There are 13 Modals including the Semi Modals.

Out of them shall, should, will, would, can, could, may,

might, must, ought to and used to are always anomalous. Dare and need are anomalous when used as
auxiliaries and not anomalous when they are used as principal verbs.
Auxiliary, or helping verbs, are used before infinitives to add a different meaning. The following auxiliaries are
called Modal Auxiliaries or Modals.

Modal Auxiliaries

Meanings / Functions

can

ability, permission, request, possibility

could

ability, formal request, possibility

shall

futurity, willingness, intention, suggestion, insistence

should

obligation, necessity, expectation, advisability

will

willingness, intention, prediction, insistence

would

willingness, habitual action in the past, probability, wish, desire

may

permission, possibility, wish, purpose, concession

might

permission, possibility, concession, reproach

must

necessity, prohibition, compulsion, obligation, deduction, certainty, probability

Quasis / Semi Modals

Meanings / Functions

ought to

moral obligation, probability, certainty, advice, necessity, duty, fitness

use to

discontinued habit

need

necessity, obligation (used in negative and questions)

dare

defiance, challenge, boldness (used in negatives and interrogatives)

Use can and could to say that someone is able to do something or Can and could are also used for asking for
information or help for offering something, and for suggesting something.

He can play the piano.

can + infinitive (can do / can play / can come) etc.

Positive and Negative

do
play
come
see

can
can not

I / we / you / they / he / she / it

Question

can

I / we / you / they / he / she / it

I can play the piano. My brother can play the piano too.

Nancy can speak English but she can not speak Latin

Can you change your dress?

Johncy and Nancy can not come to the party next week

You can borrow my pen, if you like

Can you ride a bike?

I ran as fast as I could

Nancy could not come to the party because she was ill

Mom said I could have ice cream after my dinner

I could lend you my cricket ball

do?
play?
come?
see?

Use may to ask if you are allowed to do something, or to give someone permission to do something.

It may rain (Perhaps it will rain) - It might rain (Perhaps it is raining or it will rain)
may or might + infinitive (may go/ might go / may play / might play etc.)

I / we / you / they / he / she / it

may (not)
might (not)

be
go
play
come

You can use may or might:

may/might = it is possible that something will happen.

I may go to the cinema this evening.

I might go to the cinema this evening. (= perhaps I will go)

Please may I see your ticket?

may/might = ask if you are allowed to do something and to tell someone that they are allowed to do something.

May I borrow your pen?

Please may I see your ticket?

May I sit here?

Put your purse away or it might get stolen

The negative is may not or might not:

I might not go to work tomorrow. (= perhaps I will not go)

She may not come to the party. (= perhaps she will not come)

Use must when you think it is necessary or very important to do something :

The windows are very dirty. I must clean them.

It is a fantastic film. You must see it.

We must go to the bank today. We havent got any money.

You must mail this letter today.

must + infinitive (must do/ must see etc.)

I / we / you / they / he / she / it

must

do
go
stop
write

must is present of future :

We must go to the bank now.

We must go to the bank tomorrow.

For the past (yesterday / last week etc.), we use had to + infinitive (had to go / had to do / had to
write etc.) :
I had to go to the bank yesterday. [= It was necessary for me to go the bank].
We had to walk home last night. There was no bus.
must not
I mustnt do it = it is important not do it. it is a bad thing to do:

I must hurry. I must not be late.

You must not walk on the grass.

Need not
I need not do it = it is not necessary to do it. I do not need to do it :

I need not clean the windows. They are not dirty.

You need not go to the bank. I can give you some money.
We can also say do not need to ... => need not.

I dont need to clean the windows.

You dont need to go to the bank.

(Someone) should do something = it is a good thing to do or the right thing to do :

Akbar should go to bed earlier. He usually goes to bed very late and hes always tired.

It is good film. You should go and see it.

When you play tennis, you should always watch the ball.
should + infinitive (should do / should write etc.)

I / we / you / they / he / she / it

should
shouldnt

Shoult not = Its not a good thing to do or its not the right thing to do:

Lenin should not go to bed so late.

You work all the time. You should not work so hard.
Use will when you are order or asking someone to do something.

Will you please shut up.

Will I carry the bag for you.
Use would when you are asking or requesting someone to do something.

Would you pass me that pen, please?.

Would you like one more drink?.

