GAS FIELD ENGINEERING

Gas Flow Measurement

 Contents
 Introduction
 Measurement Fundamentals
 Selection of Measurement Devices
 Orifice Meters
 Critical Flow Prover
 Choke Nipple
 Pitot Tube
 Learning Outcomes
At the end of the session, students should be able to:

 Understand the necessity of gas flow measurement.

 Select the gas volume measurement devices.

 Calculate gas volume produced by a gas well or gas volume

transported or sold.
 Gas Flow Measurement
 Gas flow measurement constitutes one of the more important
auxiliary operations related to gas production and transport.
 It is required to determine amount of gas being produced or sold,
and also a basic parameter for almost all of the design procedures.
 Produced gas stream is in a continuous state of flow from the
instant it leaves the reservoir until it is consumed at the delivery
end.
 Gas measurements must be performed on a flowing stream of gas.
 Accuracy in measurements is obviously of prime importance:
(see next slide for an illustration of the lost in revenue for 1% error
in gas measurement)
 Gas Flow Measurement
Calculate the loss of revenue if 1% error in gas flow measurement was
encountered for a pipeline delivering 300 MMscfd.

Gas Flowrate : 300 MMscfd

Gas Price : $3.00/Mscf
 Gas Flow Measurement
Calculate the loss of revenue if 1% error in gas flow measurement was
encountered for a pipeline delivering 300 MMscfd.

Gas Flowrate : 300 MMscfd

Gas Price : $3.00/Mscf

Answer
Accuracy in measurements is obviously of prime importance: error of only
1% for a typical pipeline delivering 300 MMscfd can result in an error of
approximately 1.1 Bscf/year of gas which, at an example gas price of
$3.00/Mscf, would amount to a loss of $3.3 million to the buyer or seller.
 Gas Flow Measurement
 Gas is measured in terms of volume. Most operators account for
gas in units of 1000 cu ft (Mcf)

 Base or standard pressure and temperature conditions are defined

that yield measurements in standard cubic feet.

 The most common basis is the AGA and API recommended

pressure of 14.73 psia and temperature of 60oF.

 Volumetric rate can be converted to mass flow rate by multiplying

with the gas density at the standard pressure and temperature(Psc ,
Tsc).

 Since the gas density at the specified standard conditions is

constant for the particular gas under consideration, measurements
in standard cubit feet are synonymous to mass flowrate
measurement.
 Measurement Fundamentals
 Flow is one of the most difficult variables to measure because it cannot be
measured directly like pressure and temperature.

 It must be inferred by indirect means such as.

 Pressure differential over a specified distance

 Speed of rotation of a rotating element

 Displacement rate in a measurement chamber

 A flowmeter or measurement device is characterized using:

 Accuracy

 Rangeability

 Repeatability

 Linearity
 Attributes of Flow Devices
Accuracy
 Is a measure of a flow meter’s ability to indicate the actual flow rate within a
specified flow-rate range.
 Defined as the ratio of the difference between actual and measured rates to the
actual rate
 Reported in percent of full scale or percent of reading

Abs [Actual rate – Measured rate]

Accuracy = x 100%
Actual rate

For a 100 MMSCFD flow meter, a ±1% of full scale accuracy means that the measured
flow rate is within ± 1 MMSCFD of the actual flow rate. For a measured flow rate of 10
MMSCFD, actual flow rate is between 9 and 11 MMSCFD.
An accuracy of ± 1 of reading implies that the measured flow rate is within 9.9 and
10.1 MMscfd for a measured rate of 10MMscfd, 49.5 to 50.5 for a measured rate of
50MMscfd, 99 to 101 MMscfd for a measured rate of 100 MMscfd.
 Attributes of Flow Devices
Rangeability
 A flow meter’s rangeability is the ratio of the maximum flow rate to
the minimum flow rate at the specified accuracy.

