SG&P Lab Manual1

LABMANUAL
SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

B.E. 7
TH
SEMESTER
NARNARAYAN SHASTRI INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY
Electrical Engineering Department
NARNARAYAN SHASTRI INSTITUTE

OF TECHNOLOGY
JETALPUR
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr. / Ms.______________________________
th
of B.E Semester 7
Electrical Branch, Enrollment No.
_____________ has satisfactorily completed his/her term work for
the subject SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION (2170908)
during the academic year 2016
Staff in Charge
Head of Department
INDEX
Sr.
No.
1
2
4
5
6
7
10
TITLE
INTRODUCTION TO POWER
SYSTEM PROTECTION
TO REALIZE THE VARIOUS
TIME-CURRENT
CHARACTERISTICS USING
OVER-CURRENT RELAY.
TO REALIZE THE VARIOUS
TIME-CURRENT
CHARACTERISTICS
USING
EARTH FAULT RELAY.
TO STUDY ABOUT OVER
VOLTAGE PROTECTION
TO STUDY PROTECTION OF
THREE PHASE INDUCTION
MOTOR
TO STUDY RADIAL FEEDER
PROTECTION
MODELING OF SINGLEPHASE
INSTANTANEOUS
OVERCURRENT RELAY USING
MATLAB
MODELING OF A THREE
PHASE
INSTANTANEOUS
OVERCURRENT RELAY USING
MATLAB
MODELING
OF
A
DIFFERENTIAL RELAY USING
MATLAB
MODELING OF A DEFINITE
TIME OVERCURRENT RELAY
USING MATLAB
Page
From
To
DATE
SIGN
EXPERIMENT NO: 1
AIM: INTRODUCTION TO POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION
PROTECTION SYSTEM:
A protection scheme in power system is designed to
continuously monitor the power system to ensure maximum continuity of
electrical supply with minimum damage to life, equipment and property.
Isolation of faulty element
The ill effects of faults are minimized by quickly isolating the faulty
element from the rest of the healthy system, thus limiting the disturbance
footprint to as small an area in time and space as possible.
FAULTS AND ABNORMAL OPERATING CONDITIONS
Shunt Fault:
When the path of the load current is cut short because of breakdown of
insulation, we say that a short circuit has occurred. These faults due to
insulation flashover are many times temporary, i.e. if the arc path is allowed to
deionize, by interrupting the electric supply for a sufficient period, then there arc
does not restrike after the supply is restored. This process of interruption followed
by intentional reenergization is known as RECLOSURE. In low voltage system
up to 3 reclosure are attempted, after which the breaker is locked out. The
repeated attempts at reclosure, at times, help in burning out the object, which is
causing the breakdown of insulation. The reclosure may also be done
automatically.
EHV SYSTEM:
In these systems where the damage due to short circuit may be very large
and the system stability at stake, only one reclosure is allowed. At times the short
circuit may be total sometimes called a dead short circuit or it may be partial short
circuit.

METALLIC FAULT:
A fault which bypasses the entire load current through itself is called a
metallic fault. A metallic fault presents a very low, practically zero, fault
resistance. A partial short circuit can be modeled as a nonzero resistance or
impedance parallel with the intended path of current.
ARC RESISTANCE:
Most of the times, the fault resistance is nothing but the resistance of the arc
that is formed as a result of flash over. The resistance is highly non linear in
nature. Early researches have developed models of arc resistance. One such
widely used model is due to Warrington, which gives the Arc Resistance as;
Rarc 8750 S 3ut /I1.4
Where
S is the spacing in feet

t is the time in seconds
U is the velocity of air in mph
I is the fault current in ampere
CAUSES OF SHUNT FAULT:

Shunt fault is basically due to failure of insulation. The insulation may
fail because of its own weakening, or it may fail due to overvoltage the
weakening of insulation may be due to one or more of following factors.
Ageing
Temperature
Rain, Hail, Snow
Chemical pollution
Foreign objects
Other causes
The over voltage may be either internal due to switching or external due to
lightening .
EFFECTS OF SHUNT FAULTS
If the power system just consisted of isolated alternators feeding their own
load, then steady state fault currents would not be of much concern.
ISOLATED GENERATOR EXPERINCES A THREE PHASE FAULT

Consider an isolated turbo alternator with a threephase short circuit on its
terminals as shown in fig:
Assuming that;
Internal voltage I p.u
Synchronous impedance Xd
Steady stat short circuit current
2 p.u
0.5 p.u
This current is too small to cause any worry.

However considering;
Subtransient impedance Xd
Subtransient current will
I
0.1 p.u
10 p.u
FOR INTERCONNECTED POWER SYSTEM

For these systems all the generators and motors will contribute towards
the fault current, thus building up the value of the fault current to couple of tens of
times to the normal fullload current. Faults thus cause heavy current to flow. If
these current persists for short duration they can cause serious damage to the
equipment.
OVERHEATING:
In faulted circuits the overcurrent causes the overheating and attendant
danger of fire, this over heating also causes the deterioration of the insulation,
thus weakening it further. Transformers are known to have suffered mechanical
damage to the windings due to fault.
Some important points of interconnected power system are:
The generators in inter connected system must operate in
synchronism at all instants.
The electric power output from an alternator near the fault drops
sharply.
The mechanical power input remains constant at its pre fault value.
EFFECT OF FAULT:
As mechanical power input remains constant this causes the alternator to
accelerate, along with the rotor angle starts increasing, thus the alternators start
swinging with respect to each other. If the swing goes out of control alternator
will be tripped out. Thus system stability is at stake. Therefore fault need to be
isolated and removed as quickly as possible.
CLASSIFICATION OF SHUNT FAULT
PHASE FAULT AND GROUND FAULT
GROUND FAULT:
The fault which involves only one of the phase conductor and ground is
called as ground fault.
PHASE FAULT:
The fault which involves two or more phase conductors with or without
ground is called as phase fault.
FAULT STATICS WITH REFERENCE TO TYPE OF FAULT
FAULT
LG
LL
LLG
LLL
PROBABILITY
OCCURANCE
85%
8%
5%
2%
OF
SEVERITY
Least
Most
FAULT STATICTICS WITH REFERENCE TO POWER SYSTEM ELEMENTS

Further the probability of fault on different elements of power system is
different. The transmission lines which are exposed to the vagaries of the
atmosphere are most likely to be subjected to these faults. The fault statistics is
shown in table:
POWER SYSTEM ELEMENT
PROBABILITY OF FAULT %
Overhead lines
50
Underground Cables
09
Transformer
10
Generator
07
Switch Gears
12
CT, PT,Relays
12
Phasor Diagram of Voltages and Currents during Various Faults
A fault is accompanied by a buildup of current, which is obvious. At the same
time there is a fall in voltage throughout the power system. If the fault is a
metallic fault, the voltage at the fault location is zero. The voltage at the
terminals of the generator will also drop, though not drastically. If the source is
ideal, there will be no drop in voltage at the generator terminals. Normally the
relay is away from the fault location. Thus, as seen from the relay location, a

fault is characterized by a buildup of current, and to a certain extent, collapse
of voltage.
Series Fault
These faults occur simply when the path of current is opened. Practically most of
the time series fault is converted into shunt fault.
Abnormal Operating Conditions
The boundary between the normal and faulty conditions is not crisp. There are
certain operating conditions inherent to the operation of the power system which
is definitely not normal, but these are not electrical faults either. Some examples
are the magnetizing inrush current of a transformer, starting current of an
induction motor, and the conditions during power swing.
What are Protective Relays Supposed to Do?
Relays are supposed to detect the fault with the help of current and voltage and
selectively remove only the faulty part from the rest of the system by operating