Which pen would you like?

do
go
stop
write

Modal verbs with examples

LIST OF SYNONYMS
Abroad - Overseas
Accord - Agreement
Admit - Confess
Agree - Consent
Alike - Same
Allow - Permit
Amount - Quantity
Angry - Mad
Answer - Response
Ask - Inquire
Attire - Dress
Away - Absent
Awful - Terrible
Baby - Infant
Beautiful - Pretty
Becoming - Fitting
Beg - Implore
Begin - Commence
Belly - Stomach
Big - Large
Bizarre - Weird
Blank - Empty
Brave - Bold
Broad - Wide
Bucket - Pail
Busy - Active
Calamity - Disaster
Candy - Sweets
Center - Middle
Change - Transform

Chiefly - Mainly
Choosy - Picky
Close - Shut
Collect - Gather
Complete - Total
Confine - Restrict
Confuse - Mixed Up
Considerate - Thoughtful
Contrary - Opposite
Correct - Right
Cunning - Clever
Dash - Sprint
Daybreak - Dawn
Dedicated - Committed
Deliberate - Planned
Delicate - Fragile
Destiny - Fate
Disclose - Reveal
Discount - Reduction
Disgrace - Shame
Eager - Keen
Elevate - Raise
Enormous - Huge
Enquire - Investigate
Evaluate - Assess
Evil - Bad
Exactly - Precisely
Except - Apart From
Exit - Leave
Extra - Additional
Fair - Unbiased
False - Untrue
Famous - Renowned

Fantastic - Great
Fast - Quick
Finish - Complete
Formerly - Previously
Fortunate - Lucky
Fun -Entertaining
Function -Operate
Funny - Amusing
Garbage - Trash
Get - Receive
Glad - Happy
Glitter - Sparkle
Good - Fine
Grab - Seize
Grumble - Grouse
Hall - Corridor
Handsome - Good Looking
Happily - Fortunately
Hard - Difficult
Hazard - Danger
Help - Assist
Hint - Tip
Huge - Enormous
Hurt - Injure
Hurry - Rush
Ignore - Snub
Ill - Sick
Imitate - Mimic
Immediate - Instantly
Impact - Affect
Impartial - Neutral
Important - Significant
Inconsiderate - Thoughtless

Infamous - Notorious
Infect - Contaminate
Informal - Casual
Innocent - Harmless
Inspect - Examine
Instructions - Directions
Insufficient - Inadequate
Intellectual - Mental
Intelligent - Smart
Intend - Mean
Inventory - Stock
Invoice - Bill
Jealous - Envious
Job - Work
Joy - Delight
Kid - Child
Kind - Benevolent
Learn - Memorize
Lethal - Deadly
Listen - Hear
Little - Small
Lots - Many
Loving - Fond
Loyal - Faithful
Lucid - Clear
Mad - Crazy
Make - Build
Maintain - Preserve
Maybe - Perhaps
Meeting - Assembly
Mild -Gentle
Misery - Distress
Modern - Contemporary

Movie - Film
Native - Local
Necessary -Essential
Near - Close
New - Recent
Nice - Pleasant
Noon - Midday
Notify - Inform
Numerous - Many
Odd - Strange
Old - Mature
Ornament - Decoration
Outgoing - Friendly
Overlook - Miss
Oversee - Supervise
Part - Section
Particular - Specific
Perception - Insight
Perfect - Flawless
Possibility - Opportunity
Praise - Compliment
Provide - Supply
Quake - Tremble
Quite - Fairly
Raise - Lift
Real - Genuine
Receive - Get
Regret - Remorse
Reliable - Dependable
Remark - Comment
Renew - Resume
Respond - Reply
Rest - Relax

Rich - Wealthy
Rock - Stone
Rude - Impolite
Sad - Unhappy
Safe - Secure
Scared - Afraid
See - Look
Select - Choose
Significant - Meaningful
Sincere - Honest
Sleepy -Drowsy
Slim - Sender
Steady - Firm
Stop - Cease
Suggest - Propose
Sure - Certain
Symbolize - Represent
Talk - Speak
Temper - Mood
Temporary - Transitory
Think - Ponder
Tiny - Small
Transform - Convert
Trustworthy -Reliable
Try - Attempt
Uncommon - Unusual
Uncooked - Raw
Under - Below
Unfortunate - Unlucky
Use - Utilize
Usually - Generally
Vague - Indistinct
Vanquish - Conquer

Vary - Differ
Vast - Huge
Want - Desire
Weak - Feeble
Withstand - Resist
Yell - Shout

The words do and make are often confused. While they are similar, there are differences between
them that must be noted.
Do is used as follows:

1. For daily activities.

Do homework.
Do the dishes.

In general reference, ie, when one does not have a specific activity in mind.

Im not doing anything tonight.

You are doing too much for one person.

In standard expressions, ie, collocations (verb + noun combinations) that have become
standardised through usage.

Do ones best.
Do a favour.

Make, on the other hand, is used:

1. To describe an activity that produces something tangible.

Make coffee.
Make breakfast.

In standard expressions.

Make room.
Make do.

The following examples will make the usage clear.

ACCEPT (VERB)

EXCEPT (PREPOSITION)

Amit accepted the job offer.

I can come with you on all days except

Sunday.

Sanjiv accepted the allegation that he had

cheated.

All the athletes except Anjali finished the

race.

He accepted the invitation to the party.

Everyone except Shantanu was invited to

the party.

Adapt and adopt share similar spellings and similar meanings, but they are not one and the same.
To adapt is to become or make something suitable to an environment or condition.
- It took me a long time after college to adapt to life in the office.
- An inability to adapt will prove an obstacle on the road to success.
- To adopt is to take something and use it as or make it your own.
- I adopted his policy of neutrality and stayed out of trouble.
- We are planning to adopt a child.

