
peripheral nervous system:
Central Nervous System:
Composed of the brain and the spinal chord.
The spinal chord transmits messages from the receptor organs via the sensory
neurons to special regions of the brain.
When one of these regions receives stimuli from the sensory neurons it then
coordinates the correct response necessary to counteract the change by sending
out messages to the effector organs via the motor neurons.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
Composed of all neurons outside the Central Nervous System (CNS). These
include sensory and motor neurons.
Sensory neurons transmit messages from the receptor organs to the CNS (brain).
Motor Neurons transmit messages from the CNS (brain) to the effector organs to
activate a response.
7. Identify the broad range of temperatures over which life is found compared
with the narrow limits for individual species
Life is found over a broad range of temperatures on planet earth. Where climatic
temperature can vary from -75oC to above 50oC.
However, most individual species have narrow temperature limits and they
cannot exist in habitats that have great varying temperatures.
This is because they possess behavioural and physiological adaptations that
enable them to maintain their temperature within this narrow range.
8. Compare responses of named Australian ectothermic and endothermic
organisms to changes in the ambient temperature and explain how these
responses assist temperature regulation
Ectotherms: are organisms whose body temperature is determined by their
surroundings. e.g. plants, invertebrates, amphibians, reptiles and fish
Endotherms: are mammals that have physiological structures that enable them
to maintain their body temperature within a narrow range irrespective of the
ambient temperature. e.g. birds and mammals
Physiological Adaptations: referring to adaptations in relation to how the
organism functions
Structural Adaptations: referring to adaptations in relation to the organisms
shape and size
Behavioural Adaptations: referring to adaptations in relation to how the
organism acts.

Red Kangaroo:
The red kangaroo is the largest marsupial in Australia. It lives in the grasslands of
dry arid central part of the country. In this habitat, the red kangaroo experiences
temperatures varying from 5oC in the winter months to 38 oC in the summer months.
For this reason, it needs many adaptations to accommodate these dramatic changes
in temperature and retain its optimum temperature range is 37.5 oC.
Climate
Cold
conditio
ns
(winter
months)
Warm
conditio
ns
(Summe
r
months)

Physiological
Increased
metabolic rate
to create more
heat within the
body
Decrease in
metabolic rate
which reduces
the amount of
heat within the
body

Structural
Behavioural
Layer of fur creates and layer of insulation Basking in the sun
between the skin and the hair and allows
the kangaroo to stay warm
- Panting to release heat
- Exposed areas of skin on the forelegs to
increase evaporative cooling of the blood
from this area
- Shunting blood from the tail to the
exposed areas of the skin on the forelegs
to increase heat loss.

- Nocturnal
- Licking forelegs
to increase
evaporation from
the skin
- Sitting in the
shade

Diamond Python:
The diamond python lives in a variety of habitats including rainforests, temperate
forest, grassland, caves and hollow trees. It eats small mammals, bats, birds and
lizards. Its optimum temperature range is around 20 oC however this depends on the
ambient temperature the pythons surroundings.
Climate
Cold
conditions
(winter
months)

Physiological
Lies on eggs
and shivers to
increase the
temperature of
incubation

Structural
Dark in colour to
absorb heat and can
therefore tolerate
colder temperatures
than most snakes

Warm
conditions
(summer
months)

Behavioural
- Basks in the sun to
raise body
temperature
- Hibernation
- Migration to warmer
areas
- Is nocturnal, so hunts
at night to escape
the heat during the
day
- Burrowing during the
day

Compare the responses of endotherms and ectotherms:

Endotherms need to have a high metabolism rate to maintain this optimum
temperature rate in cold conditions and as a result need to eat large amounts.
Ectotherms do not need to do this however they have greater restrictions placed on
their activity as a result. In hot conditions endotherms must have specific adaptations
to these environmental changes to regulate heat gain so not to raise their
temperature above their optimum temperature level as this can cause severe
damage. This is the same for both endotherms and ectotherms in relation to cold
climates. Ectotherms are not found in extremely cold climates.

9. Identify some responses of plants to temperature change

Plants are ectothermic and so cannot maintain a constant temperature. Therefore
they have a range of adaptations to help them survive in a variety of
temperatures.
Response to Temperature Reason
Change
Leaf Fall

Radiation
Heat-shock Proteins

Transpiration

Die back

Orientation of leaves

Ice formation between

cells

Many plants in hot conditions reduce their surface area that is

exposed to the sun by dropping their leaves. This reduces the
amount of water lost in transpiration
Some plants reduce the amount of heat received by having shiny
leaves that reflect solar radiation
Produced by plants when they are under stress from very high
temperatures. They are thought to stop the denaturing of the
enzymes within the cell, so allow normal cell reactions to continue
The movement of water through the plant helps to cool the plant
during hot conditions. This is also effecting when evaporation of
water occurs from the stomates of the leaf
In harsh conditions, shoots of a plant may die. However the soil
and roots will begin to grow again when favourable conditions
return
Some plants orientate their leaves in such a way that it reduces
the amount of sun rays that make contact with the surface area of
the leaf. e.g. eucalyptus
Most plants are able to tolerate fairly low temperatures compared
to animals. This is due in part to their cell walls as when
temperatures drop bellowing freezing, ice will form outside of the
plant cells. This is because the solution within the plant cells is
higher in solutes (and therefore higher freezing point) than the
solution between the cells. Ice will therefore form between the
plant cells, which are protected from ice crystals by cell walls.
However this is ineffective if temperatures drop too quickly, such
as during a frost.