breakers. This, the relay has to do with utmost selectivity and speed. In a
power system, faults are not an everyday occurrence. A typical relay,
therefore, spends all of its life monitoring the power system. Thus, relaying is
like an insurance against damage due to faults.
Evolution of Power Systems
Systems have evolved from isolated generators feeding their own loads to
huge power systems spanning an entire country. The evolution has
progressed systems to highvoltage systems and lowpower handling
capacities to high power capacities. The requirements imposed on the
protective system are linked to the nature of the power system.
Isolated Power System
The protection of an isolated power system is simpler because firstly, there is no
concentration of generating capacity and secondly, a single synchronous
alternator does not suffer from the stability problem as faced by a multi machine
system. Further, when there is a fault and the protective relays remove the
generator from the system, the system may suffer from a blackout unless there is
a standby source of power. The steadystate fault current in a single machine
power system may even be less than the fullload current. Such a fault will,
however, cause other effects like speeding up of the generator because of the
disturbed balance between the input mechanical power and the output electrical
power, and therefore should be quickly attended to. Although, there are no longer
any isolated power systems supplying residential or industrial loads, we do
encounter such situations in case of emergency diesel generators powering the
uninterrupted power supplies as well as critical auxiliaries in a thermal or nuclear
power station.
Interconnected Power System
An interconnected power system has evolved because it is more reliable than an
isolated power system. In case of disruption in one part of the system,
power can be fed from alternate paths, thus, maintaining continuity of service. An
interconnected power system also makes it possible to implement an economic
load dispatch.
The generators in an interconnected system could be of varied types such as
turboalternators in coal fired, gas fired or nuclear power plants , generators in

hydroelectric power plants, windpowered generators, fuel cells or even
solarpowered photovoltaic cells.
Figure shows a simple interconnected power system. Most of the generators
operate at the voltage level of around 20 kV. For bulk transmission of power,
voltage levels of the order of 400 kV or higher are used. At the receiving end, the
voltage is stepped down to the distribution level, which is further stepped down
before it reaches the consumers.
It can be seen that the EHV lines are the tie lines which interconnect two or
more generators whereas the low voltage lines are radial in nature which
terminate in loads at the remote ends.
Disadvantages of an Interconnected System
There are other undesirable effects of interconnection. It is

Very difficult to maintain stability
Disturbances quickly propagate throughout the system
Possibility of cascade tripping due to loss of stability is always looming
large
Voltage stability problem
Harmonic distortion propagate throughout the system
Possibility of cyberattacks
Various States of Operation of a Power System
A power system is a dynamic entity. Its state is likely to drift from one state to
the other as shown in the figure.
When the power system is operating in steady state, it is said to be operating in

normal state. In this state, there is enough generation capacity available to meet
the load, therefore, the frequency is stable around the nominal 50Hz or 60 Hz.
This state is also characterized by reactive power balance between generation
and load.
A Protection System and Its Attributes
Following figure shows a protection system for the distance protection of a
transmission line, consisting of a CT and a PT, a relay and its associated circuit
breaker. Every protection system will have these basic components.
At this stage, we can consider the relay as a blackbox having current and
voltage at its input, and an output, in the form of the closure of a normally
open contact. This output of the relay is wired in the trip circuit of the
associated circuit breaker s so as to complete this circuit. The conceptual
diagram of a generalized relay is shown in Figure:
Basic Requirements of a Protection System

Sensitivity
The protective system must be alive to the presence of the smallest fault
current. The smaller the fault current it can detect, the more sensitive it is.
Selectivity
In detecting the fault and isolating the faulty element, the protective system must
be very selective. Ideally, the protective system should zeroin on the faulty
element and isolate it, thus causing minimum disruption to the system.
Speed
The longer the fault persists on the system, the larger is the damage to the system
and higher is the possibility that the system will lose stability. Thus, it helps a lot
if the entire process of fault detection and removal of the faulty part is
accomplished in as short a time as feasible. Therefore, the speed of the protection
is very important.
Reliability and Dependability
A protective system is of no use if it is not reliable. There are many ways in which
reliability can be built into the system. In general, it is found that simple systems
are more reliable. Therefore, we add features like backup protection to enhance
the reliability and dependability of the protective system.
System Transducers
Current transformers and voltage transformers form a very important link
between the power system and the protective system. These transducers
basically extract the information regarding current and voltage from the power
system under protection and pass it on to the protective relays.
Current Transformer
The current transformer has two jobs to do.
10

Firstly, it steps down the current to such levels that it can be easily
handled by the relay current coil. The standard secondary current
ratings used in practice are 5 A and 1 A. This frees the relay designer
from the actual value of primary current.
Secondly, it isolates the relay circuitry from the high voltage of the EHV
system.
A conventional electromagnetic current transformer is shown in Figure. Ideally,
the current transformer should faithfully transform the current without any
errors. In practice, there is always some error. The error creeps in, both in
magnitude and in phase angle. These errors are known as ratio error and phase
angle error.
Voltage Transformer
The voltage transformer steps down the high voltage of the line to a level safe
enough for the relaying system pressure coil of relay and personnel to handle.
The standard secondary voltage on linetoline basis is 110 V. This helps in
standardizing the protective relaying equipment irrespective of the value of the
primary EHV adopted.
A PT primary is connected in parallel at the point where a measurement is
desired, unlike a CT whose primary is in series with the line.
A conventional electromagnetic VT is shown in Figure:
Circuit Breaker
The circuit breaker is an electrically operated switch, which is capable of safely
making, as well as breaking shortcircuit currents. The circuit breaker is operated
by the output of its associated relay. When the circuit breaker is in the closed
condition, its contacts are held closed by the tension of the closing spring. When
the trip coil is energized, it releases a latch, causing the stored energy in the
closing spring to bring about a quick opening operation.
11

Organization of Protection
The protection is organized in a very logical fashion. The idea is to provide a ring
of security around each and every element of the power system. If there is any
fault within this ring, the relays associated with it must trip all the allied circuit
breakers so as to remove the faulty element from the rest of the power system.
This 'ring of security' is called zone of protection. This is depicted in Figure with
the help of a simple relay for the protection of a transformer. Without going into
the detailed of the differential relaying scheme, we can make the following
statements:
Faults within the zone are termed internal faults whereas the faults outside the
zone are called external faults. External faults are also known as through faults.
The farthest point from the relay location, which is still inside the zone, is called
the reach point.
Zones of Protection
Various zones for a typical power system are shown in Figure. It can be seen that
the adjacent zones overlap; otherwise there could be some portion which is left
out and remains unprotected.
Primary and backup Protection
As already mentioned there are times when the primary protection may fail. This
could be due to failure of CT, VT or relay, or failure of circuit breaker. One of the
12

possible causes of the circuit breaker failure is the failure of the trip battery due
to inadequate maintenance. We must have a second line of defense in such a
situation. Therefore, it is a normal practice to provide another zone of protection
which should operate and isolate the faulty element in case of primary protection
failure.
Further, the backup protection must wait for the primary protection to operate,
before issuing the trip command to its associated circuit breakers. In other words,
the operating time of the backup protection must be delayed by an appropriate
amount over that of the primary protection. Thus, the operating time of the
backup protection should be equal to the operating time of primary protection
plus the operating time of the primary circuit breaker.
Maloperation
There should be proper coordination between the operating time of primary and
backup protection. It can be seen that the backup protection in this case issues
trip command to its breaker without waiting for the primary protection to do its
job. This results in operation of both the primary and the backup, resulting in a
longer and unnecessary disruption to the system. It is said that with every
additional relay used, there is an increase in the probability of Maloperation.
Various elements of power system that needs protection
The power system consists of
Alternators
Bus bars
Transformers for transmission and distribution
Transmission lines at various voltage levels from EHV to 11kV cables
Induction and synchronous motors
Reactors
Capacitors
Instrument and protective CTs and PTs
Various control and metering equipment etc
Each of these entities needs protection. Each apparatus has a unique set of
operating conditions.
13
Various Principles of Power System Protection