Adverse and averse are not only spelled similarly (with the d in adverse being the only difference),
they are also both adjectives with negative connotations, and hence easily confused.
Adverse means unfavourable, or harmful. Therefore, if a sportsman is said to perform well in
adverse conditions, it means that he or she performs well in conditions that are not easy to play in. It
is used in reference to things, actions or events, rather than people.
Averse describes a strong disinclination. It is used of things and people, but we never speak of an
averse thing or person. It is most often used in the form averse to, as in I am averse to speaking in
public.

Advice and advise can easily be mistaken, but the difference between the two is simple enough. In
British English,

- advice acts as a noun, defined as opinion about what could or should be done about a situation or
problem; counsel, and
- advise acts as a verb, meaning to give advice.
Therefore,
'His fathers advice was for him to give the matter thought before reaching a conclusion about what to
do.' means the same as 'His father advised him to give the matter thought before reaching a
conclusion about what to do.'
The c in advice is pronounced like the s in sip, whereas the s in advise is pronounced like the z
in zip.
Some more examples of the usage of Advice
You should listen to your fathers advice.
I need your advice on what to wear for my job interview.
Mohan is the best person to ask for advice on cars.
Some more examples of the usage of Advise
My father advised me to join the army.
The doctor advised Sumit to quit smoking.
Mohan advised me to buy a diesel car.
In American English, this distinction between the two words is not always maintained.
It is easy to confuse beside and besides, but they are not one and the same thing. Beside is a
preposition, whereas besides works as both a preposition and an adverb, and although besides is
sometimes used in place of beside, they have distinct meaning.
Beside means by or at the side of. For example: He stood beside his new car proudly.
As a preposition, besides means in addition to or apart from. For example: What are you working
on besides the research project? As an adverb, it means furthermore.As in, He was not selected
because he did not have a good grasp of his concepts. Besides, he did not seem very keen.
As mentioned above, the distinction between the two words is sometimes ignored. Besides can never
mean at the side of, but beside is often used in place of besides. This can lead to
misunderstanding, though; the sentenceThere was no one beside him in the hallcould mean that he
was all by himself, or that there was no one next to him.

The difference between these two words is a very simple one. They are the past tenses of two different
verbs.
Bought is the past tense of buy: I bought a new car last week.
Brought is the past tense of bring: I brought him a glass of water.
The difference can be remembered easily too, as bring shares its first two letters with brought (br).

The key difference between can and may is that can talks about ability and may talks about
permission.
CAN
Can is used in two cases:

To talk about ability.

- I can finish my homework by 5 pm.

- Can you finish your homework tonight?

To ask or give permission informally.

- Can I use your pen? (To a friend)

- You can use my pen. (To a friend)

MAY
May is generally used to ask or give permission formally.
Let us take a situation between a student and a teacher.

- May I drink water?

- Teacher: Yes, you may.

Let us take a situation between two strangers.

- May I borrow your pen?

- Yes, you may.

Complement and compliment are sometimes confused because they are pronounced the same and
have very similar spellings. Both function as noun and verb, but are quite distinct in meaning.
As a noun, compliment refers to an expression of esteem, admiration or praise. For example, to call
someone handsome/beautiful is to pay him/her a compliment, and the verb refers to this action, ie,
the paying of a compliment.
On the other hand, as a noun, the complement of something supplies what that something is missing,
ie, completes or perfects it. For example, wine can be said to complement a meal.

Would, should and could are auxiliary verbs, meaning that their function is to assist main verbs. For example, in the
sentence, I would like to meet him, like is the main verb that is assisted by would. They can be defined as the past
tenses respectively of will, shall and can, but each has many uses that sometimes even express the present tense. It
is important to be able to differentiate between the three so as not to use them incorrectly. We shall discuss some of
the common functions of the three words here.
Would
1. To ask questions:
Would you like to see the doctor? = Do you want to see the doctor?

2. With who, what, when, where, why, how:

How would he react?
What would she do?
In both sentences, would is more or less interchangeable with will.
3. To make polite requests:
I would like more salad, please. = I want more salad, please.
4. To show a different response if the past had been different:
I would have done something if I had known you were in trouble. = I didn't know that you were in. This is why I did not
do anything to help.
5. To explain an outcome to a hypothetical situation:
Were I to win a million dollars, I would go on a world cruise. = If I win a million dollars, I will go on a world cruise.
6. To show habitual past action:
The dog would howl whenever its owner would leave it alone at home.
Think of would as did.
7. To show preference between two choices, used with rather or sooner:
I would sooner face the punishment than lie and escape it. = I prefer speaking the truth to lying.
8. To show intention:
He said he would do it. = He said it was his intention to do it.
Should
1. To ask questions (it is generally interchangeable with ought in such cases):
Should I submit my assignment now? = Am I supposed to submit my assignment now?
2. To show obligation:
You should brush your teeth twice a day.
Here, too, should can be replaced with ought to, but in this context it is used to make a persuasive statement.
3. To express a hypothetical situation:
Should you wish to do so, you may. = If you wish to do so, you may.
4. To express what is likely:
If you take the highway, you should be there in two hours.
Here, should means something like probably will.
Could
1. As the past tense of can:
There was a time when I could run a mile without breaking a sweat.
2. To ask questions:

Could I submit my assignment now? = Am I allowed to submit my assignment now?

