Materials Science Timeline

Paleolithic (old stone age) period (2. 5

million - 10,000 BCE)

Lower or Early Paleolithic period

Start to see the use of materials. The materials (flint, chert, and
igneous rocks such as basalt and obsidian (dark volcanic glass)
used had the following characteristics - hard, brittle, isotropic.
Flint is a brittle material, which can be chipped and flaked to
form a tool - scrapers, knives, awls, hand axes etc.
Clay figures and pots from this period have been found.

Middle Paleolithic period

Widespread use of flake tools and limited evidence of
husbandry.
Upper or late Paleolithic period
Widespread use of flake and core tools - backed blades (one
sharp side), end scrapers, burins (thick chisel ends). Spears,
ornaments and figurines carved.
Ochre - clay, reddish brown (iron oxide), used as a pigment in
paint

Mesolithic (middle stone age) period

(8300 BCE)

Widespread use of geometric monoliths and bladelets, arrows,

spears and sickles.
These were often set in bone, antler and wood (the blade could
be replaced when broken or worn - REPLACEABLE
COMPONENTS) and used in the procurement of plant and
animal resources.
Beginning of agriculture, and its associated tool problems.

Neolithic (new stone age) period (9000 5000 BCE)

In eastern Asia, archaeologists have traced an independent
invention of ceramics and polished-stone use, with the
development of a distinct form of agriculture based on rice and
other native plants. Axes capable of felling trees
8000 BCE hammered unannealed, native copper ornaments and
decorations found in regions that today comprise, eastern
Turkey, northern Iraq and northwestern Iran
8000-7000 BCE Earthenware produced. This is made from
earthenware clay and is fired at temperatures between 800 and
1200C. It is porous unless glazed. (Glazing, to hermetically
seal the porous earthenware, was introduced around 3000 BCE.)
6500 BCE painted and black pottery found in china

5000 - 3000 BCE smelting developed

5000 BCE pottery in China developed using feldspathic
material in a fusible form in stoneware. Production of
stoneware requires firing at temperatures of 1200 to 1500C.
4000 BCE Copper smelted from ores. Egyptians had water
conveyed to baths through copper pipes 3500 BCE). Copper
alloyed with antimony and arsenic (contained in ores) - alloys
were harder than pure copper, lower melting point and can be
cast easier than copper.

Bronze age (3000 - 1200 BCE)

3000 - 2000 BCE Copper and tin alloyed (bronze). Ease of

shaping, better serviceability and beautiful. By this time, metal
workers had found ways of joining precious metals (gold and
silver)
Copper and tin had to be mined and often in different regions -this led to increased international commerce and politicking.

Also raised the necessity for new furnaces, crucibles, fuels, and
molds.
Weapons, agricultural instruments and art objects.

2500 - 1500 BCE Glass beads dating from 2500BCE have

been found. Glass vessels dating from 2000 BC found in
Mesoptamian region. (Silica, from which glass is made, has a
melting temperature of 1700C.)

Iron Age (1500 BCE - present)

Iron objects dated from 3000BC but relatively rare.
Iron oxide was used as a fluxing agent in the smelting of
copper from malachite. A slag that could be separated from the
copper after cooling was produced. The slag contains iron but
in a porous form, which is called sponge iron or bloom.
Repeated hammering of bloom at high temperatures removes
the slag and compacts the iron (called wrought iron).
1500 BCE Intentional smelting of iron ore (Hittites). To
extract iron from its ore requires that the iron bearing ore be
heated in contact with hot carbon but not air. The oxygen in the
ore interacts with the carbon, leaving metallic iron - the iron
being REDUCED from its oxide (this process is called
smelting). The Hittites repeatedly heated bloom in a charcoal
furnace at 1200C to soften it and then hammered it to remove
the slag and to compact the bloom. The bloom would be
exposed to carbon during this process, resulting the production

of an iron-carbon alloy (steel iron-carbon alloys containing up

to 2.11 mass percent carbon). 500 more years before iron started
to replace bronze.