10. Identify data sources, plan, choose equipment or resources and perform a
first-hand investigation to test the effect of: increased temperature, change in
pH, change in substrate concentrations on the activity of named enzyme(s)
--------------------------------See Enzyme Action Prac Experiment---------------------------------------See Substrate Concentration and Enzyme Activity Prac Experiment------------------------See First-hand Investigations with Enzymes Prac Experiment---------------------------------See Effect of pH on enzyme activity Prac Experiment-------------------PRAC EXPERIMENT 1, 2, 3, 4
11. Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources and use
available evidence to develop a model of a feedback mechanism
-----------------------See examples of feedback mechanisms in notes-------------------------

12. Analyse information from secondary sources to describe adaptations and

responses that have occurred in Australian organisms to assist temperature
regulation
------------------------------------------See questions in notes---------------------------------------Plants and animals transport dissolved nutrients and gases in a fluid medium
1. Identify the form(s) in which each of the following is carried in mammalian
blood: carbon dioxide, oxygen, water, salts, lipids, nitrogenous waste, other
products of digestion
Substance

Transported form

Carbon Dioxide
(a waste product of
respiration in cells)

- Dissolved in plasma
- Converted into carbonic acid and then hydrogen carbonate

Oxygen (needed for

respiration)
Water (solvent of plasma)
Salts (composed of positive
and negative ions, used for
body processes)
Lipids (digested lipids are resynthesised into triglycerides in the epithelial
cells that line the small
intestine)
Nitrogenous wastes
(metabolic wastes excreted
by the body)
Other products of digestion
(amino acids, sugars,
vitamins, glycerol and
nitrogenous bases)

ions in red blood cells

- Bind to haemoglobin forming carbaminohemoglobin
Attached to haemoglobin in red blood cell forming
oxyhaemoglobin
Dissolved in plasma
Dissolved in plasma as ions

Wrapped in a coat of protein to form a package called

chylomicron

Dissolved in plasma as urea, uric acid and creatinine

Mainly water soluble and are transported dissolved in plasma

2. Explain the adaptive advantage of haemoglobin

The red blood cell has no nucleus so can carry as many haemoglobin molecules
as possible.
Haemoglobin is a complex protein molecule which is made up of four long amino
acid chains, each one assembled around the atom of iron. Iron easily combines
with oxygen.
The adaptive advantage of haemoglobin is that is increases the bloods carrying
capacity of oxygen by one hundred times. As a result of the haemoglobin being
able to carry more oxygen, there is more oxygen available for cells. Therefore
gives an organism the ability to become more complex.

3. Compare the structure of arteries, capillaries and veins in relation to their

function

Blood
Vessel

Structure

Function

Arteries
blood
travelling
away from
the heart

- Thick

- Cope with the high pressure of blood being pumped out

muscular
walls
- Walls are
elastic

- Smooth inner

layer
Veins blood - Thinner
travelling
muscular
towards the
walls
heart
- Wider
diameter

Capillaries

to the body
Enables expansion and contraction to adjust to the
amount of blood flowing through at any one time
Allows blood to flow with ease
These three aspects of an arteries structure allow the
artery to expand as it fills with blood when the heart
beats and contract as the heart relaxes. This results in
a force to help push the blood through the body.
This is in response to the lessened amount of pressure
as the blood is not being pumped hard as it returns to
the heart
Allows increased amounts of blood to flow through
veins and return to heart
Prevent blood from flowing backwards in the vein

- Valves
- A single layer - Allows a single file of red blood cells to pass through,
of
flat
overlapping
cells

maximising the opportunity for the exchange of gases,

nutrients and wastes between the blood and the tissue
cells. In this way the bodys tissues are efficiently
supplied with the substances they need while wastes
are removed.

4. Describe the main changes in the chemical composition of the blood as it

moves around the body and identify tissues in which these changes occur
The chemical composition of blood changes as it moves around the body. This is
as a result from the continuous exchange of substances between the blood and
the surrounding tissues.
In general, blood moving through the bodys tissues delivers oxygen and glucose
for cellular respiration as well as nutrients.
In general, blood moving away from the bodys tissues carries carbon dioxide and
nitrogenous wastes for disposal.