The most basic principles that are used in any protection system are following
Over current protection
Over voltage protection
Distance protection
Differential protection
Normally used protection schemes for different elements
Protection schemes used for different elements of any power system are
completely dependant upon the nature of that element. We can not use all
protection schemes for every element. Following table shows the protection
schemes used for mentioned elements:
ELEMENT
Alternator
Principle
Non
directional
over
current
Primary
protection
Bus bar
Primary
protection
Transformer Primary
protection
Transmission Primary
yes
line
protection
Large
Primary
induction
protection yes
motor
Directional
over current
Differential Distance
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
14

COMMENTS
The knowledge about protection system is of great importance. In this
experiment, we understand
What is a protection system?
Different kinds of faults and their effects
Classification of faults
Abnormal operating conditions
Function of a relay
Types of a power system
Properties of a good protection system
Zones of protection
Indeed these necessary to select protection scheme for any power system
element to understand the basics of fault effects and regarding protection
system.
15

EXPERIMENT NO: 2
AIM: TO REALIZE THE VARIOUS TIME-CURRENT
CHARACTERISTICS USING OVER-CURRENT RELAY.
INTRODUCTION:
A protective relay, which operates when the load current exceeds a
preset value, is called an over-current relay. The value of the present current above
which the relay operates is known as it pickup value. An over current relay is used
for the protection of distribution lines, large motors, power equipment etc. A
scheme which incorporates over-current relays for the protection of an element of
a power system, is known as an over current scheme or over current protection.
An over current scheme may include one or more over current relays.
Time Current Characteristics :
A wide variety of time-current characteristics is available for over
current relays.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Definite time over current relay

A definite-time over current relay operates after a predetermined time
when the current exceeds its pick-up value. The operating time is
constant, irrespective of the magnitude of the current above the pickup value. The desired definite operating time can be set with the help
of an intentional time delay mechanism provided in the relaying
unit. Curve (a) of Fig. 1 shows the time-current characteristic for this
type of relay.
Instantaneous over current relay
An instantaneous relay operates in a definite time when the current
exceeds its pick-up value. The operating time is constant, irrespective
of the magnitude of the current, as shown by the curve (a) of Fig. 1
There is no intentional time delay. It operates in 0.1s or less.
Sometimes the term like high set or high speed is used for very
fast relays having operating times less than 0.1s.
Inverse-time over current relay
An inverse-time over current relay operates when the current exceeds
its pick up value. The operating time decreases as the current
increases. Curve (b) of Fig. 1 shows the inverse time-current
characteristic of this type of relays.
Inverse definite minimum time over current (I.D.M.T.) relay
16

This type of relay gives an inverse-time current characteristic at
lower values of the fault current and definite-time characteristic at
higher values of the fault current. Generally, an inverse-time
characteristic is obtained if the value of the plug setting multiplier is
below 10. for values of plug setting multiplier between 10 and 20, the
characteristic tends to become a straight line, i.e. towards the definite
time characteristic. Fig. 2 shows the characteristic of an I.D.M.T.
relay along with other characteristics. I.D.M.T. relays are widely used
for the protection of distribution lines.
Very inverse time over current relay
A very inverse-time over current relay gives more inverse
characteristic than that of a plain inverse relay or the I.D.M.T. relays.
Its time-current characteristic lies between an I.D.M.T. characteristic
and extremely inverse characteristic, as shown in Fig. 2 The very
inverse characteristic gives better selectivity than the I.D.M.T.
Characteristic. Hence, it can be sued where an I.D.M.T. relays fails to
achieve good selectivity.
(v)
(vi)
Extremely inverse time over current relay

An extremely inverse time over current relay gives a time-current
characteristic more inverse than that of the very inverse and I.D.M.T.
relays, as shown in Fig. 2 When I.D.M.T. relays and very inverse
relays fail in selectivity, extremely inverse relays are employed
Method of defining shape of Time-current characteristics

The general expression for time-current characteristics is given by
t
K
I 1
n
The approximate expression is

t
K
In
For definite-time characteristic, the value of n is equal to 0. According to

the British Standard, the following are the important characteristics of over
current relays.
(i)
I.D.M.T. :
(ii)
Very Inverse:
0.14
I 1
13.5
t
I 1
t
0.02
17
(iii)
Extremely Inverse:
80
I 1
2
SETTINGS OF OVER CURRENT RELAYS:

(i)
Current Setting : The current above which a over current relay should
operate can be set .If time-current curves are drawn, taking current in
Amps on the X-axis, there will be one graph for each setting of the relay.
To avoid this complex situation, the plug setting multipliers (PSM) are
taken on the X-axis.
The actual r.m.s. current flowing in the relay expressed as a multiple
of the setting current (pick up current) is known as the plug setting
multiplier (PSM)
Suppose, the rating of the relay is 5A and it is set at 200% i.e. at
10A.If the current flowing through the relay is 100A, then the PSM
will be 10.
Hence, PSM can be expressed as
Secondarycurrent
Re laycurrent setting
Pr imarycurrentduringfa ult , i.e. faultcurre nt
=
Re laycurrent setting C.T .ratio
PSM =
(ii)
If P.S.M. is taken on the X-axis, there will only one curve for all the
settings of the relay. The curve is generally plotted on log/log graph.
Time Setting : the operating time of the relay can be set at a desired
value.
There are 10 steps in which time can be set. The term time multiplier
setting (TMS) is used for these steps of time settings. The values of TMS
are 0.1, 0.20.9,1.
Suppose that at a particular value of current or PSM, the operating
time is 4s with TMS = 1. The operating time for the same current with
TMS = 0.5 will be 4X0.5 = 2s
The operating time with TMS = 0.2 will be 4X0.2 = 0.8s
18

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr.
No.
PSM
(Plug TMS
(Time PICK
UP Time
Setting
Multiplier
CURRENT
seconds
Multiplier)
Setting)
in
1
2
3
4
5
CONCLUSION :
Quiz:
(1) What are the various types of over current relays?
(2) What is PSM and TSM?
19

