Styles Study

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ISSN 0040-0912
Volume 48 Number 2/3 2006
Education +
Training
Learning styles in education and
training
Guest Editors: Eugene Sadler-Smith and
Carol Evans
www.emeraldinsight.com
Education + Training
ISSN 0040-0912
Volume 48
Number 2/3
2006
Learning styles in education and training

Guest Editors
Eugene Sadler-Smith and Carol Evans
Access this journal online _________________________
75
Editorial advisory board __________________________
76
GUEST EDITORIAL
Learning styles in education and training:
problems, politicisation and potential
Carol Evans and Eugene Sadler-Smith _____________________________
77
Managerial intuition across cultures: beyond a

West-East dichotomy
Anna Wozniak ________________________________________________
84
Students questions: building a bridge between

Kolbs learning styles and approaches to learning
Helena T. Pedrosa de Jesus, Patrcia Albergaria Almeida,
Jose Joaquim Teixeira-Dias and Mike Watts_________________________
97
Internationally-educated health professionals:

a distance education multiple cultures model
Lillie Lum ____________________________________________________
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CONTENTS
CONTENTS
Using concept maps to reveal conceptual typologies

David B. Hay and Ian M. Kinchin_________________________________
127
continued
Constructing and maintaining an effective

hypertext-based learning environment:
web-based learning and cognitive style
Martin Graff __________________________________________________
143
Course experience, approaches to learning and

academic achievement
ge Diseth, Stale Pallesen, Anders Hovland and Svein Larsen __________
A
156
Learning style and student self-assessment skill

Simon Cassidy_________________________________________________
170
Unraveling learning, learning styles,

learning strategies and meta-cognition
Lena Bostrom and Liv M. Lassen _________________________________
178
UK news _________________________________________
190
European news ___________________________________
197
Reviews__________________________________________
201
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76
EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD
John Berkeley
Centre for Lifelong Learning, University of
Warwick, UK
Rod Kenyon
Director, British Gas Engineering Academy.
Berkshire, UK
Professor Tom Bourner

Centre for Management Development, University of
Brighton, UK
Dr Harry Matlay
University of Central England, UK
Dr Eric Sandelands
Canadian School of Management, Revans
University, Canada
Amanda Cahir-ODonnell
Head of Learning & Development, AIB Capital
Markets, Ireland
Professor Thomas Clarke
University of Technology, Sydney, Australia
Helen Connor
Institute of Employment Studies, UK
Bruce Dodge
Nova Scotia Department of Labour, Canada
Professor Karen Evans
Institute of Education, University of London, UK
Dr John Goodwin
Senior Lecturer and Sub-Dean for Graduate Studies
(Social Sciences), Centre for Labour Market Studies,
University of Leicester, UK
Dr Chandana Jayawardena
Revans University & IMCA Socrates, Canada
Dr Ewart Keep
Warwick Business School, UK
Education + Training
Vol. 48 No. 2/3, 2006
p. 76
# Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0040-0912
Sue Shaw
Executive Head of Human Resource Management
and Organisation Behaviour, Manchester
Metropolitan University Business School, UK
Dr Erica Smith
School of Education, Charles Sturt University,
Australia
Professor Alan Smithers
Centre for Education and Employment Research,
University of Buckingham, UK
Dr Stefan Wolter
Swiss Coordination Centre for Research in
Education, Switzerland
Professor Adrian Ziderman
Department of Economics, Bar-Ilan University,
Israel
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
GUEST EDITORIAL
Learning styles in education and

