Personality

Personality is

the

particular

combination

of emotional, attitudinal,

and behavioral response patterns of an individual.

A relatively stable set of characteristics that influences an individuals
behavior.

Significance Personality
1. Matching jobs and individuals
2. Designing motivation system
3. Designing Control System
Determinants of Personality
1.Biological Factors
Biological contributions to personality can be divided into three major categories:
Hereditary
Brain

Physical Features
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2.Cultural Factors
Culture may be defined as the sum total of the knowledge , beliefs , values
customs , habits acquired by the people from society.
The culture highly determines what a person is and what a person will learn.
The culture within which a person is brought up is very important determinants of
behavior of a person.
It generally determines attitude towards independence, aggression, competition,
co-operation.
3.Family and Social Factors:

In order to understand the effects of a family on individuals personality , we

have to understand the socialization and identification process.
Socialization Process: The contribution of family and social group in
combination with the culture is known as socialization . Socialization
initially starts with the contact with mother and later on the other
members of the family and the social group plays influential role in
the shaping of an individuals personality.
Identification Process: identification starts when a person begins to
identify himself with some other members of the family . Normally
child tries imitate certain actions of the parents .

Situational factors :
An individuals personality may change in different situations

 The demands of different situations may call for different aspects of

ones personality.
Other Factors :
Temperament: is the degree to which one responds emotionally.
Interest
Character: primarily means honesty
Motive

Personality Types

TYPE A
Type

individual

as

ambitious,

rigidly organized,

highly status conscious, are sensitive, truthful, impatient, always

try to help others, take on more than they can handle, want other
people to get to the point, proactive, and obsessed with time
management.

People with Type A personalities are often high-achieving

"workaholics" who multi-task, push themselves with deadlines,
and hate delays.

Type B

 Type B individuals as a contrast to those with Type A

personalities.
People with Type B personality by definition generally live at a
lower stress level and typically work steadily, enjoying
achievement but not becoming stressed when they do not achieve.
When faced with competition, they do not mind losing and either
enjoy the game or back down. They may be creative and enjoy
exploring ideas and concepts.
They are often reflective, thinking about the outer and inner
worlds.

Topics to Explore
1. Trait Theories
2. Psychoanalytic Theory
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3. Social-Cognitive Theories
4. Humanistic Theories
Types of Personality Theories
1. Trait Theories:
Attempt to learn what traits make up personality and how they relate to
actual behavior
Psychodynamic Theories
Focus on the inner workings of personality, especially internal conflicts and
struggles
Humanistic Theories:
Focus on private, subjective experience and personal growth
Social-Cognitive Theories:
Attribute difference in personality to socialization, expectations, and mental
processes

Trait Theories
Jungs Theory of Two Types

Carl Jung, Swiss psychiatrist who was a Freudian disciple, believed that
we are one of two personality types:
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Introvert: Shy, self-centered person whose attention is focused inward

Extrovert: Bold, outgoing person whose attention is directed outward

Raymond Cattell
Cattell: Source & Surface Traits
Raymond Cattell: from Devon, England, believed that there were two basic
categories of traits:
Surface Traits: Features that make up the visible areas of
personality
Source Traits: Underlying characteristics of a personality
Cattell also constructed the 16PF, a personality test identifying 16 personality
factors (source traits).
Cattell: The Big Five
Cattell believed that five factors were most important:
Openness
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeable
Neuroticism
1. Openness to experience: (inventive/curious vs. consistent/cautious).

 Appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, curiosity, and

variety of experience.
Openness reflects the degree of intellectual curiosity, creativity and a
preference for novelty and variety a person has.
It is also described as the extent to which a person is imaginative or
independent, and depicts a personal preference for a variety of activities
over a strict routine.
2. Conscientiousness: (efficient/organized vs. easy-going/careless).
A tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for
achievement;

planned

rather

than

spontaneous

behavior;

organized, and dependable.

Extraversion: (outgoing/energetic vs. solitary/reserved). Energy,
positive emotions, assertiveness, sociability and the tendency to
seek stimulation in the company of others, and talkativeness.

3. Agreeableness: (friendly/compassionate vs. analytical/detached).

A

tendency

to

be compassionate and cooperative

rather

than suspicious towards others.

It is also a measure of one's trusting and helpful nature, and
whether a person is generally well tempered or not.
4. Neuroticism: (sensitive/nervous vs. secure/confident).

 The tendency to experience unpleasant emotions easily, such

as anger, anxiety, depression.

Neuroticism also refers to the degree of emotional stability and

impulse control and is sometimes referred to by its low pole,
"emotional stability".