EXPERIMENT NO: 3
AIM:
TO REALIZE THE VARIOUS TIME-CURRENT
CHARACTERISTICS USING EARTH FAULT RELAY.
EARTH FAULT PROTECTION
A fault which involves ground is called an earth fault. Examples are single line
to ground (L-G) fault and double line to ground (2L-G) fault. Faults which do
not involve ground are called phase faults. The protective scheme used for the
protection of an element of a power system against earth faults is known as earth
fault protection.
EARTH FAULT RELAY AND OVER-CURRENT RELAY
Relay which are used for the protection of a section (or an element) of the power
system against earth faults are called earth fault relays. Similarly, relays used for
the protection of a section of the power system against phase faults are called
phase fault relays or over-current relays. The operating principles and
constructional features of earth fault relays and phase fault relays are the same.
They differ only in the current levels of their operation. The plug setting for earth
fault relays varies from 20% to 80% of the C.T. secondary rating in steps of 10%.
Earth fault relays are more sensitive than the relays used for phase faults. The plug
settings for phase fault relays varies from 50% to 200% of the C.T. secondary
rating in steps of 25%. The name phase fault relay or phase relays is not common.
The common name for such relays is over-current relay. One should not confuse
this term with the general meaning of over-current relay. In a general sense, a
relay which operates when the current exceeds its pick-up value is called an overcurrent relay. But in the context under consideration, i.e. phase fault protection
and earth fault protection, the relays which are used for the protection of the
system against phase faults are called over-current relays.
EARTH FAULT PROTECTIVE SCHEMES
An earth fault relay may be a residual current as shown in fig. (a) ia, ib and ic are
currents in the secondary of C.T.s of different phase. The same ( i a + ib + ic ) is
called residual current. Under normal conditions the residual current is zero. When
an earth fault occurs, the residual current is non-zero. When it exceeds pick-up
value, the earth fault relay operates. In this scheme, the relay operates only for
20

earth faults. During balanced load conditions, the earth fault relay carries no
current; hence theoretically its current setting may be any value greater than zero.
But in practice, it is not true as ideal conditions do not exist in the system.
Usually, the minimum plug setting is made at 20% or 30%. The manufacturer
provides a range of plug settings for earth fault relay from 20% to 80% of the C.T.
secondary rating in steps of 10%.
The magnitude of the earth fault current depends on the fault impedance. In
case of an earth fault, the fault impedance depends on the system parameter and
also on the type of neutral Earthing. The neutral may be solidly grounded,
grounded through resistance or reactance. The fault impedance for earth faults is
much higher than that for phase faults. Hence, the earth fault current is low
compared to the phase fault currents. An earth fault relay is set independent of
load current. Its setting is below normal load current. When an earth fault relay is
set at lower values, its ohmic impedance is high, resulting in a high C.T. burden.
Figure (b) and (c) show an earth fault relay used for the protection of
transformer and an alternator, respectively. When an earth fault occurs, zero
sequence current flows through the neutral. It actuates earth fault relay.
Figure (d) shoes the connection of an earth fault relay using a special type
of C.T. known as a core-balance C.T., which encircles the three-phase conductors.
Combined Earth Fault and Phase Fault Protective Scheme
Figure 3.16 shows two over-current relays (phase to phase fault relays) and one
earth fault relay. When an earth fault occurs, the burden on the active C.T. is that
of an over-current relay (phase fault relay) and the earth fault relay in series. Thus,
the C.T. burden becomes high and may cause saturation.
Directional Earth Fault Relay
For the protection against ground faults, only one directional overcurrent relay is
required. Its operating principle and construction is similar to the directional
overcurrent relays discussed earlier. It contains two elements, a directional
element and an IDMT element. The directional element has two coils. One coil is
energized by current and the other by voltage. The current coil of the directional
element is energized by residual current and the potential coil by residual voltage
as shown in fig. 3.18 (a). This connection is suitable for a place where the neutral
point is not available. If the neutral of an alternator or transformer is grounded,
connections are made as shown in fig. 3.18(b). If the neutral point is grounded
through a P.T., the potential coil of the directional earth fault relay may be
21

connected to the secondary of the PT. The IDMT element has a plugsetting of
20% to 80%.
A special five limbs P.T. which can energize both the earth fault relay as well as
the phase fault relays, as shown in fig.3.19, may be used.
Now-a-days STATIC relays and MICROPROCESSOR-BASED relays are
extensively used in place of ELECTROMAGNETIC relays.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr.
No.
PSM
(Plug TMS
(Time PICK
UP Time
Setting
Multiplier
CURRENT
seconds
Multiplier)
Setting)
in
1
2
3
4
5
CONCLUSION:
22

QUIZ:
(1) Distinguish between an E/F relay and an O/C relay.
(2) Why E/F relay is provided with current setting range of 20 to 80 % of rated
current compared to current setting range 50 to 200 % for O/C relays.
23

EXPERIMENT NO: 4
AIM: TO STUDY ABOUT OVER VOLTAGE PROTECTION
INTRODUCTION:
Overvoltage events are more common than lightning strikes within industrial
sites. Overvoltage itself is defined as the current flow of electricity to a specific
component being raised over a critical, defined threshold which is known to
potentially damage components within the attached system. The overvoltage
protection (OVP) devices continually monitor the flow level of electricity, and
activate when that flow level is exceeded. The superior OVP protection offered
by Strikesorb has a high short-circuit current rating, enabling flexible installation
and integration.
The reasons for overvoltage events are numerous. Failures within the power
supply can cause brief and damaging spikes in current. These spikes must be
recognized instantaneously and drawn down or diverted from the equipment in
order to avoid fires, equipment loss and data failures. Other forms of electrical
events include transients and non-power supply failures such as user errors caused
by incorrect programming, shorts and switch errors. In all of these events, the
brief increase in electrical levels past the safety threshold is caused by distortions
of the sine wave which changes its shape, causing problems with equipment. This
type of electrical overvoltage can cause a long-term negative impact on the
reliability of electronics causing failure of critical equipment, including the UPS
and other power back up systems. Transient Voltage Surge Suppression (TVSS)
should therefore be considered as part of a complete overvoltage protection
solution.
Overvoltage events caused by lightning strikes are the most severe and difficult to
prevent as this type of strike must be prevented through the use of different
systems. Overvoltage as a result of a power spikes related to direct lightning
strikes on power lines, or coupled by a strike into a structure, will cause severe
power surges that can be detected and drawn away from equipment through
devices installed between the lines and the equipment itself. Protection against a
direct strike to equipment is done through installation of overhead shields installed
between the lightning and the equipment, in order to prevent the strike to the
equipment itself which would cause irreversible damage and potentially fire.
24

There are always a chance of suffering an electrical power system from abnormal
over voltages. These abnormal over voltages may be caused due to various reason
such as, sudden interruption of heavy load, lightening impulses, switching
impulses etc. These over voltage stresses may damage insulation of various
equipments and insulators of the power system. Although, all the over voltage
stresses are not strong enough to damage insulation of system, but still these over
voltages also to be avoided to ensure the smooth operation of electrical power
system. These all types of destructive and non destructive abnormal over voltages
are eliminated from the system by means of overvoltage protection.
Voltage Surge
The over voltage stresses applied upon the power system, are generally transient
in nature. Transient voltage or voltage surge is defined as sudden sizing of voltage
to a high peak in very short duration.
The voltage surges are transient in nature, that means they exist for very short
duration. The main cause of these voltage surges in power system are due to
lightning impulses and switching impulses of the system. But over voltage in the
power system may also be caused by, insulation failure, arcing ground and
resonance etc. The voltage surges appear in the electrical power system due to
switching surge, insulation failure, arcing ground and resonance are not very large
in magnitude. These over voltages hardly cross the twice of the normal voltage
level. Generally, proper insulation to the different equipment of power system is
sufficient to prevent any damage due to these over voltages. But over voltages
occur in the power system due to lightning is very high. If over voltage protection
is not provided to the power system, there may be high chance of severe damage.
Hence all over voltage protection devices used in power system mainly due to
lightning surges.
Let us discuss different causes of over voltages one by one.
Switching Impulse or Switching Surge
When a no load transmission line is suddenly switched on, the voltage on the line
becomes twice of normal system voltage. This voltage is transient in nature. When
a loaded line is suddenly switched off or interrupted, voltage across the line also
becomes high enough current chopping in the system mainly during opening
operation of air blast circuit breaker, causes over voltage in the system. During
insulation failure, a live conductor is suddenly earthed. This may also caused
sudden over voltage in the system. If emf wave produced by alternator is distorted,
the trouble of resonance may occur due to 5 th or higher harmonics. Actually for
frequencies of 5th or higher harmonics, a critical situation in the system so appears,
that inductive reactance of the system becomes just equal to capacitive reactance
25