training: problems, politicisation
and potential
Guest editorial
77
Carol Evans
School of Education, Durham University, Durham, UK, and
Eugene Sadler-Smith
School of Management, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to introduce a selection of papers from the 10th Annual
European Learning Styles Information Network Conference.
Design/methodology/approach The paper looks at problems, developments in the application of
style and potential styles for practice in the area of cognitive and learning styles in education and
training practice, with a brief look at the papers within this issue.
Findings The paper finds that each of the papers presented here raises a number of pertinent issues
which are significant in the ongoing debate regarding the value of cognitive and learning styles in
education and training practice. These are presented in the form of ten key messages.
Originality/value The paper presents a useful insight into the problems, politicisation and
potential of learning styles in education and training.
Keywords Education and training, Learning styles
Paper type Research paper
Context
The application of learning styles theory and research continues to hold great promise
for practitioners in both education and training as a potentially powerful mechanism
for enabling pupils, students and trainees to manage their own learning better
throughout their educational and working lives. The selection of papers from the 10th
Annual European Learning Styles Information Network Conference (held in July 2005
at the School of Management, University of Surrey) presented here raise a number of
pertinent issues which are significant in the ongoing debate regarding the value of
cognitive and learning styles in education and training practice. Central to the debate is
the question of how do practitioners (teachers and trainers) gain a working vocabulary
around the concept of learning styles which may be incorporated into their day-to-day
practice and thereby enhance the learning process? If this is to happen practitioners
need to be able to:
Earlier versions of these papers were presented at the 10th Annual European Learning Styles
Information Network Conference, held at the School of Management, University of Surrey, 13-15
June 2005. The conference was organised and managed by Rebecca Weale, and was supported
by Web CT and the School of Management.
Education Training
Vol. 48 No. 2/3, 2006
pp. 77-83
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DOI 10.1108/00400910610651728
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cut through the swathe of sometimes confusing terminology;