2.Psychoanalytic Theory
Freuds Psychoanalytic Theory
Sigmund Freud : thought his patients problems were more emotional
than physical.
Psychoanalytical theory of personality has been based primarily on his
concept of unconscious nature of personality.
This framework includes three conflicting psychoanalytical concepts the
Id, the EGO and the SUPER-EGO.
The Id, Ego, and Superego
ID:
Is the foundation of unconscious behavior and it seeks immediate
satisfaction of needs . It has animalistic instincts of aggression ,
power and domination.
As a person mature he learns to control the ID .
Works on Pleasure Principle: Wishes to have its desires
(pleasurable) satisfied NOW, without waiting and regardless of
the consequences
EGO:
It is associated with realities of Life .
It the conscious and logical part

 It keeps check on the ID so that the pleasures unconsciously

demanded by human beings are granted at an appropriate time
and place and in appropriate manners.
Works on Reality Principle: Delays action until it is practical
and/or appropriate
Superego
It is the higher level force to restrain the ID and is described as
the conscious a person .
It represents the norms of the individual , family and society and
is ethical constraint on the behavior.
The conscious of a person is continuously telling him what is right
and what is wrong .
It is developed by the cultural values inculcated in the person by
the norms of the society.
Superego comes from our parents or caregivers; guilt comes from
the superego
Two parts
-

Conscience: Reflects actions for which a person has been

punished (e.g., what we shouldnt do or be)

Ego Ideal: Second part of the superego; reflects behavior

ones parents approved of or rewarded (e.g., what we should
do or be)
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Levels of Awareness
Conscious: Everything you are aware of at a given moment
Preconscious: Material that can easily be brought into awareness
Unconscious: Holds repressed memories and emotions and the ids instinctual
drives
Imp. Eriksons Eight Stages of Psychosocial
He had a view that more importance should be given to social factors.
He described 8 developmental stages as we grow from childhood to
adulthood .
The 8 development stages , the problems encountered at each stage and
the impact of these stages on the organizational behavior are discussed
below.

Erikson Stages
Stage 1: Infancy/ Trust Vs Mistrust
Stage 2: Early Childhood Autonomy Vs Shame and Doubt
Stage3: Play Age/ Initiative Vs Guilt
Stage 4: School Age / Industry Vs Inferiority.
Stage5: Adolescence / Identity Vs Role Diffusion.
Stage6: Early Adulthood/ Intimacy Vs Isolation.
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 Stage7: Adulthood/ Generatively Vs Stagnation.

Stage8: Mature Adulthood/Ego Integrity Vs Despair.

Stage 1: Infancy/ Trust Vs Mistrust

Feeling of trust Vs Mistrust are developed in this stage and these
feelings depend upon on the behavior of the parents
If the parents care for the infant in a very affectionate way , the child
learns to trust others.
Lack of love and affection on the part of the parents results in mistrust.
In the early stage of organizational life when a person knows very little
about the job and is dependent on others for guidance , he develops the
feeling of trust or mistrust towards the other in the organization
depending upon how the other people respond to his need and help him
to find his place in the system.
Stage 2 - Early Childhood Autonomy
Vs
Shame and Doubt
A. Ages 2-3
Child begins to assert independence and experiences a great need to
operate on his own .
If the child is allowed to control those aspects of life that the child is
capable of controlling , a sense of autonomy will develop.
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If he encounters constant disapproval by parents or elders a sense of self

doubt and shame is likely to develop.
Like wise , In an organization life , a person wants to operate
independently after the initial training. If he is allowed to do so , a sense
of autonomy will develop . But if he is criticized and disapproved by the
others for making mistakes, he will tend to have self doubts about his
competency and experience a sense of shame for not dong the things
right.

Stage 3 Play Age / Initiative Vs Guilt

A. 4-5 years
If the parents and the other members of the family encourage the child
to experiment and to achieve reasonable goals he will develop a sense of
initiative.
In the same way organizational members try to use their creative and
acquired talents as they settle down in their jobs.
But if things go wrong , other people make him feel guilty that he has
wasted the resources of the organization.
Stage 4 School Age / Industry Vs Inferiority
A. 6 to 11 years
B. Developmental Tasks
learn physical skills for sports, games, etc.
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 intellectually- learn to read, write, do math learn right from wrong

develop attitudes towards themselves and others.
develop sense of industry- make things- cookies, models, etc.
like wise in an organizational life we try to work hard to make a position for
ourselves if we are not successful in our efforts we will develop a sense of
inferiority and low esteem otherwise we will develop a sense of industry.
Stage 5 Adolescence/ Identity Vs Role Diffusion
A. Ages 9 13 & 14-17
In this age he to gain a sense of identity rather than to become confused
about who he is.
In the organizational set up every employee has to make contributions
to the institution and establish himself as a high performing member if
he does it , he is identified in the eyes of the management
and if he fails to establish himself he becomes just another employee in
the eyes of management whose identity is diffused.
G. Developmental Tasks