3. To show possibility:
You could do a lot better. = You have the potential to do a lot better.
4. To express tentativeness or politeness:
I could be wrong. = I may be wrong.

The words dairy and diary, while having spellings that are confusingly similar, have no common meanings.
Dairy works as an adjective, meaning anything that is derived from milk, and a noun, meaning an establishment that
produces dairy products. I am allergic to dairy products.
Diary is a noun, referring to a written record of ones personal experiences. I write in my diary every night.

A double negative is when two negatives used in a sentence cancel each other out to make a positive. This must not
be misunderstood to mean that double negatives are an accepted grammatical device; they are grammatically
incorrect and must not be used.
How does one avoid double negatives? It is quite simple. When using the negative form of a verb (e.g.arent, dont,
wont, etc), do not follow it up with a negative determiner/quantifier (e.g. nowhere, nothing, never, etc). Consider the
following sentences:
- They arent going nowhere.
- They dont do nothing.
- They wont never stop.
All of the above employ the double negative, and are hence grammatically incorrect. Formerly, the double negative
was a device for emphasis, but the effort to make English conform grammatically to formal logic has rendered it
unacceptable today. Logically, the meanings of the above sentences, deduced by applying the formula negative +
negative = positive, are:
- They are going somewhere. (arent + nowhere = somewhere)
- They do something. (dont + nothing = something)
- They will stop. (wont + never = will)
The ban on multiple negatives also applies to combination with adverbs such as hardly and scarcely.It is therefore
regarded as incorrect to sayI couldn't hardly do itorThe vehicle has scarcely no fuel.

Each and every are determiners, words that are used with singular nouns to indicate quantity. There are differences
between the two that are important to grasp for usage, though.

1. Each is used when there are two objects; here every is not used. For example,
- He wore multiple bracelets on each hand (note: singular noun).

- There were two of them. They each carried backpacks, and eachbackpack (note: singular noun)
contained invaluable souvenirs.

In case there are more than two objects, either of the two may be used.

- He wanted each/every item on the catalogue.

- There is a bathroom in each/every room.

1

Each can be used as a pronoun, but every cannot. Note the difference between the following
sentences:

- The students were waiting for the question sheets to be handed out. Each was in a state of great
nervousness.

- The students were waiting for the question sheets to be handed out. Every student/one of them was in
a state of great nervousness.

Clearly, each replaces the noun student. Every does not; it requires to be followed by the noun, or by one of them.

With adverbs (practically, nearly, almost, etc), only every in used. In the following sentences, every
cannot be replaced by each:

- She knew practically every detail of his daily routine.

- Nearly every fruit on the cart was spoilt.

1

Every is used to refer to repeated, regular events, as in the following cases:

- We meet every so often

- I get a health check-up done every six months.

- I had to take a water break after every other set.

In the above examples and any similar instances, each cannot be used.

Two words commonly confused by English speakers are 'effect' and 'affect'. Affect is used as a verb and means to
have an influence on and Effect is used as a noun and means the result.
AFFECT
The dropped catch did not affect the result of the game.
The heavy rainfall affected the grains kept in the old warehouse.
Did the noise affect your sleep?
EFFECT
The effect of the tsunami was devastating.
The side effect of the cough syrup was drowsiness.
Did the noise have an effect on your sleep?
Effect is also used in the expressions in effect, take effect and come into effect.
In effect means to In fact or In reality
His silence was in effect an acceptance of the crime.
Take effect means to produce an action
The medicine will take effect in an hour.
Come into effect means to come into existence
The news laws come into effect next month.

It is important to grasp the meanings and difference between either and neither so that we dont get confused
between the two. Both words can be used as pronoun, conjunction and adjective; however, the use of either is
considered positive, while the use of neither is considered negative.
As adjective:
Either indicates one or the other, or both. For example:
You may use either hand for the purpose. = You may use your right or left hand for the purpose.
There were tall houses on either side of the river. = There were tall houses on both sides of the river.
Neither indicates not one or the other; none of the two. For example;
Neither twin was invited to the wedding. = None of the twins was invited to the wedding.
As pronoun:
Either indicates one or the other. For example:
Both buses are headed in that direction, you can get on either. = Both buses are headed in that direction, you can get
on one or the other.
Neither indicates not one or the other. For example:

Both pups were pure-breed, but neither displayed the characteristic traits of its breed. = Both pups were pure-breed,
but not one or the other displayed the characteristic traits of its breed.
As conjunction:
Either is used with or to imply a choice of alternatives. For example:
You can either play on the computer or watch TV. = You can do one of two things: play on the computer or watch TV.
Neither is used with nor to negate both parts of a statement. For example:
I can neither play on the computer nor watch TV. = I cannot play on the computer or watch TV.
Either is also used as an adverb, to mean also, following negative expressions. For example:
If you dont go, I wont go either. = If you stay, I will stay also.
Neither, on the other hand, is not used as an adverb.