Tissue

Main Changes in Blood

Lung

- Increase in oxygen
- Decrease in carbon dioxide
- Increase in glucose and other products of digestion (amino

Villi of small
intestine
Kidneys
Other body tissues

acids, lipids, vitamins, minerals, water)

- Decrease in nitrogenous wastes (salts and water to form urea)
- Decrease in oxygen
- Decrease in glucose
- Increase in carbon dioxide
5. Outline the need for oxygen in living cells and explain why removal of carbon
dioxide from cells is essential
Need for oxygen in living cells:
Oxygen is transported from the lungs to the tissues throughout a body.
These cells need oxygen so that the process of cell respiration can occur.
Cell respiration is essential as it provides energy that is needed for metabolic
process (e.g. protein synthesis) and if these processes do not occur it can result
in fatality.
Need for removal of carbon dioxide in living cells:
The products of respiration are carbon dioxide and water.
For most living cells that do not photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is a waste that
must be removed as it can become poisonous if too concentrated in a cell.
A high concentration of carbon dioxide dissolved in the cytoplasm of a cell can
lower of the pH level making the liquid more acidic.
This would result in denaturing enzymes in the cell and lowering their activity
which can result in fatality of the cell.
6. Describe current theories about processes responsible for the movement of
materials through plants in xylem and phloem tissue
Xylem (dead tissue)
Phloem (living tissue)

transports
water
and
dissolved
transports
sucrose,
minerals
produced
in
photosynthetic tissue to
other regions of a plant, as
well as hormones and any
other
organic
material
made by the plant.

- Water has tensile strength because of the - Transport of the organic material
cohesion of the molecules. They tend to stick
through the plant is called
together as well as to the tube by adhesion. The
translocation.
smaller the diameter of the tube the molecules are - The organic material is actively
in, the greater the tensile strength. This results in a
transported around the plant
capillary action that helps the water move through
through the use of sieve tubes.
the plant.
- The energy required for the
active transport is provided by
companion cells.
- A high concentration of water in the soil is absorbed
by the root hairs which have a lower concentration - When the sugar leaves the
of water. This is caused by osmosis and is called
phloem to enter a sink (a place
osmotic pressure.
that uses organic material made
elsewhere) there is an increase
- The water then moves through the cortex into the

xylem in the vascular tissue and transported

of water in the sieve tube in that
through the plant. This overall process is called
region. This increases pressure
root pressure.
in the sieve tubes.
- Gases enter and leave the leaf through the - Water then moves out of the
sink tubes and this results in
stomata. Most of the water lost by the plant is in
higher pressure in the sieve
transpiration through the stomata.
tube and lower pressure at the
- The walls of the mesophyll cells are moist and
sink tube.
when the sun shines the air spaces around them
- The difference in pressure
evaporate the water.
pushes the materials to move to
- As water evaporates, water moves out of the cells
the sink to be used in different
to ensure that the walls of the mesophyll are kept
ways.
moist. In turn, water moves from the small xylem
vessels into the mesophyll cells. This is called
transpiration pull.
7. Perform a first-hand investigation to demonstrate the effect of dissolved
carbon dioxide on the pH of water
----See Effect of Dissolved Carbon Dioxide On the pH of Water Prac Experiment---PRAC EXPERIMENT 5
8. Perform a first-hand investigation using the light microscope and prepared
slides to gather information to estimate the size of red and white blood cells
and draw scaled diagrams of each
--------------See Measurement of the Size of Blood Cells Prac Experiment-------------PRAC EXPERIMENT 6
9. Analyse information from secondary sources to identify current technologies
that allow measurement of oxygen saturation and carbon dioxide
concentrations in blood and describe and explain the conditions under which
these technologies are used
What is oxygen
saturation?
How does
measuring these
concentrations
help?
Who needs this
tested
/monitored?

How is it
measured?

What is a
biosensor?

Oxygen saturation is relating to the measured amount of oxygen in the blood.

Normal oxygen saturation in the human body is about 96%.
helps doctors in diagnosis of patients and in monitoring them while in hospital
gives information about the ability of the lungs both in providing oxygen to the
body and removing carbon dioxide from the body.
- gives information on the kidneys ability to reabsorb or excrete bicarbonate
ions to maintain normal body pH.
Patients:
- undergoing any procedure that requires anaesthesia or sedation
- with abnormal breathing
- in intensive care
- in accident and emergency facilities
- who are premature new born babies
- who shows dangerously low oxygen levels or high levels of carbon dioxide
Advances in biotechnology and electronics have resulted in the production of
biosensors that have made analysing blood more accurate.
In hospitals, a Pulse Oximeter is used to monitor the oxygen saturation of the
blood and in dramatic cases, blood is taken from an artery for Arterial Blood
Gas Analysis.
A sensor is a device that translates a physical or chemical property into an
electrical signal that can be measured.
The key component is the transducer or signal-converting element that
converts the property to be measured into a signal.

What is a Pulse
Oximeter?