1. Form mature relationships

2. achieve a masculine or feminine social role

3. accept ones physique and use ones body effectively

4. Achieve emotional independence from parents and other adults

5. prepare for marriage and family life

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6. prepare for career

7. acquire personal standards

8. develop social intelligence-aware of human needs-helping others

9. develop conceptual and problem-solving skills

Stage 6- Young Adulthood
Age 20 to early 30s- can start as young as 17.
Financially independent from parents
Can deal with everyday life trials with maturity
At peak of physical abilities- strength,
quickness, alertness
Crucial life decisions made- marriage, career,
Children
In the organizational life also people may be desired to develop
close contacts with others who are significant and important in
the system .
Those who can do it have a sense of intimacy .For those who find
it difficult to do it experience a sense of isolation in the system
Stage 7- Middle Adulthood/ Generatively Vs Stagnation

B.
C.
D.
E.

A. 35-65 years
Start thinking in terms of what to do with the rest of their lives.
Feeling that time is running out
Start to face death of parents
Mid-life crisis common- divorce, career change, remarriage
1. some have not accepted middle age- can lead to problems adjusting
Their children may be going through adolescence, during this time
which can add to conflict.

Like wise in the organization as a person reaches his mid career there is
an expectation and need to mentor others in the system and help them
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to develop and grow in the organization if the person does not do it

effectively he senses a feeling of stagnation in the system.
Stage 8- Late Adulthood/ Ego Integrity Vs Despair
A. 65 and older
B. Retirement common.
C. Senior citizen of the country
D. Guide the younger generation .
E. Measures of Age
1. Chronological- How old you actually are
2. Biological- how well your body is holding up
influenced by diet, exercise, lifestyle,
heredity
3. Social- a persons lifestyle
G. Grandchildren become important
Death- Stages of Acceptance
In this stage a conflict is experienced by an individuals as the social and
biological roles get diminished due to the ageing process and they
experience a sense of uselessness.
1. Denial- No not me- cant accept news of a death or their own
imminent death.
2. Anger- Why me? Stage-resentment, sometimes leads to isolation,
rejection
3. Bargaining- begins to accept reality, but bargains for more time by
praying, other medical treatments, etc.
4. Depression-time of grieving for what the patient has already lost and
will lose. Worries about family, money, fells sense of great loss.Encourage him or her to grieve
5. Acceptance Allows for action and facing reality in a constructive
way. Closure is important. Not a happy stage, but not
In an organization , a person can have a feeling of happiness after
retirement by looking at his stock of accomplishment or he can leave the
organization with a sense of purposelessness and despair.

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Evaluation

of

Psychoanalytic Theory
Freud overemphasized sexuality and placed little emphasis on other
aspects of the childs experience.
Freuds theory is largely untestable. Particularly, the concept of the
unconscious is unprovable.
According to Freud, the only way that people in psychological distress
can get relief is to undergo length therapy, to identify unresolved
conflicts from infancy and childhood.
Freuds view of people is overly negative and pessimistic
3 .Social-Cognitive Theories
Self Theory
If we stop thinking about other peoples behavior , we become conscious
of our feelings , attitude and perhaps of feeling or responsibility of our
actions in relation to oneself and others .
This phenomenon has lead to self theory.
According Morgan Self Theory has 2 distinct set of meanings
1. Peoples attitude about themselves their trait and abilities, the impact
they could make on others , their plus and minus points .This includes
what may be stated as Self Concept or Self Image : relates definitely to
ones attitude , feelings , perceptions and evaluation of self.
2. The other relates to psychological process through which an individual
thinks , remembers , perceives , manages and plans.
There are 4 factors of self Concept:
1. Self Image : is the way one sees oneself.
2. Ideal Self: denotes the way one would like to be
3. Looking Glass Self: it is the way one thinks people perceive about
him and the way people actually see him.
4. Real Self : is what one really is.
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Evaluation

of

Social-Cognitive Theories
Social-cognitive theories tend to be overly-mechanical.

Overemphasizes environmental influences; gives

little

or no

consideration to the possibility of innate personality differences or the

effects of genetics.
Does not recognize internal human qualities such as hope, aspiration,
love, self-sacrifice
4 Humanistic Theories
Maslows Theory
Abraham Maslow is considered father of the humanistic movement. He
observed the lives of (purportedly) healthy and creative people to
develop is theory.
Hierarchy of needs: the motivational component of Maslows theory, in
which our innate needs, which motivate our actions, are hierarchically
arranged.
Self-actualization: the fullest realization of a persons potential

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Characteristics of
Self-Actualized People

Efficient perceptions of reality

Comfortable acceptance of self, others, and nature
Spontaneity
Task Centering
Autonomy
Continued freshness of appreciation
Fellowship with humanity
Profound interpersonal relationships
Comfort with solitude
Non-hostile sense of humor
Peak experiences

Some Self-Actualized People

Albert Einstein
Ralph Waldo Emerson
William James
Thomas Jefferson
Abraham Lincoln
Eleanor Roosevelt
Albert Schweitzer
Mahatma Gandhi

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