of the system. As these both reactance cancel each other the system becomes
purely resistive. This phenomenon is called resonance and at resonance the system
voltage may be increased enough. But all these above mentioned reasons create
over voltages in the system which are not very high in magnitude. But over
voltage surges appear in the system due to lightning impulses are very high in
amplitude and highly destructive. The affect of lightning impulse hence must be
avoided for over voltage protection of power system.
Methods of Protection Against Lightning
These are mainly three main methods generally used for protection against
lightning. They are
1. Earthing screen.
2. Overhead earth wire.
3. Lighning arrester or surge dividers.
Earthing Screen
Earthing screen is generally used over electrical sub-station. In this arrangement a
net of GI wire is mounted over the sub-station. The GI wires, used for earthing
screen are properly grounded through different sub-station structures. This
network of grounded GI wire over electrical sub-station, provides very low
resistance path to the ground for lightning strokes.
This method of high voltage protection is very simple and economic but the main
drawback is, it can not protect the system from travelling wave which may reach
to the sub-station via different feeders.
Overhead Earth Wire
This method of over voltage protection is similar as earthing screen. The only
difference is, an earthing screen is placed over an electrical sub-station, whereas,
overhead earthwire is placed over electrical transmission network. One or two
stranded GI wires of suitable cross-section are placed over the transmission
conductors. These GI wires are properly grounded at each transmission tower.
These overhead ground wires or earthwire divert all the lightning strokes to the
ground instead of allowing them to strike directly on the transmission conductors.
Lightning Arrester
The previously discussed two methods, i.e. earthing screen and over-head earth
wire are very suitable for protecting an electrical power system from directed
lightning strokes but system from directed lightning strokes but these methods can
not provide any protection against high voltage travelling wave which may
propagate through the line to the equipment of the sub-station. The lightning
arrester is a devices which provides very low impedance path to the ground for
high voltage travelling waves. The concept of a lightning arrester is very simple.
This device behaves like a nonlinear electrical resistance. The resistance decreases
26

as voltage increases and vice-versa, after a certain level of voltage. The functions
of a lightning arrester or surge dividers can be listed as below.
1. Under normal voltage level, these devices withstand easily the system voltage
as electrical insulator and provide no conducting path to the system current.
2. On occurrence of voltage surge in the system, these devices provide very low
impedance path for the excess charge of the surge to the ground.
3. After conducting the charges of surge, to the ground, the voltage becomes to its
normal level. Then lightning arrester regains its insulation properly and
prevents regains its insulation property and prevents further conduction of
current, to the ground.
There are different types of lightning arresters used in power system, such as
rod gap arrester, horn gap arrester, multi-gap arrester, expulsion type LA, value
type LA. In addition to these the most commonly used lightning arrester for over
voltage protection now-a-days gapless ZnO lightning arrester is also used.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. No.
PSM (Plug
Multiplier)
Setting TMS (Time Multiplier

Setting)
1
2
3
4
5
CONCLUSION:
27

EXPERIMENT NO: 5
AIM: TO STUDY PROTECTION
INDUCTION MOTOR
OF
THREE
PHASE
INTRODUCTION:
Three phase induction motor generally suffers from under voltage, overvoltage,
overheating, single phasing and phase reversal problems. When the three phase
induction motor supply with higher voltage than is rated then induction motor
starts overheated. In our project a variable resistance is used when supply voltage
is lower than rated then voltage drop across the resistance is higher than it protects
the motor from this fault. When supply voltage is lower than voltage drop across
the resistance is lower than specified value and motor fails to start. When supply is
only one phase, this is single phasing problem and supply voltage fall the rated
and once again motor fails to start. In the case of motor overheating a LM sensor
is used which sense the temperature of winding if it is exceed the specified limit
then once again motor fails to start. It is highly desired that 3 phase induction
motor works freely from these all types of faults. Details description of all types
of faults is given below.
OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION
In overvoltage protection system of 3 phase induction motor, protects the motor
from overvoltage, the voltage which is higher than the rated voltage. In circuit
diagram of overvoltage protection it consists the comparator which compare two
voltages one is supply and another one is drop across the variable resistance.
When the voltage drop across the variable rsistance is higher than specified value
then comparator generates signals. This signal is fed to microcontroller and
microcontroller takes the appropriate action as shown in fig.1.
UNDER VOLTAGE PROTECTION
In under voltage protection of 3 phase induction motor provides the protection
from the under voltage. When supply system has low voltage than the rated of
induction motor then under voltage protection section of protection supply is
provided to motor. Single phasing works. It has same concept as overvoltage it
also has comparator which compare two voltage one form supply and another
from the voltage drop across the variable rsistance. When voltage drop across the
variable resistance is lower than specified value, this signal sends to
microcontroller and microcontroller stop the operation of motor in the case of
28

running and fails to operate in case of starting. Preset is used to set the specified
value as shown in fig.3.
SINGLE PHASING
In single phasing protection to 3 phase induction motor, if other two phases is
faulted and only one protection of motor section starts functioning. Generally in
single phase supply voltage is lower value than specified value. On this value of
voltage motor is unable to start. Comparator which compares single phasing
supply voltage and rated specified voltage, and single sends to microcontroller and
microcontroller generates single which stop the motor if motor is running and does
not allow to motor start in case of standstill. Sometimes single phasing protection
looking much motor important when the motor is tight which important function
like furnishing, pump driving and crane driving etc. This fig.4 show the typical
single phasing condition in three phase induction motor where one phase break
down and motor is only supplied by remaining phases which is equivalent to
single phasing condition. Single phasing occurs as a result of several possibilities.
A loose wire, a bad connection, bad starter contacts, overload relay problems, a
bad breaker, a blown fuse, and other things can cause this destructive condition.
Obvious signs are a louder than normal humming from the motor and/or a shaft
that vibrates rather than rotating.
PHASE REVERSAL
Phase reversal problem occurs in motor when the supply phase is reversed due to
wrong connection (except than RYB) due to phase reversal motor starts running in
anticlockwise (opposite direction from normal) would cause operation and safety
problem. Most of three phases motor run opposite phases. This type of protection
is used in application like elevators where it would be damaging or dangerous for
the motor to run in reverse. Generally when motor is connected with the important
application then type of protection being much more important .When the load is
connected with motor then reversal of phase means Direction of rotation is
changed. It could cause serious problem therefore much more care is required to
protect the motor form such type of fault. The overheating protection system is
placed to turn the motor off when the exceeds heat is generated within the motor.
This protection system rested the motor cools to safe operating temperature.
Direction by switching the connection of any two of three although the motor
having shut down because it tripped the thermal limit in inconvenient. VII.
OVERHEATING PROTECTION Overheating protection of motor means protect
the motor from overheating of its winding. This overheating in motor is generally
caused by overloading of motor, bearing seizes up something locked the motor
shaft from turning. Motor simply fails to starts properly, a failure to start of motor
29

may cause by faulty start in winding in motor. For sensing the heat LM 35 sensor
is used for this purpose. This sensor is connected to comparator inputs. With the
help of sensor which sense the temperature of winding & its temperature exceeds
to some particular level then comparator sends this signal to microcontroller as
shown in fig.5.
INDUCTION MOTOR PROTECTION