Alloying iron with carbon and then hardening by heat treatment

was essential in the process; otherwise, the product was not as
good as bronze. If the iron was left in the smoldering charcoal,
it would absorb sufficient levels of carbon. On removal from
the furnace it was quenched which produced a harder and
stronger material. Reheating again and slow cooling
(tempering) would decrease the hardness and strength but
increase the ductility and malleability.

Carburized and quenched tools became available in the 8 th

century.
1000 BCE iron axes, plowshares, sickles, knives
500 BCE iron axes in Europe
Cast Iron -4% C. The inclusion of carbon to this level will
decrease the melting temperature. Such an alloy could have
been
produced if the iron was kept in contact with the hot charcoal
and air was excluded. The liquid could then be cast, and cast
utensils were found in China dated 200 BCE. The cast iron may
have been cast into molds for later use.
206 BCE Lead glazing developed by the Chinese. Adding lead
to the glazing mixture reduces the melting temperature and
hence the temperature of the second firing. Problem lead may
be leached out by found lead poisoning.

200 BCE Glass blowing developed in Babylonia.

Brass from copper and calamine (zinc silicate - abundant
mineral).
8 BCE lime plaster was used by the Etruscans. Production of
lime plaster involves firing limestone in a red heat, mix with
water andallow to react with CO 2 . The reaction is :
Ca(OH) 2 (slacked lime) + CO 2 --> CaCO3 (calcite) + H2 O
Romans and Greeks produced mortar that hardens under water
(hydration). Limestone containing alumina or silica (volcanic
ash) - fired, ground, mix with water - gives a hydraulic or
Portland cement. The reaction is
3Ca(OH) + 2 Si O2 +4 H2 0 --> (CaO)3 (SiO 2 ).8H2 O (calcium
silicate hydrate)
This is the same binding compound found in Portland cement,
which was developed between 1756 and 1850. This
development had a profound impact on building practices.
6th century CE The Vikings revolutionized swords and sword
making with their discovery of carbonized iron. These
double-edged swords were greatly valued and were often
presented as gifts of esteem. Probably by chance the Vikings
found that if heated iron was folded, beaten, cut, and folded
together again, and the process repeated, then eventually they
could make tough, hard swords that would hold a superior
cutting edge.
7th century CE Porcelain, which is a white, thin and
translucent ceramic with a metallic-like ringing sound was
developed in China. Porcelain is made from Kaolin clay mixed
with quartz and feldspatic rock.
12th century CE Damascus or Wootz steel produced in India.
Wootz steel was produced by placing pieces of wrought iron ,
wood chips and leaves in small clay crucibles that were sealed
with a lid and then heated in an air-blast furnace. This allowed
the carbon from the plant material to enter the iron producing a
uniform iron-carbon steel. Damascus steel was used to make
swords and daggers, which were known for their cutting edges.

14th century CE Early guns appear in Europe - made by

taking strips of wrought iron and hooping them together to form
a barrel. Also produced from cast brass or bronze (BELLS)
16th century CE Casting of iron perfected - blast furnaces
were charged with charcoal which was derived from wood.
This led to the problem that there was a timber famine (most
noticed in England). Also problems in extracting, mines filled
with water as the shafts were sunk deeper.

18th Century
1709 Darby produced cast iron in a furnace charged with iron
ore and coal (coke). Cast iron used in construction for
structures in compression, but also for making cannons as
bronze was expensive.
1712 Steam engines invented - used to pump water out of
mines.
Started to see farming implements being produced from cast
iron.
Iron started to be used as a structural material.
1735 Charles Marie de La Condamine, a French nobleman,
returned from Peru with a material called Caoutchouch. The
Peruvians smoked the raw sap until it had the appearance and
consistency of leather. They used it to make bottles that were
not fragile, waterproof boots and hollow balls that flattened
when pressed and regained their former shape when released.
Use of rubber to make a ball was first noted in 1496.
1740 Crucible process for steel making
1754 Artificial hydraulic limes by calcining impure limestone.
1770 Coautchouch called Indian rubber as it came from the
West Indies and was excellently adapted to the purpose of
wiping from paper unwanted marks of a bleak lead pencil
(Joseph Priestley- co-discover of oxygen)
1786 Monge, Vandermonde and Berthollet established that the
difference between iron and steel was due to carbon.
Originally, it had been thought that steel was purer than iron

1791 Iron bridge constructed in Coalbrookdale, England.

This was one of the first structures made from CAST IRON.
The structure is in compression.