- Pulse oximeters measure the amount of oxygen in arterial blood (blood being
-

What is Arterial
Blood Gas (ABG)
Analysis?

pumped from the heart to the body cells).

They consist of a sensor or probe that is attached to a part of the body such
as a fingertip.
When oxygen combines with haemoglobin the colour of the blood changes
from dark red (unsaturated) to bright red (saturated).
Light from two light emitting diodes is passed through the finger and the
amount of light energy transmitted is detected by two light detecting sensors.
The light energy varies depending on the level of oxygenation of haemoglobin
in the blood.
Two diodes are commonly used, one emitting red light (650nm) and the other
infrared (940nm). Oxygenated blood absorbs red light whereas deoxygenated
blood absorbs more infrared light. There is a large difference in the amount of
red light absorbed by the oxyhaemoglobin compared to haemoglobin.
By calculating the absorption at the two wavelengths the processor can
compute the proportion of haemoglobin which is oxygenated.
The signal is first amplified, then the oxygen saturation is calculated and the
result displayed on the screen. An alarm rings if oxygen saturation falls below
a certain level, usually about 90%.
Oximeters give no information about the level of carbon dioxide and therefore
have limitations in the assessment of patients developing respiratory failure
due to carbon dioxide retention.
Arterial blood is taken from easily accessible artery; either the wrist, upper
arm or groin.
The syringe that is used contains a small amount of heparin, to prevent the
blood from coagulating. Once the sample is obtained, care is taken to
eliminate visible gas bubbles, as these bubbles can dissolve into the sample
and cause inaccurate results.
The sample is then packed in ice and taken to the laboratory. Here, the blood
sample is put into a machine which measures the oxygen saturation, pH, the
partial pressures of oxygen, carbon dioxide and the bicarbonate concentration
(amount of carbon dioxide carried in blood).
The pH is measured with a glass bulb that contains a known solution of
known pH. When this sensor is placed in an unknown pH the difference
between the two solutions is calculated and so pH of the solution is
determined.
Blood pH is a reflection of the concentration of hydrogen ions in blood. A high
concentration gives a low pH (acidic) and a low concentration gives a high pH
(alkaline).
Partial pressure of oxygen shows the concentration of a gas in a medium and
therefore displays how much oxygen the lungs are delivering to the blood. It is
measured using a Clark oxygen sensor. Oxygen from the blood sample
diffuses through a gas-permeable membrane where it causes an electrical
current to be generated. The amount of current generated is proportional is
proportional to the concentration of oxygen in the sample. This is measured
and the result reported.
Carbon dioxide levels are tested by a sensor, based on the design invented in
1965 by Severinghaus. The sensor detects pH changes in a small volume of
bicarbonate solution separated from the sample by a gas permeable
membrane. As carbon dioxide crosses the membrane, the following reactions
occurs:
carbon dioxide (CO2) + water (H2O) carbonic acid (H2CO3) hydrogen
ions (H+) + hydrogen bicarbonate ions (HCO3-)
Any change in hydrogen ion concentration changes the pH. This is measured

by the internal pH sensor. pH as a measure of the concentration of hydrogen

ion can be related to the concentration of carbon dioxide. This calculation is
made and the result reported.
- When carbon dioxide is present in normal amounts, the ratio of carbonic acid
to bicarbonate creates an acid-base balance in the blood, helping to keep the
pH at a level where the bodys cellular functions are most efficient. The lungs
control the carbonic acid level and the kidneys regulate the bicarbonate. If
either organ is not functioning properly, an acid base imbalance can result.
Determination of bicarbonate and pH levels, then, aids in diagnosing the
cause of abnormal blood gas values.

10. Analyse information from secondary sources to identify the products

extracted from donated blood and discuss the uses of these products
Component

Composition

Use

Whole blood

Cell and plasma

Blood cells

Red blood cells, white blood cells,

come platelets and little plasma
Platelets
Plasma, all coagulation factor

Volume replacement in cases with

large blood loss
Anaemia

Platelets
Plasma
Granulocytes
Cryoprecipitate

Lymphocytes, neutrophils, some

red blood cells and platelets
Fibroginogen

Severe bleeding
Bleeding, where there is a deficiency
in coagulation
Low neutrophil count
Von Willebrands disease
Haemophilia A
Haemophilia A

Antiheamophillic
factor
Factor IX concentrate
Factor IX complex

Factor VIII

Albumin
Intravenous gamma
globulin
Antithrombin III
concentrate

Albumin 5%, 25%

IgG antibodies

Haemophilia B
Hereditary factor VII, IX, X deficiency
Haemophilia A with factor VII
inhibitors
Burns, volume expansion needed
Immunodeficiency diseases

Antithrombin III

Risk of thrombosis

Factor IX
Factor II,VII, IX, X

11. Analyse and present information from secondary sources to report on

progress in the production of artificial blood and use available evidence to
propose reasons why such research is needed
What is
A blood substitute that can be used to provide fluid volume and carry
artificial blood? oxygen in the vessels. It remains in circulation until blood volume is
restored and then artificial is safely excreted.
Why is it not
- Is routinely used but not commonly. This is because it only transmits
always used?
oxygen but not nutrients, so cannot be used in long term treatments.
- Also it does not contain white blood cells, so cannot resist viruses
from outer environment.
Why does it
- there are not enough blood donors

exist?