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr.
No.
PSM
(Plug TMS
(Time TYPE OF FAULT
Setting
Multiplier Setting)
Multiplier)
1
2
3
4
5
30

CONCLUSION:
31

EXPERIMENT NO: 6
AIM: TO STUDY RADIAL FEEDER PROTECTION
INTRODUCTION:
Whole of the power system can be subdivided in to number of radial feeders fed
from one end. Generally such radial feeders are protected by over current and
earth fault relays used as primary relays for 11 kV and 66 kV lines. For lines of
voltage rating beyond 66 kV, distance protection is applied as a primary protection
whereas over current and earth fault relays are used as back up relays.
A simplified radial feeder network without transformers (in actual practice
transformers do exist at substations) is shown in single line diagram of fig. 1.1
below.
Section I
S
Source
A
R
1
Section II
Transmi
ssion
B
R2
Line
Section III
C
D
R3
Fus
e
To
Load
Fig. 1.1. A Typical Radial Transmission Line
32
If the fault occurs in distribution network, fuse should isolate the faulty section.
Should the fuse fail, relay R3 shall give back-up protection. Relays R1, R2 , and R3
act as primary relays for faults in section I, section I, and section III respectively. If
fault in section III is not cleared by relaying scheme at relaying point R 3, relay R2
will act as a back-up. Similarly back-up protection is provided by relay R1 for faults
in section II. A,B, C and D are substations in fig. 1.1.
Generally Inverse time overcurrent relays with Definite Minimum Time feature
(IDMT relays) are used in practice. There are many types of such relays available
in relay-market, viz. normal inverse relays, very inverse relays and extremely
inverse relays. The characteristics of these relays are shown in fig. 1.2. The other
types of o/c relays are 3 second relay and 1.3 second relay. This means the time of
operation of the relay is either 3 or 1.3 second at Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM)
equal to 10. Long time inverse relays are used for o/c cum overload application.
Voltage restrains o/c relays have their own application.
Very inverse relays are less prone to the ratio ZS/ZL. Extremely inverse relays are
yet better. Very inverse relays are faster in operation for close-in faults yet
maintaining the discrimination with fuse and other relays. Extremely inverse relays
are more meritorious in this aspect too. Instantaneous o/c relays are not immune to
ZS/ZL ratio. Definite time o/c relays are 100 % immune to this ratio. Very inverse
relays can be used with an additional advantage while protecting a machine or a
transformer as they match with the heating characteristic of equipment better than
their normal inverse equivalent. Extremely inverse relays can best co-ordinate with
the fuse characteristic. The aim of this experiment is to reveal these facts
experimentally.
This is only a single phase version of a radial feeder. Transmission lines are
simulated by 9 ohms resistors as we are studying only the steady state behavior of
the relays and the network. Circuit breakers are simulated by contactors. Distributor
is protected by a 0.5 Amp M.C.B. Semaphore indicators on the panel show the
status of the contactor(whether ON or OFF). Visual neon lamp indictors are also
used. Faults in different sections can be created by switches S1 , S2 and S3. Fault
limiting resistance of 18 ohms is used for practical purposes only, as otherwise the
source would get shorted for a fault at start of the first section. For fault in
distributor, Ohmic value of load rheostats can be decreased. MCB simulates fuses
or MCCB. In actual practice C.T. secondary rated current (1 Amp or 5 Amp) and
relay rating should be same. Here C.T. secondary rating is 5 Amp and relay rating
is 1 Amp. This is contradicting the practice for for practical purpose.
33

Referring to control circuit of figure 1.4(a) and (b), any section can be manually
charged or made off using start (PB1) and stop (PB 2) push buttons, which are
spring loaded. On occurrence of fault, the corresponding section relay will operate
and the concerned auxiliary relay A1, A2 or A3 will energize giving signal to the
concerned contactor and making it off. This will also activate the buzzer and bulb
which can be reset using Accept pushbutton PB3. Back up can be shown by using
switches T1 and T2 on the panel. Time of operation of relays can be measured by a
time interval counter connected as shown in fig. 1.4 (c).
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
1. Measure the fault currents for extreme faults in sections I, II and III by adjusting
the corresponding rheostat in minimum (zero resistance) and maximum (full
resistance) positions and using the corresponding fault-switch S1, S2, or S3 (refer
fig. 1.3). Maximum fault currents in sections I, II and III are denoted by F 1, F2,
F3 respectively and the minimum fault currents by F1, F2, F3 respectively.
Deactivate the relays for this purpose. Record the readings in table 1:
2. Calculate the plug settings (or Tap Value) of relays R1, R2 and R3. (Plug
settings will be same irrespective of type of relays ). For this purpose,
assume the number of distributors each of 0.5 Amp rating from the following
possibilities (The experiment is a simulation and hence the distributor
current is 0.5 Amp. In actual practice it may be 500 Amp or more or less):
Number of distributors: 1, 2, 3 or 4.
(Calculations of the plug setting shall be done w.r.t. following considerations.)
(I) The plug setting shall be more than or equal to the maximum full-load
current passing through the relay.
(II) The pick up of the relay varies from 1.05 to 1.3 times the plug setting of
the relay.
(III) For back up, relay R1 shall reach for the fault F2 and R2 for the fault F3.
3. Time Settings. (Normal Inverse Relays)
For deciding time-settings, co-ordinate the characteristic of relay R3 with
that of an MCB.( Refer figures 1.5 and 1.6.)
Use discriminating time-interval of 1.0 second between two characteristics.
This will decide TMS of R3. Why discrimination time of 1.0 second? (Try
answer to this question.)
For coordinating R2 with R3, use the worst possible current to decide TMS of
R2 (F3 in table:1.1). Similarly decide TMS of R1 by using F2 and setting of R2.
Use discriminating time interval between two successive relays as 0.4 seconds
(why 0.4 seconds?) for these calculations. Tabulate the results as follows:
4. Time-settings (Very Inverse Relays)
Similar exercise as at Sr. No. 3 above can be carried out for very inverse
34
5.
6.
7.
8.
relays also. The results are to be tabulated as in the case of normal inverse
relays as per calculated settings.
Use figure 1.5 and 1.7 for deciding TMS of very inverse relays.
Set the normal inverse relays as per the settings in table 1.2.
Calculate the time of operation of the main and back-up relays for extreme
faults in each section using the relay settings in table:1.2 and the fault current
readings recorded in table:1.1. Enter these in table:1.3 as Calculated Time of
Operation.
Vary the 550 ohms load resistance such that the current in the radial feeder
varies from 0.5 Amp to about 4 Amp. See that MCB trips and relay R 3 does
not trip.
Now create extreme faults (one by one) in each section starting from section
III. For each fault, measure the time of operation of the main and the back-up
relay (to measure time of operation of back-up relay, the main relay has to be
deactivated using switches T2 or T3 (as the case may be) ). Record these in
table 1.3 as Measured Time of Operation. Calculate the error between the
calculated and the measured time of operation for each fault and record it in
table:
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr.
No.
PSM (Plug Setting