Elicit and illicit are homophones, but they have different spellings and meanings and one must be careful about
using them.
On the one hand, elicit means to draw something out of someone, by coaxing or pleading or urging. For example, the
sentence - His father was unable to elicit a response from him on the matter means that the father could not extract
the information that he desired from his son.
On the other hand, illicit means illegal, or forbidden. Examples: Theirs was an illicit relationship because their parents
were opposed to inter-caste marriages, or He was thrown into prison for smuggling illicit weapons into the country.

To any layman, hearing and listening may appear to be one and the same thing, but there is a subtle difference
between the two words.
At one level, they are of course both functions of the ear that involve receiving sounds and processing them. However,
herein lies the difference: any sound that is received by the ear and noted by the brain can be said to have been
heard; it is only when a conscious effort is made to hear something that listening comes into play.
For example, if the sounds from a conversation carry to you, but you make no effort to understand what is being said,
you must say that you heard the conversation. On the other hand, as soon as you make a conscious effort to
understand or pay attention to what you are hearing, you are listening. Therefore, we do not hear songs, we listen
to them (unless, of course, they are simply part of the background and we arent actually paying attention to them).
It must be noted that hear can be used in place of listen sometimes, but listen should not be used in place of hear.
For example, you may tell someone that you heard what he or she said, and it is understood that you were listening,
ie, paying attention. You will learn these variations with practice in conversation.

Speakers of English often use I and me in place of each other. The difference is actually very simple. Allow us to
explain.
Let us begin with an exercise. Fill in the blanks with either I or me in the following sentences.
__ want to watch a movie.
This is the house __ want to buy.
Sudhir and __ will go to Delhi.
You and __ will play today.
He asked __ to drive.
She needs to pay __.
He gave __ the key.
The answer to the first four sentences is I and the last three sentences is 'me'. This is because I is a pronoun and
hence must be the subject of a verb ('I'is the first person singular subject pronoun and will always refer to the person
performing the action of a verb).
On the other hand, me is a pronoun that must be the object of the verb (me is anobject pronoun and will always refer
to the person that the action of a verb is being done to.)

Its and its are often mistakenly used in written English. Refer to the article on contractions: its is a contraction for
the words it is. On the other hand, its is a possessive noun.
The following examples will make the usage clear.
ITS (CONTRACTION FOR IT IS)

ITS (POSSESSION)

Its quite hot today.

The dog is wagging its tail.

Its going to be a long day.

The baby is sleeping in its cot.

Please go back to class immediately. Its not right

to skip classes.

The table is useless now. Its legs are broken.

Lose and loose are often mixed up, and this is understandable because there is only an o of difference between
them. They do not, however, have any meanings in common.
Loose is generally used as an adjective, the opposite of tight or contained.
The dog is running loose in the streets.
These jeans are loose around my waist.
Lose is a verb that means to suffer the loss of, to miss.
Dont lose the car keys.
We cannot afford to lose this match.

Much and many are both determiners that suggest an unspecified quantity, with more or less the same basic
meaning: in great quantity or in large number. There is, however, a distinction in their usage.
Much, not many, is used for uncountable nouns, which are in singular form.
I don't have much faith in him.
Here, 'faith' is an uncountable noun and hence, we use 'much' instead of 'many'.
How much money do you have in your wallet?
In this example, 'money' is an uncountable noun and hence, we use 'much'. Note that 'dollars' or 'rupees' are
countable as we say 'ten dollars' or 'ten rupees'.
There was much compassion in his voice.
Here, compassion is an uncountable noun and so we use 'much' and not 'many'
On the other hand, many is used for countable nouns, which are in plural form, and here much cannot be used.
Many youngsters today are taking to atheism.
'Youngster' is a countable noun and hence, we use 'many'.
How many days remain?
In this example, 'Day' is a countable noun.
There are many obstructions ahead for us.
Here, 'Obstruction' is a countable noun and this means that we have to use 'many' and not 'much'.

The words of and off are used so frequently in modern English that people often confuse them. For example, the
sentence, He took off without a word could be mistakenly written as He took of without a word, and the meaning
would be lost. Let us discuss the distinctions between the two words.
The word of has several functions, but it is most in use as a preposition that denotes various relations described in
the sentence. For instance, it indicates a point of reckoning: South of the border. It is also commonly used to point out
what something is made of or what it contains: Heart of gold (this is metaphorical, of course), Cup of tea. Another
relation frequently described by of is that of possession, as in Queen of England.
Off is also a very common word with large number of functions as well, but it is most frequently used as an adverb or
a preposition. As an adverb, it is used usually to describe a state of discontinuance, or suspension: Turn off the light.
As a preposition, it is used to indicate the physical separation or distance from a position of rest, attachment or union,
as in Take it off the table or The gas station is just off the corner ahead.