hone in on those style constructs that are theoretically sound and for which there
are reliable and valid measures;
be critically aware of the benefits and limitations of the available models of
styles;
use evidence-based practice founded on learning styles research that is
scientifically robust; and
work with researchers to understand and apply what works and to disseminate
this to a wider audience, and also be action researchers themselves.
Problems
The report by Coffield et al. (2004) has been significant and useful, not only in terms of
encouraging commentary, debate and further publication on the subject (see Abrams,
2005; Coffield, 2004; Hastings and Jenkins, 2005; National Educational Research Forum,
2004-2005; NSIN, 2005; Stringer, 2005; Utley, 2003), but also in terms of highlighting
inherent problems within a field of study which lacks a broad and unified explanatory
theoretical underpinning. The unfortunate combination of an extensive range of
models allied to a sometimes ambiguous use of terminologies (DEMOS, 2005) does not
help busy practitioners to access, understand and apply learning styles research
readily (Bostrom and Lassen). Lack of progress in this area is surprising given that
Curry (1983), two decades ago, and Riding and Rayner (2000), more recently, each
sought to differentiate between cognitive styles and learning styles and learning
strategies. For a detailed consideration of these issues see Curry (1983) and Riding and
Rayner (2000).
Moreover, the pigeon-holing of individuals into narrow categories has quite rightly
been condemned (Coffield et al., 2004; DEMOS, 2005). Indeed the cultural assumptions
in relation to the binarity of some cognitive/learning styles models, and the limitations
of such approaches are becoming more evident and are explored by Wozniak in this
special issue. Misconceptions and over-simplistic assumptions which may imply for
example, that a learner labelled as wholist is unable to think analytically are
generalisations which may not only misrepresent theory and research, but might also
fly in the face of common sense. A preference for one type of processing may not
automatically exclude another. Within complex rather than unitary conceptualisations
of style it may be possible for an individual to be, for example, both analytic and
intuitive or at least to develop analytical strategies as a counter-balance to an inherent
preference for intuition (and vice versa see Hodgkinson and Sadler-Smith (2003)).
Freedom from the strictures of bi-polarity with respect to some constructs opens-up
exciting possibilities for individuals to become more rounded as learners by
developing the executive or meta-cognitive capability to exercise choice over what
style or approach might be most appropriate in a given set of circumstances
(Sadler-Smith and Smith, 2004). This is not to deny the notion of style per se; rather we
argue that the most valuable contributions of learning styles and cognitive styles
research over the past decade lie in the fact that they have: first, raised awareness of
the notion of style among practitioners; and second, opened-up the possibilities for
individuals, under guidance in educational and training settings, to understand and
manage their own thinking and learning process better.
The misguided application of the concept of learning styles in education has been
commented on (see: Coffield et al., 2004; DEMOS, 2005). For example, in British schools
there is some evidence of poor application, for example: labelling of children, reduction
to types, indiscriminate use of poorly validated tests, inappropriate groupings,
matching styles of learners according to one dimension of style only, one-off learning
styles training days for teachers and so forth. However, in spite of this, many teachers
and teacher educators are using learning styles tools highly effectively in educational
settings to encourage students to reflect on learning and to develop a meta-cognitive
approach (DEMOS, 2005). An interesting dimension of the debate is that in education
the application of learning styles appears to impinge on political and professional
agendas and this has recently sparked controversy (for example, Utley, 2003). In the
training field the use of learning styles has been a prominent and accepted feature of
the management development classroom for several decades; and often quite
un-controversially so, although there have been searching critiques (for example,
Reynolds, 1997).
Developments in the application of style
The extent to which learning styles has permeated the British classroom in a
meaningful way is a contentious issue. While a lot of schools have been using so-called
visual, auditory and kinaesthetic (VAK) models, there is little evidence of the uptake of
student approaches to learning (SAL) models or cognitive styles models which have a
more robust scientific basis (as exemplified in the work of Entwistle, Ramsden and
Briggs in the domain of SAL, and Allinson and Hayes or Sternbergs models of
thinking styles). Lucas (2005) would argue that VAK does not constitute a learning
styles model and yet the predominance of this in DfES (2003) literature (condemned by
Coffield (2005)) along with the lack of reference to more robust models (in terms of
validity and reliability) is problematic. A review of recent UK educational press (The
Times Educational Supplement, 2003-2005) confirms the focus on VAK to the exclusion
of other potentially more relevant and valid models, typified in a recent article
(Hastings and Jenkins, 2005). Perhaps the time has come for educational practice to
embrace SAL and thinking styles more fully.
In management and business practice in the UK the Honey and Mumford model of
learning styles has tended to predominate, while in the USA the same could be said of
Kolbs experiential model. As far as Honey and Mumfords Learning Styles
Questionnaire (LSQ) is concerned, its pragmatic contribution cannot be denied,
moreover its authors do not make any claims for it as self-standing psychometric test;
rather they see the LSQ as a means by which an awareness of the concept of learning
style and the learning cycle may be raised and embedded in the minds of practising
managers. Interestingly, other models and instruments appear now to be making
significant in-roads into management training and development in the UK and
elsewhere (for example the Allinson and Hayes Cognitive Style Index now forms the
basis of a growing corpus of applied research in occupational settings).
The stance taken by Riding and Rayner (2000) to focus on the learning profile of an
