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UNIT 8

EVALUATION AND MAINTENANCE OF MIS

Learning Objectives
After having read this unit, you will be able to:

describe the evaluation approaches and evaluation classes for assessing

an MIS;

discuss and implement product based and cost-benefit based evaluation

of MIS;

understand the concept and types of system maintenance.

Structure
8.1.

Introduction

8.2.

Evaluation of MIS

8.3.

System Maintenance

8.4.

Pitfalls in MIS development

8.5.

Summary

8.6.

Review Questions

8.1. Introduction
Evaluation of MIS is an integral part of the management control process, in
which the organisations determine or appraise the quality or worth of their
information systems. In other words, evaluation of MIS is a process of
measuring performance of organizational information systems. The feedback
so obtained helps determine the necessary adjustments to be made in their
information systems.

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8.2. Evaluation of MIS

8.2.1. Evaluation Approaches
There are different approaches to evaluate MIS in an organisation. The MIS
evaluation approaches provide different means to measure accomplishments of
system objectives. Hamiltons survey (1980) indicates that the following
approaches on MIS evaluation are frequently employed in organisation. The
scope of each evaluation approach has been summarized as follows.
i) Quality Assurance Review
Quality assurance reviews or technical reviews focus on assessing the
information systems technical quality, e.g. comparison to standards and
operations acceptance procedures. Technical evaluation includes variables like
data transmission rate, main/secondary storage, CPU capacity, etc. Technical
reviews are performed by MIS development/ operations personnel or a
separate quality assurance group within the MIS function.
ii) Compliance Audits
Compliance audits or application control reviews assess the adequacy and
completeness of controls for the system inputs, outputs, processing, security
and access. Compliance audits are typically performed by an autonomous
internal audit function.
iii) Budget Performance Review
Evaluation of MIS budget performance concentrates on compliance with a
predetermined budget expenditure level for the MIS development or
operations process. Evaluation of user budget performance has its focus on
MIS resource consumption by the user. Both may be supported by a
chargeback mechanism.
iv) MIS Personnel Productivity Measurement
The capability of MIS personnel is typically determined in terms of
productivity. Examples of productivity measures include lines of code per unit

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time for the programming (development) personnel and keystrokes per unit for
the data entry (operations) personnel.
v) Computer Performance Evaluation
The production capability of the computer hardware is typically evaluated in
terms of performance efficiencies and bottlenecks that limit production. For
example, computer performance evaluation measurements are made on per
cent uptime, actual throughput, and I/O channel utilization.
vi) Service Level Monitoring
Service level monitoring focuses on assessing the information and support
provided to the user, based on the terms established between the MIS and the
user personnel. Assessment of the information provided include turnaround
time, response time and error rates. Assessment of the support provided
include the time required to respond to the users problems and requests for
changes.
vii) User Attitude Survey
User attitude survey method is used in operational evaluation. Operational
considerations refer to whether the input data is adequately provided and the
output is usable. This type of attitude surveys are conducted through
questionnaires and/or interviews to appraise the users perceptions of the
information and support given by the MIS function. User attitude surveys
typically assess such aspects as the quality and timeliness of reports, quality of
service and MIS-user communication.
viii) Post-Installation Review
The focus of a Post-Installation Review (PIR) is often on estimating whether
the system meets the requirement definition, i.e. Does the system do what it is
designed to do? However, the scope of the PIR may include to post-hoc
review of the development and operation processes, an examination of the
information and support provided, an analysis of the actual use process, and
cost/benefit analysis of the system and its effects on the user performance.

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ix) Cost/Benefit Analysis
Cost/Benefit analysis is also known as economic evaluation. The analysis
quantifies the systems effect on organizational performance in terms of
dollars, e.g. direct cost savings or tangible financial benefits. Cost/benefit
analysis is often used in capital budgeting to gauge the return on investment.

8.2.2. Evaluation Classes

Evaluation of performance measurement consists of two major classes as
given below.
Effectiveness
This refers to the quality of the outputs from the system. Effectiveness means
doing the right thing in the right manner so that desired result may be
achieved. Information System is said to be effective if its product (i.e. output)
is of quality, and the process of producing output is right (effective).
Efficiency
(Relative Cost of Producing Outputs)

Effectiveness
(Outputs Against Desired

Outputs)

Process

Outputs
(Results)

Input of
Resources

Feedback
Figure 8-1 Relationship between Efficiency and Effectiveness
Efficiency
It is a measure of the amount of resources required to achieve the output, i.e.
the use of system resources to get results. Being efficient implies the system is
operating the right way.