What is the
demand for it?

What research
exists today?

What has been

achieved
today?

- there is a shortfall in blood supply

- it has a longer shelf life then donated blood
- it is easily produced and developed at a fast rate and works for all
blood types
Scientists have been trying to develop a blood substitute since the
1930s. The military have been seeking a viable product at least a in the
1970s and commercial ventures have added to this research since the
early 1980s.
Northfield Laboratories Inc in Chicago have developed Poly Home. This
is basically recycled human blood that is universally compatible,
substantially free of viral contamination and has a one-year shelf life.

Perfluorocarbons:
These are compounds derived from hydrocarbons by replacement of
hydrogen atoms by fluorine atoms. They are commonly used in eye
surgery as temporary replacements of the vitreous humour in retinal
detachment surgery.
Plasma substitutes:
Any liquid used to replace blood plasma and volume of blood. It is also
used to treat dehydration.

12. Choose equipment or resources to perform a first-hand investigation to gather

first-hand data to draw transverse and longitudinal sections of phloem and
xylem tissue
---------See Investigating the movement of materials in plants Prac Experiment------PRAC EXPERIMENT 7,8
Plants and animals regulate the concentration of gases, water and waste
products of metabolism in cells and in interstitial fluid
1. Explain why the concentration of water in cells should be maintained within a
narrow range for optimal function
Water inside a cell is essential for life. Too little or too much can result in serious
problems and most cells will die if their water content is changed significantly.
It is necessary for many reasons:
It is the medium that transports and distributes many substances (such as
nutrients and wastes) in and between cells.
It is the solvent in which many important ions and molecules required for
metabolic reactions are dissolved. They are only able to move when in aqueous
solution as can they diffuse across and between cells.
Metabolic reactions that occur within cells can only occur in solution.
Water itself is a reactant or product of many cellular reactions e.g. cellular
respiration
For optimal functioning of cells is reliant on their water content being kept within a
very narrow range. The concentration water inside the cell (intracellular fluid) must
match the concentration of water outside the cell (interstitial fluid). This is called
isotonic.

 If these concentrations do not match, water will move by osmosis from the area of
higher concentration to lower concentration. This leaves cells venerable to losing or
gaining to much water.
2. Explain why the removal of wastes is essential for continued metabolic activity
------------------------------------See Point 5 in above section-------------------------------------Cells are the sites of many metabolic reactions which keeps the cell function and
therefore the organism alive and healthy. However these metabolic reactions
produce wastes and if these wastes are not properly removed it can poison the cell.
It can also change the pH of the cell and prevent enzymes from working which stops
metabolic activity that are vital for the cell and organisms life.

3. Identify the role of the kidney in the excretory system of fish and mammals
The kidney is part of the urinary system and is the main organ involved in the
excretion of wastes and osmoregulation in fish and mammals.
Osmoregulation: maintenance of a constant concentration of salt ions and
therefore water levels within the body regardless of the concentrations within
the environment
The role of the kidney is to:
- Excrete wastes
- Maintain osmoregulation
- Maintain appropriate pH levels in the blood
4. Explain why the processes of diffusion and osmosis are inadequate in
removing dissolved nitrogenous wastes in some organisms
In unicellular organisms, the excretion of dissolved nitrogenous wastes occurs
solely by the processes of diffusion and osmosis. These are both forms of
passive transport.
The cell membrane is selectively permeable, allowing water molecules to enter
by osmosis when necessary and nitrogenous wastes to exit by diffusion.
However, multicellular organisms are too large to rely on the processes of
...diffusion and osmosis to excrete their nitrogenous wastes. They are made up of
...millions of cells so therefore must rid themselves of their wastes by other
...methods.
Active transport is one method whereby ions are moved against a concentration
..gradient through proteins.
5. Distinguish between active and passive transport and relate these to
processes occurring in the mammalian kidney

Passive Transport: diffusion of molecules from regions of high concentration to

low concentration without the expenditure of energy
Active Transport: The net movement of particles against a concentration
gradient from an area of high concentration, with the expenditure of energy

The mammalian kidney is designed to use active transport to move ions against their
concentration gradient and therefore excrete wastes.

Process
Diffusion

Osmosis

Definition
The movement of
substances from areas
where they are in high
concentration to regions
where they are in low
concentration.