individual and comprising many different styles is helpful as it builds on the earlier
work of Curry (1983). Particular models may look at very different attributes of
learning and some aspects of our learning profile are heavily context-dependent and
may be more open to change than others (Entwistle and Tait, 1990). In helping an
Guest editorial
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individual to understand how they learn, a learning profile approach has been
successfully used by Rosenfeld and Rosenfeld (2004) and by Evans and Waring (2006)
with trainee teachers. Considering how the environment of the classroom or the
workplace impacts on learners and how cognitive style and learning style models can
be useful in explaining thinking processes in that it sensitises learners to how they and
others learn. Learner profiling in context is a promising avenue of further enquiry.
The application of styles has direct relevance for education and training
practitioners in that it can assist in developing different teaching and learning
techniques which may enhance learning performance (for example unpacking the
whole and the specifics of a situation; in looking at ideas sequentially or tangentially
using multiple modes of presentation; and so forth). Such ideas do have strong face
validity with teachers and training because they help them to be able to identify the
information processing preferences and needs of their learners. Expert practitioners in
education and training are often able to flex and adapt their methods in this way
intuitively (Burke and Sadler-Smith, 2006). A better understanding of thinking styles
and learning strategies would enhance the planning and design of learning in
educational and occupational settings and also might help to accelerate the acquisition
of expertise among novice practitioners. Using styles as a means of self-reflection and
inquiry for practitioners is a further avenue worthy of exploration.
Two issues arise with regard to the research base for evidence-based practice: the
first is whether quantitative studies are the best way to measure impacts; and second,
is it possible to isolate an aspect of cognitive and learning style in terms of impact on
performance to the exclusion of other factors? Coffield et al. (2004), in their discussion
of Hatties work on effect sizes using only quantitative studies, were keen to highlight
the limited impact of individualisation on childrens learning compared to quality of
instruction, students disposition to learn and classroom climate. Nonetheless good
practice, whether it is in education or training, includes an acknowledgement and
accommodation of individual differences in the ways in which learners process
information and how they engage with the learning process. That said, we should
never lose sight of the fact that thinking styles and learning strategies are not a holy
grail and can never present a panacea they are merely additional tools in the
armoury of good practice.
Potential of styles for practice
The papers presented here show a variety of ways in which cognitive and learning
styles models can be used to enhance the learning experience in education and training.
The emphasis in many of them is very much upon a learner-centred approach. This is
important since such a focus may be one way to address the disengagement of a large
minority of young people (Nuffield Foundation, 2004-2005, p. 4) in compulsory and
further education. Styles may be a currently under-exploited motivational tool.
Bostrom and Lassen highlight the view that changes can only be implemented when
practitioners feel this is meaningful for themselves and their students. The value of
styles-based approaches has to be demonstrated through well-designed research
projects (including longitudinal and qualitatively-orientated projects) based in real
settings that may be replicated to confirm the findings. The ten key messages in the
selected papers from the Surrey Conference are:
(1) Flexibility and informed choice for students as part of enhancing the
learner-centeredness of teaching and training (supported by better curriculum
and course content design).
(2) Use of instruction that is sensitive to the needs of the learner, aimed at
developing and broadening styles and strategies.
(3) Creation of a positive teaching environment, including attention to issues of
delivery and feedback (these are key features of students course experiences),
clearly stated goals and explicit guidance about requirements of assessment.
(4) Alertness to the dangers of labelling students.
(5) Awareness of the role of culture in how style is conceptualised.
(6) Variety in teaching methods and an informed awareness of the benefits and
limitations of matching and mismatching learning and learner.
(7) Informed and responsible use of groupings to encourage diversity.
(8) Using technology in ways that are sensitive to individual differences.
(9) Use of narratives and concept mapping in styles research and practice as well
as greater reliance on longitudinal and experimental studies.
(10) Developing learners meta-cognitive skills.
Looking to the future
There is no doubt that individualised approaches to learning can have considerable
impacts on learning and there is a real need for more information about successful
strategies and approaches to improve learning (Ecclestone, 2005). The report by
Coffield et al. (2004), while being justified in arguing for a more intelligent use of
learning styles, could be perceived to be overzealous and premature in its critique and
rejection of certain theories, models and measures that have undeniable relevance to
education and training. Two dangers of recent turns of events in the styles debate are
that they may lead to:
(1) The curtailment of a crucial area of research and practice (the baby may be
thrown out with the bath water).
(2) The politicisation of thinking styles and learning strategies (styles may provide
a convenient whipping boy in a broader debate about policy and
professionalism in education).
These potentially fatal outcomes should be avoided. The need to synthesise research
and practice evidence (DEMOS, 2005) is a fundamental challenge facing this field.
Dissemination of clear guidance on effective strategies to enable teachers and students
to understand and critique how learning styles can facilitate independent and reflective
learners in various contexts is essential. The application of research using valid and
reliable constructs and measures is pre-eminent as a mechanism and means by which