19th century
1820's Joseph Aspdin patents Portland Cement.
1821 Charles Mackintosh discovers that after separating out
ammonia in the process of converting coal tar to pitch you are
left with naphtha, a sharp-smelling waste product. Mackintosh
immersed rubber in naphtha and produced liquid rubber. He
brushed this on cloth to produce waterproof raincoats, called
"Macks".
1831 Electromagnetic induction -- electric power generation
becomes possible.
1839 Goodyear made rubber useful - accidently spilled raw
latex mixed with sulfur on a hot stove. He found that the
product charred instead of melting. He called the process
vulcanization ( Vulcan -Greek good of volcanoes).
Rubber was used for waterproofing clothing, shoes, roofs,
leather fire hoses, for adsorption in vehicles and electrical
isolation of cables.
1843

Nickel plating.

1846 Hancock fitted Queen Victoria's carriage with rubber

tires. Gutta percha (sap from the paraquium tree in Malaysia)
used for insulation of submerged communication lines ( this
material was non-conductive and resistant to sea water).
Guncotton discovered (cellulose soaked in nitric acid

(+sulphuric acid)). Guncotton replaced gunpowder as the charge

for cannons. Soaked paper became transparent and could be
shaped into different objects - became strong and stiff when
dry. Menard discovered that ether and alcohol could liquefy
nitro-cellulose into a smooth clear gelatinous lotion (collodion,
which means adhere). This dried to a clear transparent film varnish, waterproof coating for clothing.
1840's Solid rubber tires used on bicycles. End of century saw
the development of pneumatic tires by DUNLOP and
MICHELIN.
1848 American J Parker Meynard used collodion to dress
cuts, abraded, chaffed skin etc.
1850 Paper from wood pulp. Gutta percha used to cover the
undersea telegraph cables from Dover to Calais (25 miles).
1855 Aluminum produced but considered a precious metal
because of the cost of production.
1860

Bessemer open hearth process

General use of steel making as a constructional material

Production of slag free ductile iron
1869 Hyatt mixes camphor (sap from a laurel tree) with
nitrocellulose paste to form a plastic mass - CELLULOID. The
end product was soft or hard depending on the amount of
camphor added. First thermoplastic. Uses combs, brush
handles, cuffs and collars. Hyatt also developed the forerunner
of the injection molder.
1879

Ductile nickel produced

1880 Internal combustion engine adopted to power Benz and

Daimler for automobiles. Piezoelectric materials (materials
which give off a spark when struck) discovered.
1881 First synthesis of silicon carbide -- industrially
important as an abrasive.
1888

A/C induction motor developed by Tesla.

The industrial production of aluminum became possible with

the availability of a cheap supply of electricity, which is needed
for the electrochemical extraction process commercially viable.
(Aluminum had been known previously, but was considered a
precious metal because it was so expensive to produce.)

Reinitzer discovers the first liquid crystal, a material in which

the molecules are well-arranged even in the liquid state.
1889 First use of steel for a large and important structure was
the railway bridge over the river Forth in Scotland. 50,000 tons
of steel. Rusting is a problem.
Eastman and Reichenback modify Hyatt's celloloid into flexible
film. This marked the beginning of the Eastman Kodak load
and shoot camera.
1892 Viscose developed - raw cellulose fiber was treated with
caustic soda then carbon bisulfide, and then with caustic soda
and water. This was the first thermoset polymer.
1898 The "Telegraphone," the first magnetic sound recording
device, is invented. Uses steel wires as recording medium.