Osmosis is the movement

of water only through a
semi-permeable membrane
from a region where there
are less solutes in the
water to a region where
there are more solutes.
(Region from higher to
lower concentration)
Active uptake Where the cell membrane
actively
selects
which
substances
can
pass
through it into the cell.
Large protein molecules in
the cell membrane are
involved in this.
Secretion
The cells lining the tubule
can
actively
secrete
harmful substances into the
tube.

Application to kidney function

Solutes in the filtrate will tend to diffuse
out through the tubule walls into the
tissue fluid and the blood, but once the
concentrations are equal there will be no
further net diffusion. If all of a substance
needs to be reabsorbed then active
uptake must occur.
98% of water needs to be reabsorbed
from the filtrate and returned to the
blood. It can move by osmosis only if
there are more solutes outside the
tubule than inside the tubule.

In order to absorb all the useful

molecules from the filtrate, active uptake
must be involved. This is because
diffusion will no longer work once the
concentration of the substance is the
same of the inside and outside of the
tubule.
Drugs such as penicillin and aspirin and
other poisons are added to the fluid in
the tube. Because a lot of the urea
which forms part of the glomerulus
filtrate diffuses out of the tubule, this
must be secreted back into the tubule.

Most of the process of reabsorption is by active uptake. This is why the kidney has
such a high respiration rate. Water can only move by osmosis so the kidney must
ensure that there is a high enough salt concentration around the Loop of Henle to
absorb the sufficient amounts of water.

6. Explain how the processes of filtration and reabsorption in the mammalian

nephron regulate body fluid composition
The functional unit of the kidney is called the nephron.
The nephron functions to filter the blood of metabolic wastes, make and secrete
urine and reabsorb water to maintain homeostasis. There are millions of
nephrons in the kidneys cortex and medulla.
The reabsorption of water from the urine allows the nephron to regulate body fluid
composition.
Purpose of nephrons
- To reabsorb useful molecules
- Keep unwanted molecules in the tubule
- Balance the pH of the blood
- Maintain the correct osmotic balance in the blood (water/salt)

Part of the Nephron

Glomerulus

Main function (and how it is achieved)

An area of high blood pressure in a knot of capillaries
which has a semi-permeable membrane allowing for
the removal of small molecules and ions from the
blood stream.
Bowmans Capsule
A cup shaped structure surrounding the glomerulus
that collects material forced out of the blood
Proximal
Convoluted - The first substances reabsorbed by active transport
Tube
are glucose, sodium chloride, bicarbonate and
potassium ions.
- Hydrogen ions are pumped into the tubule at this
point to help maintain blood pH.
- Water is also reabsorbed by passive transport.
(sodium gradient)

Loop of Henle

Distal Convoluted Tube

Collecting Duct

Water is reabsorbed into the blood through passive

diffusion. If the concentration of blood is very high then
more water is reabsorbed.
- The end point for active reabsorption.
- Some sodium and potassium are reabsorbed here to
adjust the pH of the blood.
- Water will also pass out by passive diffusion.
- The final filtrate is formed.
- Materials remaining after reabsorption of wastes
move through this tubule.
- More water is collected into the bloodstream. The
waste in the tubule is urine which is passed into the
pelvis of the kidney.

7. Outline the role of the hormones, aldosterone and ADH (anti-diuretic hormone)
in the regulation of water and salt levels in blood
The kidneys play a major role in maintaining water and salt levels in the blood. They
are aided by hormones produced by the bodys endocrine system. The two main
hormones involved in osmoregulation are Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) and
Aldosterone.

Aldosterone: hormone produced by the adrenal cortex that regulates salt and
water balance

Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH): hormone produced by the hypothalamus that

control reabsorption of water in the kidneys

Aldosterone
- A consequence of low water levels is
low blood pressure, as a result of
lessened blood volume. This change
in blood pressure is detected by the
receptors in the kidnies resulting in
the release of Aldosterone
- Produced by the adrenal glands
located just above each kidney
- Aldosterone acts to control the
reabsorption of solutes, specifically
sodium. The higher the level of
aldosterone, the more permeable the
walls of the nephrons are to sodium.
So sodium ions and therefore water
are absorbed back into the blood.

Anti-diuretic Hormone
- Hypothalamus has osmoreceptors that
detect a rise in the concentrations of
solutes in the blood (low concentration
of water).
- As a result ADH is released into the
blood stream by the pituitary gland
- Travels in blood to distal tubule of
kidney
- Increase the permeability of distal and
collecting tubule walls so that more
water is reabsorbed
- This resulted in an increase in the
amount of water returned to the blood
and a decrease in the amount of urine
produced.