learners in educational and occupational settings can come to understand their own
learning process and manage these more effectively. Given that there can be fewer
more important issues than learning-to-learn in the knowledge economy and age of
the independent, life-long learner, the time has come for the potential of thinking styles,
learning strategies and meta-cognition to be embraced coherently, explicitly and in an
Guest editorial
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informed way by styles researchers, education and training practitioners and those
responsible for the setting and implementation of education and training policies.
References
Abrams, F. (2005), Cognitive conundrum, Times Educational Supplement, 20 May.
Burke, L. and Sadler-Smith, E. (2006), Instructor intuition in the educational context, Academy
of Management Learning & Education, Vol. 5 (in press).
Coffield, F. (2004), Revealing figures behind the styles, Times Higher Educational Supplement,
2 January.
Coffield, F. (2005), Looking back in amazement, paper presented at Learning Styles: Help or
Hindrance? Seminar, Institute of Education, University of London, London, 10 November.
Coffield, F., Moseley, D., Hall, E. and Ecclestone, K. (2004), Learning Styles and Pedagogy in
Post-16 Learning: A Systematic and Critical Review, Learning and Skills Research Centre,
LSDA, London.
Curry, L. (1983), An organisation of learning styles theory and constructs, in Curry, L. (Ed.),
Learning Style in Continuing Education, ERIC Document No. 235, Dalhousie University,
Halifax.
DEMOS (2005), About Learning. Report of the Learning Working Group, DEMOS, London.
Department for Education and Skills (DfES) (2003), Teaching and Learning in Secondary Schools:
Pilot: Unit 10: Learning Styles, DfES and Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Ecclestone, K. (2005), The resistible rise of Learning Styles examples from practice and
policy, paper presented at Learning Styles: Help or Hindrance? Seminar, Institute of
Education, University of London, London, 10 November.
Entwistle, N.J. and Tait, H. (1990), Approaches to learning, evaluations of teaching and
preferences for contrasting academic environments, Higher Education, Vol. 19 No. 2,
pp. 169-94.
Evans, C. and Waring, M. (2006), Towards inclusive teacher education: sensitising individuals
to how they learn, Educational Psychology, Vol. 26 No. 4 (in press).
Hastings, S. and Jenkins, S. (2005), Learning styles, Times Educational Supplement,
4 November.
Hodgkinson, G.P. and Sadler-Smith, E. (2003), Complex or unitary? A critique and empirical
reassessment of the Allinson-Hayes Cognitive Style Index, Journal of Occupational and
Organizational Psychology, Vol. 76 No. 2, pp. 243-68.
Lucas, B. (2005), What are the learning styles of an effective lifelong learner? Should we do more
to profile these?, keynote address at the European Learning Styles Information Network
10th International Conference, School of Management, University of Surrey, Guildford,
13-15 June.
National Educational Research Forum (2004-2005), Bulletin evidence for teaching and learning:
learning styles should be handled with care, Nos. 2, Winter, p. 7.
National School Improvement Network (NSIN) (2005), Learning styles: help or hindrance?,
Research Matters, No. 26, NSIN, Institute of Education, University of London, London.
Nuffield Foundation (2004-2005), Nuffield Review 14-19: Education and Training in England and
Wales. Annual Report, 2004-05. Aims, Learning and Curriculum: Summary, Nuffield
Foundation, London.
Reynolds, M. (1997), Learning styles: a critique, Management Learning, Vol. 28 No. 2,
pp. 115-33.
Riding, R.J. and Rayner, S. (Eds) (2000), International Perspectives on Individual Differences.
Volume 1: Cognitive Styles, Ablex, Stamford, CT.
Rosenfeld, M. and Rosenfeld, S. (2004), Developing teacher sensitivity to individual learning
differences, Educational Psychology, Vol. 24 No. 4, pp. 465-87.
Sadler-Smith, E. and Smith, P.J.B. (2004), Strategies for accommodating individuals styles and
preferences in flexible learning programmes, British Journal of Educational Technology,
Vol. 35 No. 4, pp. 395-412.
Stringer, P. (2005), Interview with Frank Coffield: a question of style, The Psychologist, Vol. 18
No. 6.
Utley, A. (2003), Influential teaching technique rubbished, Times Higher Educational
Supplement, 28 November.
Further reading
Allinson, C.W. and Hayes, J. (1996), The Cognitive Style Index: a measure of intuition analysis
for organisational research, Journal of Management Studies, Vol. 33 No. 1, pp. 119-35.
Brighouse, T. (1994), The magicians of the inner city, Times Educational Supplement, 22 April,
pp. 29-30.
Darling-Hammond, L. (1996), The quiet revolution: rethinking teacher development,
Educational Leadership, Vol. 53 No. 6, pp. 4-10.
Peterson, E. (2005), Are we on a quasi evangelical crusade to transform all levels of education?
Some thoughts on the Coffield et al. Learning Style Report, European Learning Styles
Information Network: An International Forum Newsletter, Winter.
Riding, R.J. (1991), Cognitive Styles Analysis, Learning and Training Technology, Birmingham.
Veenam, M.V.J., Prins, F.J. and Verheij, J. (2003), Learning styles: self report versus
thinking-aloud measures, British Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 73 No. 3,
pp. 357-72.
Zehm, S.J. and Kottler, J.A. (1993), On Being a Teacher: The Human Dimension, Corwin Press,
Thousand Oaks, CA.
About the Guest Editors
Carol Evans is a Lecturer in the School of Education, University of Durham. Prior to joining
Durham she taught for 22 years in schools in a variety of roles from class teacher to senior
manager. Her research interests include: improving conditions for learning in the classroom; and
cognitive and learning styles, enhancing quality of teacher training courses.
Eugene Sadler-Smith is Professor of Management Development and Director of the Centre for
Management Learning and Development at the School of Management, University of Surrey.
Before becoming an academic he worked in training in the gas industry (1987-1994). His PhD
(1988-1992) was in the field of cognitive styles under the supervision of Dr R.J. Riding. More
recently he has published research papers in the areas of intuition in management, and is author
of Learning and Development for Managers: Perspectives from Research and Practice (Blackwell,
Oxford, 2006).
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Guest editorial
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Managerial intuition across