20th Century
1904

Viscose threads made. Later known as Rayon.

1905 MONEL ( 70Ni-30Cu ) alloys produced. With the

addition of Si, you get an alloy with good corrosion resistance
with high strength and wear resistance.
1907 Bakelite developed by Leo Bakeland. Phenol - a coal tar
distillate used as a turpentine substitute-and formaldehyde- a
wood alcohol used as an embalming fluid. When these are
mixed together, a tar-like solid is produced that cannot be
dissolved. The reaction rate was fast. Bakeland increased the
temperature and pressure which increased the reaction rate and
produced an amber solid that was an exact replica of the surface
of the vessel in which it was produced. Bakelite is electrically
resistant, chemically stable, it does not crack, fade, crease or
discolor in the sunlight. Used as a substitute for IVORY for
billiard balls.

Brandengerger makes a casting machine for VISCOSE

FILM-cellophane. One of the first uses for cellophane was
wrapping
expensive perfume bottles.
1911 Heike Kamerling Onnes liquifies helium for the first
time (-269 C, four degrees above absolute zero). His
experiments on ultra-cold metals shows that certain metals will
conduct electricity with no resistance (that is, no loss of energy)
when cooled with liquid helium. These superconductors are
expensive to use and so are mainly used only in laboratories for
the next seventy years.
1912 Introduction of stainless steel. By adding chromium,
steel becomes very resistant to corrosion (rusting).
1926 Dupont produces the first large roll of moisture proof
cellophane. Originally used to package cigarettes.
Walso Lonsbury Semon added Tritotyl phosphate, which has a
high boiling point, to a copolymer of vinyl chloride and vinyl
acetate to form PVC (Goodrich). Waterproof and resistant to
fire and flame.
The sheen on rayon (new name for viscose) was removed by
adding small amounts of titanium oxide. Used in the fashion
industry.
1928 Celluloid laminated glass appeared in the Ford Model A
- windows yellowed after exposure to sunlight.
1930 Minnesota, Mining and Manufacturing (3M) Company
coated cellophane with a pressure sensitive adhesive SCOTCH TAPE.
Neoprene developed; German chemical giant I. G. Farben
develops polystyrene, which could be made into lightweight
foams.
1935 Clear samples of polymethyl methracrylate sheet
developed. Strong and transparent.
BASF and AEG Telefunken introduce the "Magnetophon," the
first sound recorder to use magnetic tape.
1936

Titanium refining

1937 Lucite developed by Dupont. Plexiglass introduced by

Rohm and Hass. Carothers (DuPont) spun the first nylon yarn
and wove the first experimental stockings.

1938 Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) developed. Teflon is

non-conductive, immune to attack by mold, fungus, bacterial
pests, no solvent known to dissolve Teflon, slippy. Used as a
lubricant and to produce non-stick surfaces on cooking
equipment.
1920 -1945 Discovery and application of synthetic rubber,
PVC, polyethylene
Large scale use of alloy steel.
Acetone fermented from ordinary grains
1942 Saran- another vinyl based compound was developed by
Dow Chemical. Seat covers. Saran is impervious to rot, used as
a packaging as a transparent tough film. Sprayed on aircraft to
prevent corrosion from salt spray during transportation.
First polyethylene bottle blown.
1945 Industrial use of reinforced plastics and new raw
materials (titanium, beryllium, zirconium).
Nuclear energy and its associated material problems.
High strength and tough structural steels developed.
Polyethylene used for Tupperware. ( Earl S. Tupper)
1946 ENIAC, the first computer, was built Weight 30 tons
and had 18000 vacuum tubes and other devices.
1947

Bardeen, Brattain and Shockley develop first transistor.