Principle and principle are often confused but do not, in fact, share any meanings.
Principle is only a noun and usually refers to a rule or standard. The principles of socialism, for example, refers to
the tenets of the socialist ideology. My principles prevent me from taking such petty action suggests that the
speakers moral/ethical stand is against the action being spoken of.
Principal, on the other hand, is both a noun and an adjective. As a noun, it has special financial and legal
connotations, but in general usage it refers to someone who holds a high position or is important in a certain context:
a meeting of all the principals involved in the deal. As an adjective it has the sense of most important: My principal
concern is to get my health back.

See and watch are words that are commonly misunderstood as being interchangeable, but while both refer to the
optic function, they are not one and the same thing. They stand for different ways of using the eye.
To see something is simply to look at it or spot it; it may be unintentional, ie, you may not have been looking for it.
Example : I saw a man up ahead.
To watch something is look at something closely or intently, generally because it is moving. Example : I watched the
movie.

The words since and for are often confused by English language speakers. There is a simple rule to follow to
differentiate between the usage of these twowords.
SINCE is used to talk about time from a specific period while FOR is used to talk abouta length of time.
I have been living in Delhi since 11002.
I have been living in Delhi for twenty years.
I have been studying since seven a.m. today.
I have been studying for eight hours.
My tutor has taught me since January this year.
My tutor has taught me for five months.

It is easy to get confused about the usage of so and such, as their structures are quite similar. However, they are not
one and the same in terms of meaning or usage. For example, the sentence 'He is so good friend' is glaringly wrong,
as is 'The sky is such beautiful today'. The difference can be illustrated using a simple formula:

1. So is followed necessarily by an adjective. In technical terms, it takes the adjective phrase.

o

Formula: so + adjective + that.

For example: The movie was so scary that I couldnt watch it till the end.

that is optional. Therefore, the above sentence would work just as well without that: The movie
was so scary, I couldnt watch it till the end.

2. Such is followed by an article, the adjective, and then the noun. In technical terms, it takes the noun
phrase.
o

Formula: such + article + adjective + noun + that

For example: We chose such a scary movie to go for that I couldnt even watch it till the end.

Again, that is optional. If that in the above sentence were to be replaced with a comma, it
would still work.
Note: the article after such is used when the noun is countable; that is to say, when it is something
that can be expressed in numbers. For example, car, dog and book are countable nouns, as there can
be a number assigned to each, such as 5 cars or 2 dogs. For uncountable nouns, such as food, milk
or water or air, the article is dropped. For example,

a.

I had such good food at home the other day.

b.

We were blessed with such good weather on the trip.

Both some and any are used to refer to indefinite quantities, i.e., when it is not necessary to specify a number. For
example, I would like some milk indicates that the speaker wants milk, but it is not stated how much of it he or she
wants. Similarly, Is there any cake left? does not specify how much cake the speaker wants there to be; any amount
will do for the purpose of the question. There are important differences between the two that must be grasped for
usage, however.
Some
Some is commonly used in affirmative statements, such as I would like to have some fun.
Any is hardly ever used in such statements, except to emphasise that the quality of the object does not matter. For
example,I would like any apples suggests that the speaker does not care what kind of apples they are (indicating a
desperate need or desire for apples), whereas I would like some applesdoes not suggest anything about the quality
of the apples or desperation of the speaker.
Any
Any is commonly used in negative statements, such asWe do not have any apples. Here, some may not be used.
Any is also used in affirmative statements, if the statements contain negative words such as hardly, barely, never,
without, little, etc. For example, We hardly have any apples cannot be rewritten asWe hardly have some apples.
In questions
While both any and some can be used in questions, any is more common and natural in this form.
Do you have any apples?can be rewritten asDo you have some apples?However, some is not always applicable.
For example, in the case of Do you have any idea what the score is?, any cannot be replaced by some.
Some is more commonly used in offers and requests, such as Would you like some tea?
If clauses
Both some and any are common in if clauses, with similar meanings, as in If you need some/any assistance, feel
free to give me a ring.

These two words are among the most frequently confused in the English language, although their meanings are vastly
different.
Stationery is a noun that refers to writing material and office supplies such as pens, paper, clips, etc.
Stationary is generally an adjective that is used to describe something that is not moving. For example, a man who is
standing in one place can be described as stationary.

The difference in the spellings of the two words can be used to remember their meanings: the second a in stationary
can be thought to stand for adjective. It is replaced by an e in stationery.

The similar sounding words then and than confuse many English speakers and if you find yourself using one for the
other, please go through this article.
The word than is used to show comparison and is a conjunction(A conjunction is a word that joins two sentences).

1.

Adhir is smarter than Dinesh.