8. Define enantiostasis as the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in

response to variations in the environment and discuss its importance to estuarine
organisms in maintaining appropriate salt concentrations
Enantiostasis: maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in
response to variations in the environment
Estuaries are areas where saltwater from the ocean mixes with freshwater from
one or more rivers. This results in fluctuating salt levels caused by tidal
movements.
Organisms that live in this habitat undergo enantiostasis. This means they
employ various tactics to cope with changing salinity.
Organisms that have special physiological mechanisms that allow them to control
salt levels in their bodies are called osmoregulators. e.g crabs
Organisms that can tolerate their body salt levels moving up and down in parallel
with the level of the environment are called osmocomformers. They conform to
the external environment. e.g. some species of algae
Plant example: Grey Mangrove (see point 15) Animal example: Dugong
- Dugongs live in wide shallow bays and areas protected by large inshore islands such
as Shark Bay in Western Australia. They are herbivores feeding on seagrass. Drinks
seawater and actively secrete minimal amounts of concentrated urine.
9. Describe adaptations of a range of terrestrial Australian plants that assist in
minimising water loss
Water loss generally occurs as a by-product of transpiration. If a plant needs to reduce water loss it
must close its stomata to do this. However, the plant also needs to photosynthesise and respire,
processes that need the stomata to be open for gas exchange.
Adaptation

Plant

How?

Phyllodes

Acacia group

Replaced leaves with a modified leaf steams

called phyllodes. They are green and able to
photosynthesise life a leaf but contain fewer
stomata per square centimetre than normal
leaves. Therefore reduces transpiration and

water loss for the plant.

Reduce size of
Casuarina
Reduces the amount of stomata present on the
leaves
equisetifolia
leafs surface and therefore reduces
transpiration stream.
Sunken
Wollemi Pine
Leaves have stomates that are set into or
stomates
sunken into the leaf. The stomates have no
direct contact with the sunlight so water
evaporation is reduced.
Hairy Leaves
Paper Daisy
Leaves and sometimes stems are covered in
hairs to reduce water loss. The hairs trap water
that has evaporated from the plant, increasing
the humidity around this area. This humidity
decreases the transpiration rate.
Leaf curl
Flax Lilies
Will curl their leaves when temperatures get too
high. Most of their stomates are located on the
upper side of their leaves so when the leaves
roll up, the stomates are on the inside protected
from heat and evaporation.
Leaf shape
Native Pig Face
Grows on sand dunes so exposed to sunlight
practically all day. Leaves are triangular in
shape to reduce the surface area exposed to
sunlight and decreasing water loss.
10. Perform a first-hand investigation of the structure of a mammalian kidney by
dissection, use of a model or visual resource and identify the regions involved
in the excretion of waste products
----------------------------See Dissection of Kidney Prac Experiment-------------------------PRAC EXPERIMENT 9
11. Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to compare
the process of renal dialysis with the function of the kidney
Treatment
How it works

Peritoneal Dialysis
Haemodialysis
Kidney Transplant
Blood is purified inside the Blood is removed from Functioning
kidney
body using the peritoneum
patients artery
from
living/brain
(the membrane that lines
dead/recently
dead
Before passing through
the abdominal cavity) as a
person
is
surgically
the dialyser an anticlotting
natural filter
implanted
factor, Heparin is added to
Dialysis solution enters the
Other kidneys need
the blood
abdominal
cavity
via Passes
not be removed
through
the
catheter
dialyser blood travels Donor must be an
Wastes diffuse and excess
next to and in the opposite
exact
match
to
water moves by osmosis
direction to dialysate
decrease risk that the
from inside peritoneum Separated by a cellulose
patients body with
membrane
down
the
reject the foreign
acetate membrane that
concentration gradient into
organ
allows diffusion of wastes
the fluid
and excess water out of Most dialysis patients
The waste filled solution is
the blood down the
are on the donor list
then drained from the
concentration gradient
in hope of a matching
cavity and disposed of
kidney
Water bath maintained
This process is performed
invasive
at
body
temperature Requires
twice in each session both
(37oC) prevents shock and
surgery with general
morning and night.
organ failure
anaesthetic
Each exchange takes 45 Roller pump maintains
mins
pressure

Treatment
Advantages

Peritoneal Dialysis
Haemodialysis
Kidney Transplant
Personal
choice
of Staff/organises treatment
No need for dialysis
treatment time
treatment
Only 3 sessions a week
Involvement in self care
Regular
contact
with Better quality of life
Less
severe
Reduced
medical
people in dialysis centre
cardiovascular instabilities
costs
Less
diet
and
fluid
No diet/fluid intake
restriction
restrictions
Disadvantages Permanent catheter in Inflexible
treatment Need for frequent
abdomen
schedule
physician visits
High risk of infection
Travel to dialysis centre
Pain from surgery
Potential weight gain
Two needle sticks to Lifelong medication to
extract blood as part of
prevent rejection
Four exchanges needed a
treatment
Suppressed immune
day
Cannot
move
during
system
treatment
Diet/fluid intake restrictions
12. Present information to outline the general use of hormone replacement
therapy in people who cannot secrete aldosterone
The pituitary produces a hormone that influences the secretion of hormones from
the adrenal cortex, including aldosterone. If the adrenal cortex gland is affected
by a disease (e.g. Addisons disease) it can result in the gland producing
insufficient levels of all adrenal cortex hormones. This includes the hormone
aldosterone.
As a result people with insufficient levels of adrenal cortex hormones require
multiple hormone replacement therapy.
This includes a synthetic form of aldosterone which is called fludrocortisone.
The replacement is needed because the aldosterone secreted from the adrenal
gland carries out the vital process of:

- control of blood pressure and body fluid composition.