Maximum rate that can be measured

Rangeability =
Minimum rate that can be measured

Reported as x:1 . If max. rate is 50 MMSCFD and min. rate is 10

MMSCFD, Rangeability is 5:1
 Attributes of Flow Devices
Repeatability
 Also known as reproducibility or precision.
 Repeatability is the ability of a meter to reproduce the same
measured readings for identical flow conditions over a period of
time.
 Computed as the maximum difference between measured readings.
Linearity
 The measure of the deviation of the calibration curve of a meter
from a straight line.
 A linear calibration curve is desirable because it leads to a constant
metering accuracy.
 Selection of Measurement Devices
 Gas and liquids are measured using various measurement techniques
including orifice meters, positive displacement meters, turbine meters,
venturi meters, flow nozzles, critical flow provers, elbow meters, and
variable area meters.
 The selection of the measurement method is based on the following
factors:
 Accuracy and reliability of the device.
 Range of flow rate: maximum and minimum.
 Range of flow temperature and pressure.
 Fluid to be measured: gas or liquid, their constituents and specific gravity.
 Maintenance requirements.
 Expected life of the device, and its initial and operating costs.
 Other considerations, such as simplicity, availability of power or other inputs
required by the devices, its susceptibility(easily effected) to theft or vandalism,
etc.
 Classes of Meters
 Measuring the gas flow rate is necessary. Results of flow rate
measurements are used in gas sales, reservoir engineering
calculations and other applications.
 There are generally two classes of meters ; volumetric and
dynamic.
 Volumetric meters usually are used to measure gas flow rates in
residential areas where flow rates are very low.
 Flow rates in fields, pipelines, and plants are high, so volumetric
meters are not effective.
 The focus is on the primary type of dynamic meter used, the orifice
meter.
 Other dynamic meters, such as critical flow provers , choke
nipples, and pitot tubes will also be covered.
 Orifice Meters
 Orifice meter is used most commonly in the gas production and
transportation industry because of its accuracy, simplicity, and
reasonable cost.
 It has an interchangeable orifice plate with a small, circular
opening, much smaller than the pipe diameter, inserted into the
flow line.
 Pressure tap connections are provided on the upstream and
downstream sides of the plate so that the differential pressure can
be measured. (either pipe or flange taps)
 A typical orifice meter consist primarily of a thin stainless steel
plate about 3/16-in thick, with a hole in the center that is placed in
the flow line.
 Placing an orifice in a pipe in which there is a gas flow causes a
pressure difference across the orifice.
Orifice Meters
Orifice Meters
Orifice Meters

Figure 1. Orifice meters: flange

and pipe taps
 Orifice Meters
 This pressure difference and the absolute pressure in the line at a
specified "tap" location are recorded continuously and are later
translated into rate of flow.
 An orifice meter is composed of two major elements:
a) The primary element for producing differential pressure
b) The secondary element for measuring the pressures.
 The primary element consists of a meter tube, orifice plate-holding
device, orifice plate, pressure taps, and straightening vanes.
 The secondary element is a gauge (or gauges) connected with
tubing to the upstream and downstream pressure taps of the primary
element.
 Has rangeability of 3.5 : 1 with an accuracy of ± 0.5%.
 Orifice Meters

Flow Pattern through an Representation of the primary

orifice element of an orifice meter
 Orifice Meters

Flow Pattern through an orifice meter and the relative locations

of taps.
 Orifice Equation Factors
 The basis for the orifice meter equation is the first law of
thermodynamics.
 Operates on the principle that a change in the gas stream velocity
results in a corresponding pressure change.
 When the gas flow is restricted by the orifice, velocity increases
and pressure decreases.
 For the calculation of the quantity of gas, the following formula is
used:
Where
𝒒𝒉 = 𝑪′ 𝒉 𝒘 𝒑𝒇 (1)
qh = quantity of flow as base conditions, cfh
C’ = orifice flow constant
hw = differential pressure in inches of water at 60oF
pf = absolute static pressure (psia)
 Orifice Equation Factors
 The orifice flow constant C’ is expressed in the following equation:
𝑪′ = 𝑭𝒃 𝑭𝒑𝒃 𝑭𝑻𝒃 𝑭𝒈 𝑭𝑻𝒇 𝑭𝒑𝒗 𝑭𝑹𝒆 𝒀𝑭𝒎 𝑭𝒍 𝑭𝒂 (2)

 CI , the orifice flow constant, is determined primarily from the basic

orifice flow factor, Fb.
 For routine field, pipeline and plant operations, the first eight
factors usually are adequate to determine CI.
 The last three factors (Fm, Fl, and Fa) are approximately equal to
unity and do not change CI much.
 Therefore, these three factors generally are used only for gas
sales and purchases.
 11 Factors in the Orifice Flow Constant
Basic Orifice Factor, Fb
 The basic orifice factor, Fb is dependent on the location of the taps,
the internal diameter and the size of the orifice.
 Fb can be obtained for respective tables for flange taps and pipe
taps for published inside diameters.
Reynolds Number Factor, FR
 The Reynolds number factor, FR, is dependent on the pipe diameter
and the viscosity, density, and velocity of the gas. It is expressed as:

 It corrects for the variation of the discharge coefficient with Reynolds

number. The values of FR can also be obtained using tables for
flange taps and pipe taps for published inside diameters.
 11 Factors in the Orifice Flow Constant
Temperature Base Factor, Ftb
 Corrects to the proper temperature base. It is expressed as:

Flowing Temperature Factor, Ftf

 Corrects the effects of temperature variation. The flowing temperature
has two effects on the volume. A higher temperature means a lighter
gas so that flow will increase. Also, a higher temperature causes the
gas to expand, which reduces the flow.
 The combined effect is to cause the quantity of flow of a gas to vary
inversely as the square root of the absolute flow temperature. It is
expressed as:
 11 Factors in the Orifice Flow Constant
Specific Gravity Factor, Fg
 Is used to correct for changes in the specific gravity and should be
based on the actual flowing specific gravity of the gas as determined
by test.
 To make the basic orifice factor usable for any gas, the proper
correction for the specific gravity of the gas being measured must
be applied.
 This factor varies inversely as the square root of specific gravity.
 11 Factors in the Orifice Flow Constant
The Supercompressibility Factor, Fpv
 Is used to correct for the fact that gas does not follow the ideal gas
laws. It varies with temperature, pressure, and specific gravity.
 All gases deviate from this ideal gas law to a greater or lesser
extent.
 The actual density of a gas under high pressure is usually greater
than the theoretical density obtained by calculation of the ideal gas
law.
 This deviation has been termed supercompressibility.
 This factor is particularly appreciable at high line pressures.
 11 Factors in the Orifice Flow Constant
Pressure Base Factor, Fpb
 Corrects to the proper pressure base. It is expressed as:

Expansion Factor, Y
 Depends on the expansion of gas through the orifice. The density of
the stream changes because of the pressure drop and the adiabatic
temperature change.
 The expansion factor Y corrects for the variation in density. It is a
function of the differential pressure, the absolute pressure, the
diameter of the pipe, the diameter of the orifice, and the type of
taps.
 Y can be obtained for respective tables for flange taps and pipe taps
for published inside diameters.
 11 Factors in the Orifice Flow Constant
The Manometer Factor, Fm
 The manometer factor, Fm is used with mercury differential gauges
and compensates for the column of compressed gas opposite the
mercury leg.
 Because the correction is very small, usually some average
conditions are selected and a factor is agreed on.
 11 Factors in the Orifice Flow Constant
The Gauge Location Factor, Fl
 Is used where orifice meters are installed at locations other than 45°
latitude and sea-level elevation. It may affect the total flow of gas as
recorded by the orifice meter.

The Orifice Thermal Expansion Factor, Fa

 Is introduced to correct for the error resulting from expansion or
contraction of the orifice operating at temperatures appreciably
different from the temperature at which the orifice was bored.
Flange Taps: Basic Orifice Factors, Fb
Pipe Taps: Basic Orifice Factors, Fb
Flange Taps: Parameter Used for FRe, b
Pipe Taps: Parameter Used for FRe, b
 Example 1
Calculate the hourly gas flow rate for the conditions given as
follows:

Base conditions: pb = 14.4 psia, tb = 60 oF

Meter pipe: 4-in schedule 40 (4.026-in ID), flange taps, static pressure measured
upstream taps
Orifice plate: Stainless steel, 1.5-in measured at 20 oC
Recorder: 100-in water column differential, 1,000 psia static spring
Compressibility Factor : 0.98

Readings:
Elevation: 500 ft
Atmospheric pressure: 14.73 psia
Flowing temperature: 840F
Gas-specific gravity: 0.7
Differential pressure: 40-in water column
Static pressure: 143 psig
 Example 1
Calculate the gas flow rate through an orifice meter for the following
conditions.

Solution
1. Determine the factors for the orifice constant. We use the
abbreviated form here, ignoring the last three factors.
Example 1
 Example 1

2. Calculate C/
 Orifice Meter Installation
 Orifice meters most commonly are located downstream from a
gas/liquid separator to ensure that liquid has been removed from
the flow stream and to provide a lower operating pressure.

 Pipe and flange taps are the standard taps used in the industry
and differ from each other in their location on the flow line.

 Flange taps are located so that the centers of the taps are 1 in.
from the respective orifice plate surfaces.

 Standard pipe taps are located so that the upstream tap is 2.5
pipe diameters from the orifice plate surface and the downstream
tap is 8.0 pipe diameters away.
 Orifice Meter Installation
 One major consideration in orifice meter design is sizing the orifice
and the meter run pipe.