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The relationship between effectiveness and efficiency is that effectiveness is a
measure of goodness of output, while efficiency is a measure of the resources
required to achieve the output. This relationship has also been shown in Figure
8-1.
There are various dimensions of information systems that should be evaluated.
These may include the development process, which concerns whether the
system was developed following set standards; information being provided
and the systems performance. Depending upon the dimensions of the
information system to be evaluated, an appropriate evaluation approach may
be adopted. To understand the concept of MIS evaluation, two types of
evaluation have been discussed in this section. These are product-based
evaluation and economic evaluation; where one type of evaluation (economic)
focuses on the costs/benefits of MIS, the other type focuses on the product, i.e.
information support from the MIS.

8.2.3. Product-Based MIS Evaluation

Since the focus of the product-based evaluation is on the product (information
support) or the output from the system, the evaluation may be termed as
effectiveness evaluation. For assessing the effectiveness of output from MIS,
the following model may be used.
Model Structure
The information attributes may be identified as components of a general
model for evaluation of MIS effectiveness in an organisation. Some of these
attributes are listed below.
i)

Timeliness

ii)

Relevance

iii) Accuracy
iv) Completeness
v)

Adequacy

vi) Explicitness
vii) Exception-based.

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Model Implementation
Various types of outputs/reports, being generated by MIS of the organisation
can be evaluated for their effectiveness in terms of the attributes of the
management information. The attributes of information have been listed in the
structure of the model as mentioned above. To employ this model, managers at
different levels of management of the organisation may be asked to rate the
outputs/reports on each of the information attributes.
To get responses, five-point scale may be used on which the respondents
(users of information systems) may be asked to rate the effectiveness of MIS
in terms of these information attributes. The rating is based on the number of
the reports/outputs which observe the information attributes. For example, a
five-point scale may be prepared to get an evaluation of the number of reports
received by the managers in terms of Timeliness, as given below.
All reports Most reports Many reports Some reports No report
*--------------*-------------------*-----------------*------------------*
4
3
2
1
0
The scale thus prepared is to be administered either through a mailed
questionnaire or through a personal interview and the scoring may be done by
assigning a numerical value of 0 to the least favourable location on the scale, 1
to the next favourable, and so on.
The following formula may be applied to compute effectiveness score for each
of the attributes.
ESk = s.f / N
Where ESk = Effectiveness Score for kth attribute
s = Score assigned to the response
f = Frequency of the score
N = Number of respondents

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On the whole, the effectiveness score for all the n information characteristics
of MIS can be computed as follows:
10

ESMIS = E. Sk / n
k=1
Effectiveness Norm
Now, ideally speaking, ESMIS should be equal to 4. However, owing to the high
cost involved in such a system and uncertain environment, such a situation is
not practical. Therefore, a tolerance limit is to be prescribed which serves as a
standard or effectiveness norm, against which the organisation may compare
the effectiveness of the existing MIS to determine deviations, if any. It is on
the basis of this comparison that an MIS may be termed as either effective or
otherwise. The tolerance limit for defective reports may be decided by the
organisations concerned; it may vary from 5 to 20% and accordingly, the
standards for an effective MIS may be computed in terms of its ES MIS as
follows.
On the five-point scale, the total scale is divided into four parts. Taking the
total scale equal to 100, each part on the scale is equal to the value of 25. Thus
on this scale, 100%, 75%, 50%, 25% and 0% of the reports are represented by
a score of 4, 3, 2, 1, and 0, respectively. According to this conversion rule, 1%
of the reports would be represented by 1/25 th 0.04) part on the scale. For 90%
of the reports, the score may be calculated as below.
If 1% of the outputs are represented by a score of 0.04 part on the scale, 90%
of the outputs are represented by a score of 0.04 x 90 = 3.6 on the scale.
Therefore, 90% of the outputs will be represented on the scale by an
effectiveness score of 3.6. From the above, it may be said that ESMIS for 5%,
10% and 15% defective reports should be equal to 3.8, 3.6 and 3.4,
respectively.