cultures: beyond a West-East
dichotomy
84
Anna Wozniak
Asia Research Centre, University of St Gallen, St Gallen, Switzerland
Abstract
Purpose Studies investigating intuition from a cultural and cross-cultural perspective have a long
tradition in various disciplines but, due to the increased internationalization of business, an
understanding of the mental lives of other cultures became one of the priorities of management
practitioners and theoreticians. Cultures of Anglo-American and East Asian origins have drawn
particular attention. However, an analysis of management research studies and those in other
disciplines shows that the former do not back up the intuitive East versus analytical West pattern
set by the latter. The article aims at discussing this discrepancy, its origins as well as the implication
for the managerial practice.
Design/methodology/approach The article provides an overview of the various concepts of
intuition and methods of measuring it across cultures. It seeks to understand how various
epistemological assumptions incorporated in the research affected the results obtained. An aspect
under particular scrutiny in the article is the concept of cognitive style, which is employed frequently
in management studies.
Findings One explanation for inconsistent results is a premature effort of management science to
test a hypothesis generated by other disciplines, applying different conceptualizations, definitions,
methodologies as well as populations. The conclusion is that the cross-cultural research in
management is in need of a more exploratory research, paying attention to the specificity of
management context and local knowledge.
Research limitations/implications The article proposes that a methodology that potentially has
a capacity to meet these requirements is the narrative approach. Possible implications of this
observation are discussed in the context of multicultural teams management practice.
Originality/value The article provides useful information on managerial intuition and methods of
measuring it across cultures.
Keywords Intuition, Cognition, National cultures, Narratives
Paper type General review
Education Training
Vol. 48 No. 2/3, 2006
pp. 84-96
0040-0912
DOI 10.1108/00400910610651737
1. Managerial intuition
Research on intuition in management has intensified within the past decade due to
changes in the business environment. Use of the analysis and logic alone was not
enough to deal with the volatility of the market. Intuition became embedded in various
theories: personal judgment and decision-making style (e.g. Simon, 1987; Sinclair et al.,
2002), personality trait (e.g. Myers, 1978; Behling and Eckel, 1991), cognitive style
(Allinson and Hayes, 1996) and source of knowledge (e.g. Laughlin, 1997; Sadler-Smith
and Shefy, 2004).
The author would like to thank Ralf Weber and four anonymous reviewers for their comments on
an earlier draft of this paper.
These variations in conceptualizations of intuition in some cases resulted in