2.

Homemade food is healthier than fast-food.

3.

He is older than you.

On the other hand, the word then is used either to show a sequence of events or a sense of time. Read the examples
carefully to understand.
1.

If you get full marks, then I will buy you a car.

2.

Finish your homework and then we will go out for dinner.

3.

I will reach home at night. I will call you then.

4.

I will get free at 5. Can we meet then?

Notice how the first two sentences show a sequence of events and the next two show a sense of time. The speaker in
sentence 3 and 4 is referring to particular time (at night and at 5).
Note:- When confused, think about what youre trying to say/write. Only if youre comparing will you use than, for
every other situation, use then.

Many speakers tend to get confused between There, Their and Theyre and knowing how to use these three words
correctly is an important step in learning English.
The words There and Their are homophones. Homophones are words that are spelt differently but pronounced the
same. It is a common mistake to replace one for the other.
There always refers to a place, whether concrete or abstract, whereas Their shows belonging or possession.
Theyre, on the other hand, is the short form of they are
Lets look at these examples for each of them
THERE:
How can anyone live there?
Lets go there.

There will be a party tomorrow,

THEIR:
Let us buy their car.
Let us not go to their house.
Return their books tomorrow.
THEYRE:
Theyre sitting there in their car.
In this sentence, notice how there is used to signify a place whereas their is used to show possession. The word
theyre is a contraction of the word they and are and should not be confused with their and there.

Confusion regarding the use of threw and through arises from the fact that they are homophones, ie, they are
pronounced the same way. As a result, it is quite possible for one to be mistakenly used in place of the other.
However, there is no similarity in their meanings:

Threw is the simple past tense of throw, when the latter is used as a verb.
o

meaning(s): to hurl or cast something from the hand or to project ones voice. He threw the ball at the
stumps, looking to run the batsman out.

Through is generally used as a preposition. Meaning, in brief:

o

to get into something from one end or side and come out the other. Example -The sunlight coming
through the window woke me up.

to travel over or across or in something. Example - The plane hurtled through the air at supersonic
speed.

to go past or beyond something. Example -The fugitives went through three red lights before the cops
finally caught up with them.

to go from one to another of, or between or among individual members of something. Example
-Tarzan swung through the trees like the forest was his natural habitat; The World Cup may have
passed through many hands, but it is now Indias.

English speakers are often found asking for the difference(s) between the words till and until. The fact of the matter
is, however, that when till acts as a preposition or conjunction, there is no difference between the two words.
To clarify, till has multiple meanings: it works as a noun, verb, preposition and conjunction. Until, on the other hand,
works only as a preposition and a conjunction; in these capacities, both words mean exactly the same thing and are
thus entirely interchangeable. Till is actually the older word. Until was formed by the addition to it of the prefix un-,
meaning up to. Today, as the first word in a sentence, until is generally preferred.

It is best to be clear on the meanings of these three words so as not to confuse them in everyday usage.
To
To functions as

1. A preposition, in which case it always precedes a noun, as in I am going to school and He is on his way
home.
2. An infinitive, in which case it always precedes a verb, as in I am going to study and I am going to take a
vacation.
Too
Too functions

1. As a synonym for also, as in I would like to come, too and He worked on the project, too.
2. As a synonym for excessively, where it precedes an adjective or an adverb, as in I am too tired to
continue or This pastrami is much too salty.
Two
Two is the number that follows one and precedes three. It has no other meaning.

You may have come across many people introducing themselves by saying, Hi, myself Harish. This is wrong.
Instead, say, I am Harish. 'Me', 'I' and 'myself' are all used to refer to the same person (that person is you) but cannot
be used interchangeably. Understanding their usage is an important part of learning English.
The first thing to understand is that myself is neither a replacement for me, nor for I. The word myself is a pronoun
and is used to lay emphasis. Take a look at the following sentences.

1. I will do it. I will do it my self.

2. I cleaned the house.I cleaned the house my self.

3. I fixed the car. I fixed the car my self.

All the three examples make sense and mean the same with or without the use of myself. As stated earlier, it is used
only for stress and never alone. Also, myself can never be used with me, which is an object pronoun.

When and if are both used while referring to the future, as in I will be able to see you in the evening when I get off
work and I will be able to see in the evening if I get off work. The difference between the two words is very basic and
easily understood:

When should be used while referring to something that one is certain will happen. The when in I will be able
to see you in the evening when I get off work implies that the speaker is sure that s/he will get free from work
in the evening.

If should be used while referring to something that might or might not happen. The if in I will be able to see
you in the evening if I get off work implies that the speaker is not sure that s/he will get free from work in the
evening; it is a possibility, not a certainty.

However, it must be noted that when and if can be used interchangeably as well, in case the situation being referred
to is predictable or repetitive. For example, the sentences When I am in Calcutta, I stay with my family and If I am in
Calcutta, I stay with my family effectively mean the same thing. Another example is, When you leave milk out, it
ferments and If you leave milk out, it ferments.