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8.2.4. Cost/Benefit-Based Evaluation

In cost/benefit evaluation, a thorough study of various expected costs, the
benefits to be expected from the system and expected savings, if any, is done.
It is an economic evaluation of the system, in which costs to be incurred for
developing, implementing and operating a system are to be justified against
the expected benefits form the system. in other words, cost/benefit analysis
determines the cost-effectiveness of the system.
For understanding cost/benefit evaluation, various estimates of costs as well as
benefits expected from the system are to be made. In developing cost
estimates for a system, several cost elements are considered. Among them are
initial development costs, capital costs, operating costs, etc. Similarly
expected benefits from the system are considered. The benefits may be in
terms of reduced cost, better performance/decisions, etc. The various
categories of costs and benefits are measured and included in cost/benefit
analysis. A brief description of all these cost elements and benefits is given
below.
Initial Development Cost
Initial development cost is the cost incurred in developing an information
system. various elements of development cost include project planning cost,
feasibility study cost, design cost, conversion cost, implementation cost
(including user training cost, testing costs, etc.). In other words, total
development cost is considered one-time cost and is termed as initial
development cost.
Capital Cost
Capital cost is also one-time cost. It is the cost incurred in facilities and in
procuring various equipments, including hardware, etc., required for the
operation of the system. Facility costs are expenses incurred in the preparation
of the physical site where the system will be implemented. It includes wiring,
flooring, lighting, acoustics, and air-conditioning cost. The cost on space
required for office, storage and computer room, if not hired, is also included in

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the facility cost. Hardware and equipment cost relates to the actual purchase or
lease of the computer and peripherals.
Annual Operating Cost
Annual operating cost is the cost incurred in operating the system. It includes
computer and equipment maintenance cost, personnel cost, overheads and
supplies cost. Computers and equipment are to be maintained and thus some
cost is incurred, known as Annual Maintenance Cost (AMC). Similarly,
personnel are required to operate the system. Personnel cost includes EDP
staff salaries and other benefits (provident fund, health insurance, vacation
time, pensionary benefits, etc.). Overhead costs include all costs associated
with the day-to-day operation of the system; the amount depends on the
number of shifts, the nature of the applications, and capabilities of the
operating staff. Supply costs are variable costs that increase with increased use
of paper, ribbon, disks, etc.
Just as the cost elements, in cost/benefit evaluation, various expected benefits
from the system are also studied. The first task is to identify each benefit and
then assign a monetary value to it. Benefits may be tangible or intangible,
direct or indirect.
There are two major benefits, namely, improving performance and minimizing
the cost of processing. The performance part suggests improvement in the
accuracy, timeliness, non-duplication, adequacy, usefulness in information and
easier access to the system by authorized users; which in turn leads to better
decisions and allows more time to managers for planning purpose, etc.
Minimizing costs through an efficient system, such as error control, reduced
salary and labour cost and reduced inventory cost is a benefit that is to be
measured for evaluating cost-effectiveness of a system.
For identification and categorization of various costs and benefits, the
following concepts are important.

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Identification of Costs and Benefits
Certain costs and benefits are more easily identifiable than others. For
example, direct costs, such as the price of a personal computer, ribbon, etc.,
are easily identified from invoices or from organizational records. Similarly,
direct benefits like reduction in staff because of the new system or fast
processing of transactions, may be identified. Other direct costs and benefits,
however, may not be well-defined, since they represent estimated costs or
benefits that are not very certain or well-defined. An example of such a cost is
a reverse for bad debt.
Classification of Costs and Benefits
The various categories of costs and benefits are important to make a
cost/benefit analysis. These categories may be tangible or intangible, direct or
indirect, fixed or variable.
Tangibility
Tangibility refers to the ease with which costs and benefits can be identified
and measured. Cost incurred or to be incurred on a specific item or activity is
termed as a tangible cost. For example, computer costs, consultancy fee paid
to a consultant, employee salary are tangible costs. Whereas intangible costs
are those costs that are known to exist but whose monetary value cannot be
accurately measures. For example, lowered employee morale because of a new
system is an intangible cost.
Like costs, benefits may also be categorized as tangible or intangible. Tangible
benefits such as reduced salaries, producing reports with no errors are
quantifiable. Intangible benefits, such as high morale among employees,
improved organizational image are not easily quantified.
Costs are also categorized as direct or indirect costs. Direct costs are those
with which an amount in rupees can be directly associated to any of the items
or operations of the system. For example, the purchase of a computer ribbon
for Rs 200 is a direct cost. Direct benefits also can be identified which could