Multiplier)
R1
R2
R3
TMS (Time Multiplier

Setting)
R1
R2
RELAY OPERATE
R3
1
2
3
4
5
CONCLUSION:
35

EXPERIMENT NO: 7
AIM: MODELING OF SINGLEPHASE INSTANTANEOUS
OVERCURRENT RELAY USING MATLAB
INTRODUCTION:
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a
switching mechanism, but other operating principles are also used. Relays find applications
where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low power signal, or where several circuits
must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph
circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and retransmitting it to another.
TYPES OF RELAYS
Over current Relay
Distance Relay
Differential Relay
And many more
OverCurrent Relay
The protection in which the relay picks up when the magnitude of current exceeds the
pickup level is known as the overcurrent protection. Over current includes shortcircuit
protection; Short circuits can be Phase faults, Earth faults, Winding faults. Shortcircuit
currents are generally several times 5 to 20 full load current. Hence fast fault clearance is
always desirable on short circuits. Primary requirements of overcurrent protection are: The
protection should not operate for starting currents, permissible over current, current surges.
To achieve this, the time delay is provided in case of inverse relays. The protection should
be coordinated with neighboring over current protection. Over current relay is a basic
element of over current protection.
In order for an over current protective device to operate properly, over current protective
device ratings must be properly selected.
These ratings include voltage, ampere and interrupting rating.
36

Of the three of the ratings, perhaps the most important and most often overlooked is the
interrupting rating.
If the interrupting rating is not properly selected, a serious hazard for equipment and
personnel will exist.
Current limiting can be considered as another over current protective device rating, although
not all over current protective devices are required to have this characteristic.
Instantaneous Time over Current Relay:
It operates in a definite time when current exceeds its pickup value. It has operating time is
constant. In it, there is no intentional time delay. It operates in 0.1s or less
Definite Time over Current Relay:
It operates after a predetermined time, as current exceeds its pickup value. Its operating
time is constant. Its operation is independent of the magnitude of current above the pickup
value. It has pickup and time dial settings, desired time delay can be set with the help of an
intentional time delay mechanism.
Inverse Time over Current Relay:
Over current relay function monitors the general balanced overloading and has current/time
settings. This is determined by the overall protective discrimination scheme. There
advantage over definite time relays is that they can have much shorter tripping times can be
obtained without any risk to the protection selection process. These are classified in
accordance with there characteristic curves, this indicates the speed of the operation. Based
on this they are defined as being inverse, very inverse or extremely inverse. The typical
settings for these relays are 0.72In normal or rated generator current in 110 second.
Inverse Definite Minimum Time over Current Relay:
It gives inverse time current characteristics at lower values of fault current and definite time
characteristics at higher values. An inverse characteristic is obtained if the value of plug
setting multiplier is below 10, for values between 10 and 20; characteristics tend towards
definite time characteristics. It is widely used for the protection of distribution lines.
Very Inverse Time over Current Relay:
37

It gives more inverse characteristics than that of IDMT. It is used where there is a reduction
in fault current, as the distance from source increases. It is particularly effective with ground
faults because of their steep characteristics
Extremely Inverse Time over Current Relay:
It has more inverse characteristics than that of IDMT and very inverse over current relay. It
is suitable for the protection of machines against overheating. It is for the protection of
alternators, transformers, expensive cables, etc
Simulink Diagram in MATLAB for Single Phase Instantaneous Time OverCurrent Relay
38

Waveform Results in MATLAB for Single Phase Instantaneous Time OverCurrent
Relay
COMMENTS:
In this experiment, we designed an instantaneous overcurrent relay in MATLAB Simulink
and then observed the behavior of this relay.
We observed that the normal current flowing through the system is 100 Amperes, but when
the fault occurs in the system, the current flowing is increased from 100 Amperes.
We modeled the circuit such that the breaker must be open just after the current level is
increased over 100 Amperes.
39
In this experiment, we take the results on scope and observed that when current exceeds
over 100 Amperes, the breaker is opened instantaneously and our required results are
verified.
40

EXPERIMENT-8
AIM: MODELING OF A THREE PHASE INSTANTANEOUS
OVERCURRENT RELAY USING MATLAB
INTRODUCTION:
Type of Relays
Over current Relay

Distance Relay
Differential Relay
And many more
Functions of Relays:
To detect the presence of fault
Identify the faulted components
Initiate appropriate circuit breaker
Remove the effective component from circuit
OverCurrent Relay
41

element of over current protection. In order for an over current protective device to operate
properly, over current protective device ratings must be properly selected. These ratings
include voltage, ampere and interrupting rating. Of the three of the ratings, perhaps the most
important and most often overlooked is the interrupting rating. If the interrupting rating is
not properly, selected, a serious hazard for equipment and personnel will exist. Current
limiting can be considered as another over current protective device rating, although not all
over current protective devices are required to have this characteristic.
Types of Over Current Relay
constant. In it, there is no intentional time delay. It operates in 0.1s or less.
faults because of their steep characteristics
42

alternators, transformers, expensive cables, etc.
Simulink Diagram in MATLAB for ThreePhase Instantaneous Time OverCurrent Relay
43

Subsystem:
Inst.Relay:
44

Waveform Results in MATLAB for Three PhaseInstantaneous Time OverCurrent Relay
COMMENTS:
In this experiment, we implimented a three phase instantaneous over current relay in
MATLAB Simulink.
In this experiment we have used terminators at the outputs that are not needed.
We have implimented a three phase fault at a specified time to ensure the breaker
operation at 0.02 on time axis.
When a three phase fault occurs in the system, current exceeds from this value.
45

Breaker is operated instantaneously at the time when fault occurs and system is protected
against the very high current.
This three phase relay can operate also for single phase or two phases fault.
46

EXPERIMENT-9
AIM: MODELING OF A DIFFERENTIAL RELAY USING MATLAB
INTRODUCTION:
Relays found extensive use in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical
operations.
A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly drive an electric motor is
called a contractor. Solidstate relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead
using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating
characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits
from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by
digital instruments still called protection relays. A protective relay is a automatic sensing
device which senses an abnormal condition and causes circuit breaker to isolate faulty
element from system. Protective relaying is necessary with almost every electrical power
system and no part of it is left unprotected choice of protection depends upon several
aspects like
47

Type and rating of protected equipment and its importance
Location
Probable abnormal condition
Cost
Selectivity ,Sensitivity , Stability ,Reliability ,Fault clearance time
Functions of Relays
Purpose of Relay
Control
Protection
Regulation
Type of Relays
Over current Relay
Distance Relay
Differential Relay etc.
Differential Relay
48