The words 'where' and 'wear' may sound the same but they differ in meaning. Many people make the mistake of using
one for the other. Read this article to find out when to use which one.
The word 'where' is used when asking a question related to a location.

1.

Where are you going?

2.

Where will we eat?

3.

Where did you keep the money?

On the other hand, the word 'wear' has a couple of meanings.

It is used to refer to an article or clothing that a person has put on or is wearing. Let us look at some examples.

1.

What will you wear today?

2.

Are you sure you are wearing enough?

3.

Wear something fancy.

The other meaning of the word 'wear' is to denote deterioration (exhaustion) or to produce something by friction. (Past
tense- worn)

1.

In such weather, tires wear out fast.

2.

Those jeans are worn out.

3.

Working in the blazing sun can wear out a worker.

Usage of We're and Were

Two other words that sound somewhat similar are 'were' and 'were'. Let us look at how they are used.
The word were is a contraction of thephrase 'we are'.

1.

We are going tomorrow.

Were going tomorrow.

2.

We are working together.

Were working together.

3.

There is no point going if we are not going together.

There is no point going if were not going together.

The word were is used to refer to something that happened in the past.

1.

What were you doing?

2.

Were you eating?

3.

Were you in this school?

Many English speakers confuse the words who and whom and tend to use them interchangeably which is often
incorrect.
Both who and whom are interrogative pronouns. The key difference between who and whom is that who is used
in place of the subject of the sentence and whom is used in place of the object of the sentence.
WHO REPLACES THE SUBJECT OF THE SENTENCE

Who told you?

Who is singing?

Who wants to eat?

Who hit Sanjiv?

WHOM REPLACE THE OBJECT OF THE SENTENCE

Whom are you talking about?

Whom is this food for?

With whom did you go to the market? Whom did Rajiv hit?

Your is the second person possessive adjective, or, in simpler terms, it is used to describe something as belonging to
you. It is nearly always followed by a noun. For example,

- Is this your wallet?

- Your presence at the table is very much appreciated.

- What happened to your foot?

You're is the contraction of you are and is often followed by the present participle, ie, verb form ending in ing. For
example,

- Youre looking ill.

- Youre going to be late.

- Youre a fool.

Here is a list of collocations to help you get started:

Collocations starting with the verb do
Do me a favour
Do the cooking
Do the housework
Do the shopping
Do the washing up
Do your best
Do your hair
Collocations with the verb have
Have a good time
Have a bath
Have a drink
Have a haircut
Have a holiday
Have a problem
Have a relationship
Have lunch
Have sympathy
Collocations with the verb break
Break the law
Break a leg
Break a promise
Break a record
Break someone's heart
Break the ice
Break the news to someone
Break the rules
Collocations with the verb take
Take a break
Take a chance
Take a look
Take a rest
Take a seat
Take a taxi
Take an exam
Take notes
Take someone's place
Collocations with the verb make
Make a difference
Make a mess
Make a mistake
Make a noise
Make an effort

Make money
Make progress
Make room
Make trouble
Collocations with the verb catch
Catch the bus
Catch a ball
Catch a cold
Catch a thief
Catch fire
Catch sight of
Catch someone's attention
Catch someone's eye
Catch the flu
Collocations with the verb pay
Pay respect
Pay a fine
Pay attention
Pay by credit card
Pay cash
Pay interest
Pay someone a visit
Pay the bill
Pay the price
Collocations with the verb keep
Keep the change
Keep a promise
Keep a secret
Keep an appointment
Keep calm
Keep in touch
Keep quiet
Keep someone's place
Collocations with the verb save
Save yourself the trouble
Save electricity
Save energy
Save money
Save someone a seat
Save someone's life
Save something to a disk
Save time
Collocations with the verb go
Go bald

Go abroad
Go astray
Go bad
Go bankrupt
Go blind
Go crazy
Go fishing
Go mad
Go missing
Go online
Go out of business
Go overseas
Go quiet
Go sailing
Go to war
Collocations with the verb come
Come under attack
Come close
Come direct
Come early
Come first
Come into view
Come last
Come late
Come on time
Come prepared
Come right back
Come to a decision
Come to an agreement
Come to an end
Come to a standstill
Come to terms with
Come to a total of
Collocations with the verb get
Get the sack
Get a life
Get a job
Get a shock
Get angry
Get divorced
Get drunk
Get frightened
Get home
Get lost
Get married
Get permission
Get ready

Get started
Get the impression
Get upset
Get wet
Get worried
Collocations related to time
Bang on time
Dead on time
Free time
From dawn till dusk
Great deal of time
Early/late 15th century
Make time for
Next few days
Past few weeks
Right on time
Run out of time
Time goes by
Time passes
Waste time
Collocations related to business English
Annual turnover
Keep in mind
Break off negotiations
Close a deal
Close a meeting
Come to the point
Dismiss an offer
Draw a conclusion
Draw your attention to
Launch a new product
Go bankrupt
Go into partnership
Make a profit/loss