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be attributed to the new system. For example, a 5 per cent reduction in salary
expenditure because of the new system can be classified as a direct benefit.
Indirect costs are the results of operations that are not directly associated with
the system or activity. They are termed as overheads. For example, safety or
security of computer room, electricity, air conditioning and maintenance, etc.,
are included in indirect costs.
Similarly, indirect benefits are realized as a by-product of some other activity
or system. For example, newly computerized salary system provides
information on the total amount required for the disbursements and total
deductions to be made under various heads like insurance, provident fund,
recovery from loan advances, etc. Information about the amount recovered
from loan advances becomes an indirect benefit of the salary system as the
management would be able to properly utilize the amount and thus can earn
maximum returns.
Fixed costs are constant costs and do not change, regardless of how well a
system is used. They are only one-time costs like development cost, capital
and insurance cost, etc., whereas variable costs are incurred on a regular basis.
They are usually proportional to work volume and continue as long as the
system is in operation. For example, the cost of supplies depends upon the size
and volume of reports/processing work. Fixed benefits are also constant and
do not change. For example, 10 per cent reduction in staff as a result of the
new system is a fixed benefit. Variable benefits, on the other hand, are realized
on a regular basis. For example, the amount of daily time saved of a manager
varies with the number and types of decisions taken.
Once the variable of interest and their respective figures are identified, a table
known as MIS evaluation table may be prepared as shown in Table 8-1.
The MIS evaluation table summarizes the benefits to be expected from the
system, the expected costs and expected savings, if any, for the MIS user. The
annual savings and rate of return are computed by using any or a combination
of evaluation methods which have been mentioned below. Equipment life has
tended to be relatively short because of technological obsolescence. For

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medium-to-large scale equipment, it is estimated to be five years; for
microcomputers, owing to faster obsolescence, it is considered to be three
years.
Table 8-1
MIS Evaluation Form
Name of the organisation __________________________
Address________________________________________
(A) Estimated Initial Development Cost
1. Project Planning
2. Feasibility Study
3. Design
4. Conversion
5. Implementation
6. Miscellaneous
Total(A)
(B) estimated Capital Cost
1. Computer room Equipment and H/W
2. Facilities
Total(B)
(C) Estimated Operating Cost
1. Personnel
2. Computer/Equipment Rent
3. Overhead and Supplies
Total(C)
(D) Estimated Benefits
1. Reduced salary and Labour Cost
2. Reduced Inventory cost
3. Better decisions
4. Any other Intangible Benefit
Total(D)
(E) Annual savings
DC
(F) Rate of return (rate at which present value of
savings equals present value of one-time costs)
(Pv of E = Pv of A + B)

Date ____________
Ref. No. _________
Rs _________
Rs _________
Rs__________
Rs__________
Rs _________
Rs__________
Rs________
Rs__________
Rs__________
Rs________
Rs_________
Rs_________
Rs_________
Rs________
Rs__________
Rs__________
Rs__________
Rs__________
Rs_________
-%

Evaluation Models
Having identified and categorized various costs and benefits, monetary value
of each and every cost as well as benefit is estimated. A system analyst/user
manager may evaluate the costs and benefits so estimated. For evaluation,
there are several models, which are available, namely:
i)

Net benefit analysis,

ii)

Present value analysis,

iii) Net present value,

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iv) Payback method,
v)

Cash-flow analysis,

vi) Break-even analysis, etc.

Each method has got its own advantages and disadvantages. Any one or a
combination of several methods may be used to evaluate the estimated figures
of costs and benefits.
No doubt, cost/benefit analysis is a very important tool used in economic
evaluation of the system, however, the difficulty in quantifying intangible and
indirect costs and benefits becomes its major limitation.

8.3. System Maintenance

The results obtained from the evaluation process help the organisation to
determine whether its information systems are effective and efficient or
otherwise. As the organisations are existing in dynamic and competitive
environments, evaluation is a continuing activity. On the basis of the feedback
provided by the evaluation process, the organisation in order to keep its MIS at
the highest levels of effectiveness and efficiency, of course, within cost
constraints, must respond by taking corrective actions. Corrective action may
include removing errors which may be due to design, due to environmental
changes or due to organizational changes, or due to changes while enhancing
the existing system. This process of monitoring, evaluating, and modifying of
existing information systems to make required or desirable improvements may
be termed as System Maintenance.
System maintenance is an ongoing activity, which covers a wide variety of
activities, including removing program, and design errors, updating
documentation and test data and updating user support. For the purpose of
convenience, maintenance may be categorized into three classes, namely:
i)

Corrective,

ii)

Adaptive, and

iii) Perfective.