 If Eqn 1 is solved for C’ with estimates of qgh,hw and pf , then the

orifice size can be estimated using the following equation :

(3)
 Example 2
Calculate a suitable orifice plate diameter for the following conditions.
 Example 2
Calculate a suitable orifice plate diameter for the following conditions.

Solution
 Factors Affecting Orifice Meter Accuracy
 The following are the factors affecting the Orifice Meter Accuracy:
Flow disturbances, caused by insufficient provisions for flow
stabilization, or by irregularities in the pipe, welding, etc.
Imprecise location of the pressure taps.
Pulsating flow.
Build up solids or sediment on the upstream face of the orifice
plate.
Liquid accumulation in the bottom of a horizontal pipe run or in
pipe sags or in meter body.
Differences or changes in prevailing operation conditions from
those used for calculation purposes.
Incorrect zero adjustment of the meter.
Non uniform calibration characteristics of the meter
 Factors Affecting Orifice Meter Accuracy
Corrosion or deposits in the meter internals, or contaminated
mercury.
Leakage around the orifice plate.
Formation of hydrates in meter piping or body.
Incorrect pen movement on chart, such as incorrect arc for the
pens, or excessive friction between pen and chart.
Chart malfunctions – incorrect range, incorrect rotation time.
Overdampening of the meter response.
 Other Dynamic Meters
 Apart from the Orifice Meters, the other types of commonly used
dynamic meters are :

(a) Critical Flow Provers

(b) Choke Nipples

(c) Pitot Tubes

(d) Venturi Meter

(e) Flow Nozzles

 Critical Flow Prover
 A critical flow prover is a special pipe nipple with an orifice flange on
the end.

 Unlike that for an orifice meter, the orifice plate is thicker.

 A critical flow prover can be used if the gas is vented to the

atmosphere.

 The critical flow prover is not as accurate as an orifice meter but

sometimes is convenient when reasonable accuracy is sufficient.

 Is based on the assumption that critical flow velocity has been

reached.
 Critical Flow Prover

Figure 3. Design of 2 in. Critical Flow Prover

 Critical Flow Prover
 The critical flow ratio is about 0.5 for most gases.

 The equation for determining gas flowrate with a critical flow prove
is :

(4)

 The coefficient C can be obtained from the “Coefficient for Critical

Flow Prover and Choke Nipple” Table.
 Choke Nipples
 Choke nipples sometimes are used to control gas flow rates.

 Fig 4 shows a sketch of a choke nipple.

 If flow through the choke nipple reaches critical flow, then Eqn 4
can be used to calculate the flowrate.
 Choke Nipples

Figure 4. Choke Nipple

 Pitot Tube
 A pitot tube also is used to
measure gas flow rate by indirectly
measuring the velocity head of the
gas flow rate.

 Pitot tubes are used commonly on

airplanes to determine velocity.

 Their use in the gas industry is

uncommon.

 They usually are limited to certain

laboratory purposes. Fig. 5 is a Figure 5. Pitot Tube
sketch of a pitot tube.
 Venturi Meter
 This type of meter consists of short pipe section tapering into a
throat, coupled with a relatively longer diverging section for
pressure recovery.

 It is similar to an orifice plate, with the advantage of low pressure

loss, and is preferred choice where less pressure drop is available.

 Has rangeability of 3.5 : 1 with an accuracy of ± 1%.

Figure 6. Venturi Meter

 Flow Nozzles
 Flow Nozzles have a rounded edge that aids in the handling of
solids in the flow stream.

 Are used for high flow rate streams because they permit for same
line size and pressure differential, a 60% greater flow than an
orifice plate.

 Has rangeability of 3.5 : 1 with an accuracy of ± 1.5 -2 %.

Figure 7. Flow Nozzle

 Common Measurement Problems
 Some of the common measurement problems
encountered in gas metering are :

Hydrate Formation
Pulsating Flow
Slugging
Sour Gas
 Quiz 3
Calculate the hourly gas flow rate for the conditions given as
follows:

Base conditions: Gas field in Texas, pb = 14.65 psia, tb = 60 oF

Meter pipe: 4-in schedule 40 (4.026-in ID), flange taps, static pressure measured
upstream taps
Orifice plate: Stainless steel, 1.5-in measured at 20 oC
Recorder: 100-in water column differential, 1,000 psia static spring
Compressibility Factor : 0.917

Readings:
Elevation: 500 ft
Atmospheric pressure: 14.4 psia
Flowing temperature: 100 0F
Gas-specific gravity: 0.6
Differential pressure: 65-in water column
Static pressure: 324 psig
 THANK YOU
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 Q&A
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