13. Analyse information from secondary sources to compare and explain the
differences in urine concentration of terrestrial mammals, marine fish and
freshwater fish

Isotonic: When the two solutions have the same concentration of solutes. There
is therefore no net movement of solutes by diffusion and no net movement of
water by osmosis
Hypertonic: The name given to the fluid which contains the greater amount of
solutes. Water will flow into a hypertonic solution by osmosis
Hypotonic: The name given to the solution which contains the lesser amount of
solutes. Water will flow out of this solution by osmosis.

Nitrogenous
waste product
Ammonia
Urea
Uric acid

Toxicity

Solubility in water

High
Medium
Low

High
Medium
Low

Freshwater Fish

Marine (Saltwater) Fish

- Tissues
hypertonic
to surroundings
- Concentration gradient results in a loss of salts and an uptake
of water
- Fish
must
counter
these changes
to
maintain
homeostasis
1. Does not drink
2. Kidney contains glomeruli
and secretes copious
amounts of very dilute urine
that contains ammonia.
Tubules actively reabsorb
NaCl.
3. Gill membranes permeable
to water
4. Gills actively absorb ions.
Some ammonia leaves gills
at the same time
Freshwater and saltwater fish
Terrestrial Mammal
-Mammals must produce urine to
be able to excrete their
nitrogenous waste: urea
-Oxidation of proteins results in

Types of animals
producing this waste
Fish
Terrestrial mammals
Insects, reptiles, birds

Tissues
hypotonic
to
surroundings
Concentration gradient results
in a loss of water and an
uptake of salts
Fish
must
counter
these
changes
to
maintain
homeostasis
1. Drinks seawater
2. Minimal
urine
produced.
Kidneys
lack
glomeruli.
Tubules
actively
secrete
MgSO4
3. Gill
membranes
are
relatively impermeable to
water
4. Gills actively secrete sodium
from chloride cells; chloride
ions follow.
are both osmoregulators.

Desert Terrestrial Mammal

-

Produces very concentrated

urine
Little water loss occurs as
most is retained through

urea, as well as carbon dioxide

and water
-This can cause water loss

kidneys (long loop of henle)

14. Use available evidence to explain the relationship between the conservation of
water and the production and excretion of concentrated nitrogenous wastes in
a range of Australian insects and terrestrial mammals
Tarrkawarra (Spinifex Hopping Mouse):
Lives in desert and semi-desert regions of Central and Western Australia
Main food is dry seeds. The amount of water these contain depends on the
humidity of the air. This is greater at night than day.
The mice are nocturnal so collect food at the most humid time so absorbs water.
Comes out at night to avoid heat of day
Very little water loss in urine
Mice huddle together in burrows during hot days. The air surrounding the group
increases in humidity and has the effect of reducing water loss from the skin and
allows water to enter the mouse (instead of water loss to the environment).
The longer the loop of henle for the animal the greater water preservation (live in
desert)

15. Process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available
evidence to discuss processes used by different plants for salt regulation in
saline environments

Halophytes: A plant that successfully inhibits areas of high salinity. Possess

various adaptations to assist them in surviving high salt level in their
surroundings.

Most plants cannot tolerate salty condition in saline environments the solute
concentration in the soil is greater than it is inside the plants root and so water
tends to move out by osmosis.
In addition, an excess of sodium ions inside cells inhibits enzymes activity and
can result in a decrease in the uptake of essential potassium ions.
Plant
Salt marsh plant
(Sarcocornia quinqueflora)
Atriplex (saltbush)

Palmers Grass (Distichlis

palmeri)
Northfolk Island Pine
Grey Mangrove

Process of Salt Regulation

Salt collected in swollen leaf bases then are shed from the
plant
Sodium ions are concentrated in salt glands within the leaf
which eventually expand and burst, releasing the excess
salt.
Salt leaves the plant through the cells on the leaf, builds
up on the leaf surface and is ultimately washed away
Exposed to salty air and prevent salt from entering their
leaves by covering the stomates with a thin layer of cuticle
- Salt is secreted in from the cells of the plant onto the
lower surface of the leaf and into bark. The leaves are
then dropped and water dissolves the salt off the bark.

- The endodermis in the roots forms a barrier against the

passage of most salt into the xylem so the xylem
contains reasonable fresh desalinated water.
16. Perform a first-hand investigation to gather information about structures in
plants that assist in the conservation of water
------See Investigating Water Conserving Structures in Plants Prac Experiment------PRAC EXPERIMENT 10