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8.3.1. Corrective Maintenance

This type of maintenance implies removing errors in a program which might
have crept in the system due to faulty design or wrong assumptions. Thus, in
corrective maintenance, processing or performance failures are repaired.

8.3.2. Adaptive Maintenance

In adaptive maintenance, program functions are changed to enable the
information system to satisfy the information needs of the users. This type of
maintenance may become necessary because of organizational changes which
may include:
i)

change in the organizational procedures,

ii)

change in organizational objectives, goals, policies, etc.,

iii) change in forms,

iv) change in information needs of managers,
v)

change in system controls and security needs, etc.

8.3.3. Perfective Maintenance

Perfective maintenance means adding new programs or modifying the existing
programs to enhance the performance of the information system. This type of
maintenance is undertaken to respond to the users additional needs which
may be due to the changes within or outside of the organisation. Outside
changes are primarily environmental changes, which may in the absence of
system maintenance; render the information system ineffective and inefficient.
These environmental changes include:
i)

changes in governmental polices, laws, etc.,

ii)

economic and competitive conditions, and

iii) new technology.

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No doubt, maintenance is regarded as a necessary evil but it should not be
delegated to junior programmers; nor should it be performed on a haphazard
or informal basis; rather maintenance must be given its due status in the
organisation and should be, as far as possible, properly planned and the
maintenance responsibility should be entrusted to a qualified supervisor and
team of MIS experts.

8.4. Pitfalls in MIS development

Moving to an e-business environment involves a major organizational change.
For many large, global companies, becoming an e-business is the fourth or
fifth major organizational change they have undergone since the early 1980s.
Many companies have gone through one or more rounds of business process
reengineering (BPR); installation and major upgrades of an ERP system;
upgrading legacy systems to be Y2K compliant; creating hared service
centers; implementing just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing; automating the sales
force; contract manufacturing; and the major challenges related to the
introduction of Euro currency.
So implementing new e-business strategies and applications is only the latest
catalyst for major organizational changes enabled by information technology.
For example, implementing an application like online transaction processing
brings efficiency to single-function or core business processes. However,
implementing e-business applications such as enterprise resource management
or customer relationship management requires a reengineering of core
business processes internally and with supply chain partners, thus forcing a
company to model and implement business practices being implemented by
leading firms in their industry. Of course, any major new business initiatives
can enable a company to redefine its core lines of business and precipitate
dramatic changes within the entire inter-enterprise value chain of a business.
As we will see in this section, implementing new business/IT strategies
requires managing the effects of major changes in key organizational
dimensions such as business processes, organizational structures, managerial
roles, employee work assignments, and stakeholder relationships that arise

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from the deployment of new business information systems. For example, table
8-2 emphasizes the variety and extent of the challenges reported by 100
companies that developed and implemented new enterprise information portals
and ERP systems.
Table 8-2
Intranet Enterprise

Enterprise Resource

Portal Challenges
Security, security, security

Planning Challenges
Getting end-user buy-in

Defining the scope and purpose

Scheduling/planning

of the portal

Integrating legacy systems/data

Finding the time and the money

Getting management buy-in

Ensuring consistent data quality

Dealing with multiple/

Getting employees to use it

international sites and partners

Organizing the data

Changing culture/ mind-sets

Finding technical expertise

IT training

Integrating the pieces

Getting, keeping IT staff

Making it easy to use

Moving to a new platform

Providing all users with access

Performance/ system upgrades

End User Resistance and Involvement

Any new way of doing things generates some resistance by the people
affected. For example, the implementation of new work support technologies
can generate fear and resistance to change by employees. Lets look at a real
world example that demonstrates the challenges of implementing major
business/IT strategies and applications, and the change management
challenges that confront management. Customer relationship management
(CRM) is a prime example of a key e-business application for many
companies today. It is designed to implement a business strategy of using IT to
support a total customer care focus for all areas of a company. Yet CRM
projects have a history of a high rate of failure in meeting their objectives. For