1948 Dacron developed by Charch of Dupont. This polyester

fiber was used to replace wool. It was wrinkle resistant and
introduced permanent press clothing.
1949 Silly putty (silicone oil mixed with boric acid yields a
rubberlike compound) introduced at a party. Use - novelty item.
Originally developed in 1942.
1950 Integrated circuits developed; glass-fiber reinforced
plastic developed - fiberglas.
1951 Styrofoam commercially available. Filled with air
pockets, it was useful both as insulation and as a lightweight
packing material.
1952

High impact, rigid PVC produced (pipes).

Basic oxygen furnace for steel-making developed.

Silicon solar cells introduced.
1953 First DACRON plant begins production. Large-scale
integrated circuits developed.
1954 Saran Wrap used to protect foods - originally the smell
of saran wrap was a problem.
Hot-isostatic pressing developed.
High-density polyethylene developed.
1955

General Electric produces the first synthetic diamonds.

1957

Space exploration started. Velcro.

Philips 66 Marlex, a high density polyethylene was developed used for Hula Hoops, Frisbees, Pink Flamingoes.
Urethane foams used in automobiles.
Silicon transitors developed.
1958 Lycra introduced (stretches up to 5 times its original
length and returns to original length).
1959 Integrated circuit developed with multiple silicon
transistor circuits on a single silicon wafer.
1960 High impact styrene furniture produced. Glass-ceramic
patented. Amorphous metals produced. Synthetic diamonds.
1962 Nickel-based superalloys with oxide dispersion
strengthening announced. Gallium arsenide laser diode
developed.
1963 Float process for making plate glass patented. Nomex
flame-resistant aramid fiber and paper introduced. Polyimides
introduced.
1964 Surlyn ionomer introduced (used in food packaging,
sporting goods and automobiles)
1965 Cobalt-rare earth magnets developed. Glass-reinforced
styrene acrylonitrile copolymers used in automobiles.
Nitinol, the first shape memory alloy (made of nickel and
titanium). Easily bent at room temperature, but reverts to
original shape when heated.
1966 Fiber optics developed. Kaptom polyimide film, which
is resistant to moisture and extreme temperature, is developed.

1967

Single crystal turbine blade is developed. First

composite aircraft to receive FAA certification is built.

1968 Polyphenylene sulfide introduced as Ryton. VLSI
electronic circuits.
1969 Corlan introduced (countertops) Superconductivity
demonstrated at 21 K.
1971 Mechanical alloying and metal injection molding
developed. Zinc oxide varistor patented.
1972

Sialon developed.

1973

Kevlar developed. Superconductivity now at 23 K.

1974 Acrylic sheet stiffened with reinforced plastic used for

all exterior body panels in an automobile.
1976 First diamond thin film coatings produced -- hard and
wear-resistant.
1980 First integrated photoreceiver. Converts light into an
electric signal -- needed for fibreoptic communications.
1981

First launch of US space shuttle.

1982 Artificial heart (made mainly of polyurethane) implanted

in a human for the first time.
1985 Curl, Kroto and Smalley discover fullerenes
(buckyballs), a previously unknown crystalline form of carbon.

1986 IBM discovers a ceramic which superconducts when

cooled below -238 C. Researchers begin to experiment with
other ceramics, and a year later, ceramics which superconduct
at liquid nitrogen temperature (-196 C, a temperature easy to
reach) are announced.
1988 First long-distance fiber optic communications line.
Fibreoptics allow much more information to be sent along a
single line with less power comsumption than copper wires.
1990

Kraetschmer and Huffman develop technique to rapidly

produce fullerenes, making extensive research possible.

First polymers with semiconducting properties -- plastic
light-emitting diodes become possible.
1994 First photopolymers (polymers which change
permanently when exposed to light) introduced.
1995

First shape memory polymer.

1996

First production of metallic hydrogen.

1997 IBM makes first computer chips using copper instead of

aluminum. Porous silicon coated with sulfur compounds to
create filters to remove heavy metals from the environment.

1998 First components of International Space Station

launched, which will provide a permanent platform for
microgravity materials research.
1999 First commercial microprocessors incorporating 0.18
micron-sized devices introduced.