Differential protection is a unit scheme that compares the current on the primary side of a
transformer with that on the secondary side. Where a difference exists other than that du e to
the voltage ratio it is assumed that the transformer has developed a fault and the plant is
automatically disconnected by tripping the relevant circuit breakers.
The principle of operation is made possible b y virtue o f the fact that large transformers are
very efficient and hence under normal operation powerin equals powerout. Differential
protection detects faults on all of the plant and equipment within the protected zone,
including interturn short circuits .
Principle of Operation
The operating principle employed by transformer differential protection is the circulating
current system as shown below. Under normal conditions I1 and I2 are equal and opposite
such that the resultant current through the relay is zero. An intern al fault produces an
unbalance or 'spill' current that is detected by the relay, leading to operation.
Design Considera tions

A num ber of factors have to be tak en into account in designin g a schem e to meet th ese
objectives. Th ese include:
49
The matching of CT ratios

Current imbalance produced by tap changing
Dealing with zero sequence currents
Phase shift through the transformer
Magnetizing inrush current
Each of these is considered further below:
The Matching of CT Ratios
The CTs used for the Protection Scheme will normally be selected from a range of current
transformers with standard ratios such as 1600/1, 1000/5, 200/1 etc. This could mean that
the currents fed into the relay from the two sides of the power transformer may not balance
perfectly. Any imbalance must be compensated for and methods used include the
application of biased relays and/or the use of the interposing CTs.
Current Imbalance Produced by Tap Changing
A transformer equipped with an onload tap changer OLTC will by definition experience a
change in voltage ratio as it moves over its tapping range. This in turn changes the ratio of
primary to secondary current and produces outof balance or spill current in the relay. As
the transformer taps further from the balance position, so the magnitude of the spill current
increases. To make the situation worse, as the load on the transformer increases the
magnitude of the spill current increases yet again. And finally through faults could produce
spill currents that exceed the setting of the relay. However, none of these conditions is 'in
zone' and therefore the protection must remain stable i.e. it must not operate. Biased relays
provide the solution.
Magnetizing Inrush Current
When a transformer is first energized, magnetizing inrush has the effect of producing a high
magnitude current for a short period of time. This will be seen by the supply side CTs only
and could be interpreted as an internal fault. Precautions must therefore be taken to prevent
a protection operation. Solutions include building a time delay feature into the relay and the
50

use of harmonic restraint driven, typically, by the high level of second harmonic associated
with inrush current.
Other Issues
Biased Relays
The use of a bias feature within a differential relay permits low settings and fast operating
times even when a transformer is fitted with an onload tap changer. The effect of the bias
is to progressively increase the amount of spill current required for operation as the
magnitude of through current increases. Biased relays are given a specific characteristic by
the manufacturer.
Interposing CTs
The main function of an interposing CT is to balance the currents supplied to the relay
where there would otherwise be an imbalance due to the ratios of the main CTs. Interposing
CTs are equipped with a wide range of taps that can be selected by the user to achieve the
balance required.
As the name suggests, an interposing CT is installed between the secondary winding of the
main CT and the relay. They can be used on the primary side or secondary side of the power
transformer being protected, or both. Interposing CTs also provide a convenient method of
establishing a delta connection for the elimination of zero sequence currents where this is
necessary.
Modern Relays
It should be noted that some of the newer digital relays eliminate the need for interposing
CTs by enabling essentials such as phase shift, CT ratios and zero sequence current
elimination to be programmed directly into the relay.
51

Simulink Diagram in MATLAB for Differential Relay
SUBSYSTEM
52

SUBSYSTEM1
Waveform Results in MATLAB for Differential Relay
53

COMMENTS:
It is important to note the direction of the currents as well as the magnitude as they are
vectors. It requires a set of current transformers smaller transformers that transform currents
down to a level which can be measured at each end of the power line or each side of the
transformer.
In this experiment, we modeled a differential relay in MATLAB which provides the
essential protection against transformer internal faults and it is useful in power transformers
like 500,220 and 132KV.
However it can also be used for the protection of distribution transformer.
First of all we have applied a fault on the secondary side of transformer and ensure the
operation of circuit breaker at the instant of fault that was set by us through the timer block.
Then we applied a fault on the primary side and again verify the tripping of circuit
breaker.
It was observed that breaker takes a little more time when the fault is on the secondary
side as compared to the fault occurrence on primary side of transformer due to larger
distance.
It is verified that the differential relay modeled can detect three phase fault as well as fault
on any single phase on each side of transformer.
54

EXPERIMENT NO- 10
AIM: MODELING OF A DEFINITE TIME OVERCURRENT RELAY
USING MATLAB
WHAT IS A RELAY?
Type of Relays
Over current Relay
Distance Relay
Differential Relay
And many more
Functions of Relays:
OverCurrent Relay
55

element of over current protection. In order for an over current protective device to operate
properly, over current protective device ratings must be properly selected. These ratings
include voltage, ampere and interrupting rating. Of the three of the ratings, perhaps the most
important and most often overlooked is the interrupting rating. If the interrupting rating is
not properly; Selected, a serious hazard for equipment and personnel will exist. Current
limiting can be considered as another over current protective device rating, although not all
over current protective devices are required to have this characteristic.
Types of Over Current Relay
constant. In it, there is no intentional time delay. It operates in 0.1s or less.
faults because of their steep characteristics.
56

alternators, transformers, expensive cables, etc.
Simulink Diagram in MATLAB for Definite Time OverCurrent Relay
57

Waveform Results in MATLAB for Definite TimOverCurrent Relay
58

COMMENTS:
As clear from the name, the definite time overcurrent relay operates after a predetermined
time, as current exceeds its pickup value. Its operating time is constant. Its operation is
independent of the magnitude of current above the pickup value. It has pickup and time
dial settings, desired time delay can be set with the help of an intentional time delay
mechanism.
The relay modeled in this experiment has a constant time delay of 1 second.
When any fault occurs in the power system, the relay senses the occurrence of fault and
check it upto the time delay provided in the setting. If the fault is removed in between that
time, then relay will not operate the circuit breaker.
Relay will operate the circuit breaker if fault occurrence time is greater than the time delay
given in the setting.
For example in this experiment, there is a fault in the system from 0 to 0.5 second but this
fault time is smaller than the time delay 1 second that is why the relay does not operate
during this fault. After that another fault occur from 1 to 2.1 seconds, now the fault time 1.1
second is greater than the delay time 1 second . It is observed that the relay is operated
during this fault time which verifies the definite time relay operation.
59

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LABMANUAL

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

NARNARAYAN SHASTRI INSTITUTE OF

NARNARAYAN SHASTRI INSTITUTE

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

S is the spacing in feet

CAUSES OF SHUNT FAULT:

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

ISOLATED GENERATOR EXPERINCES A THREE PHASE FAULT

This current is too small to cause any worry.

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

FOR INTERCONNECTED POWER SYSTEM

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

FAULT STATICTICS WITH REFERENCE TO POWER SYSTEM ELEMENTS

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

There are other undesirable effects of interconnection. It is

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

When the power system is operating in steady state, it is said to be operating in

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

Basic Requirements of a Protection System

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

Various Principles of Power System Protection

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

What is a protection system?

Different kinds of faults and their effects

Abnormal operating conditions

Types of a power system

Properties of a good protection system

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

Definite time over current relay

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

Extremely inverse time over current relay

Method of defining shape of Time-current characteristics

The approximate expression is

For definite-time characteristic, the value of n is equal to 0. According to

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

SETTINGS OF OVER CURRENT RELAYS:

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

Setting TMS (Time Multiplier

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

INDUCTION MOTOR PROTECTION

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION

PSM (Plug Setting