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example, according to a report from Meta Group, a staggering 55% to 75% of
CRM projects fail to meet their objectives, often as a result of sales force
automation problems and unaddressed cultural issues sales staffs are often
resistant to, or even fearful of, using CRM systems.
One of the keys to solving problems of end user resistance to new information
technologies is proper education and training. Even more important is end user
involvement in organizational changes, and in the development of new
information systems. Organisations have a variety of strategies to help manage
business change, and one basic requirement is the involvement and
commitment of top management and all business stakeholders affected by the
planning processes.
Direct end user participation in business planning and application
development projects before a new system is implemented is especially
important in reducing the potential for end user resistance. That is why end
users frequently are members of systems development teams or do their own
development work. Such involvement helps ensure that end users assume
ownership of a system, and that its design meets their needs. Systems that tend
to inconvenience or frustrate users cannot be effective systems, no matter how
technically elegant they are and how efficiently they process data.
Change Management
People are a major focus of organizational change management. This includes
activities such as developing innovative ways to measure, motivate, and
reward performance. So is designing programs to recruit and train employees
in the core competencies required in a changing work place. Change
management also involves analyzing and defining all changes facing the
organisation, and developing programs to reduce the risks and costs and to
maximize the benefits of change. For example, implementing a new e-business
application such as customer relationship management might involve
developing a change action plan, assigning selected managers as change
sponsors, developing employee change teams, and encouraging open

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communications and feedback about organizational changes. Some key tactics
change experts recommend include:
Involve as many people in e-business planning and application
development.
Make constant change an expected part of the culture.
Tell everyone as much as possible about everything as often as
possible, preferably in person.
Make liberal use of financial incentives and recognition.
Work within the company culture, not around it.
A change Management Process
Change leaders are the change agents that would then be able to lead change
teams of employees and other business stakeholders in building a business
case for changes in technology, business processes, job content, and
organizational structures. They could also communicate the benefits of these
changes and lead training programs on the details of new business
applications. Of course, many change management models include methods
for performance measurement and rewards to provide financial incentives for
employees and stakeholders to cooperate with changes that may be required.
In addition, fostering a new e-business culture within an organisation by
establishing communities of interest for employees and other business
stakeholders via Internet, intranet and extranet discussion groups could also be
a valuable change management strategy. Such groups would encourage
stakeholder involvement and buy-in for the changes brought about by
implementing new e-business applications of information technology.

8.5. Summary
Evaluation of MIS is a process of measuring performance of organizational
information systems. There are different approaches to evaluate MIS in an
organisation; like Quality Assurance Review; Compliance Audits; Budget
Performance Review; MIS Personnel Productivity Measurement; Computer

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Performance Evaluation; Service Level Monitoring; User Attitude Survey;
Post-Installation Review; and Cost/Benefit Analysis, etc. Depending upon the
need and convenience, evaluation of MIS may be done by using any one or a
combination of various approaches. Evaluation of performance measurement
consists of two major classes namely effectiveness and efficiency. The
relationship between effectiveness and efficiency is that effectiveness is a
measure of goodness of output, while efficiency is a measure of the resources
required achieving the output.
The results obtained from the evaluation process help the organisation to
determine whether its information systems are effective and efficient or
otherwise. As the organisations are existing in dynamic and competitive
environments, the organization keep on changing. This change may be within
or outside the organisation, which necessitates changes in the information
system. Thus, system maintenance becomes an ongoing activity and includes a
wide variety of activities like correction of errors in the programs, updation of
documents, updation or enhancement of user support, etc. According, system
maintenance can be categorized as corrective, adaptive and perfective. Though
system maintenance starts immediately after an information system is
implemented, maintenance cost can be reduced to a great extent if it is
properly planned for and the user is involved at each stage of the MIS
development.

8.6. Review Questions

1) Why is evaluation of MIS important? Describe, in detail, various
approaches for evaluating an MIS.
2) How would you categorize performance evaluation? Discuss two
major classes of performance measurement.
3) What is product-based evaluation? Discuss, in detail, the model which
may be employed for product-based MIS evaluation.
4) Prepare a cost/benefit evaluation table. Elaborate its various
components. How is cost/benefit evaluation carried over?

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5) Why is system maintenance necessary? Discuss the types of system
maintenance.