discrepant conclusions. This paper discusses existing research on intuition and
intuitive cognitive style across cultures of Anglo-American and East-Asian origins. It
introduces the history of the evolution of the concept of intuition within philosophy and
psychology, allowing for better understanding of its various conceptualizations. It
presents results of existing empirical and theoretical studies in the area of cultural and
cross-national comparison of intuitiveness and tries to look for reasons for the
discrepancy among them. The studies trigger methodological argument and critique of
the concept of cognitive style. It is also argued that a study that aspires to compare two
cultures may need to take a broader picture of both of them into account.
Epistemological and ontological issues dominant in two or more cultures may widen
this picture significantly. Therefore, by demonstrating approaches to science pursued
by East Asian scholars, Chinese in particular, a change in the way managerial intuition
across cultures is approached is proposed and the related methodological issues are
discussed.
Western theory of intuition outside management science
Westcott (1968) presented a comprehensive overview of the concept of intuition in
philosophy and psychology. Within philosophy, intuition was approached as another
kind of knowledge which is neither demonstrative nor empirical. Therefore,
philosophy saw intuition as an experience and a way of arriving at knowledge,
paying little attention to behavioral issues. Perception of intuition-as-inference initiated
two different traditions of studies in psychology: Gestalt psychologists saw in intuition
a way of acquiring global understanding whereas associationist psychologists found
intuitive experience to be built up from separate sensory events (Westcott, 1968). The
two currents were also present in the methodological debates within the frames of
theory of personality. Intuitionists claimed that the structure of the personality is
unique to the individual and comprehensible as a totality. They sought to understand
personality by direct holistic interpretative observation of an individual by another
individual. This view was opposed by the hypothesis of personality built up from the
limited observations brought forth by psychometrists who attempted to measure
separate single aspects of a human being under controlled impersonal conditions and
aimed at prediction and practical use of intuition theory in educational and vocational
placement (Westcott, 1968).
With time, psychological theory confronted with cognitive theory established the
conception of individual cognitive behavior, from which the notion of intuition as
cognitive style developed. It was seen as an intersection between personality and
cognition (Martinsen and Kaufmann, 1999, cited in Isaksen et al., 2003). Intuition put in
a context of a decision situation became embedded in decision-making style theory and
research.
Theory of intuition within management science
Philosophical notion of intuition as an experience and as a source of knowledge became
to some extent inherited by management studies (e.g. Agor, 1986; Behling and Eckel,
1991; Birgerstam, 2002; McNaughton, 2003; Sadler-Smith and Shefy, 2004). However,
this conceptualization made a measuring of intuition accuracy difficult or even
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impossible. Psychology, especially psychometric trend, was of a greater use in this

respect. Being very much focused on performativity (Calori, 1998), practicality and
predictive utility, management scientists more often adopted the
intuition-as-personality-trait approach, which took account of the behavioral
aspects of intuition. This way intuition became an element of personality (e.g.
Myers, 1978; Behling and Eckel, 1991) and one of the cognitive styles (e.g. Allinson and
Hayes, 1996). Because of the importance of the decision making as an inherent part of
managerial activity, intuition became also scrutinized under the label of
decision-making style (e.g. Simon, 1987; Khatri and Ng, 2000; Breen, 1990). These
approaches made intuition measurable, as well as generalization and verification of its
effects feasible. Measurement of level of intuitiveness allowed for its comparison
among representatives of various cultures. As a result it became widely used in
cross-cultural research. Testing an old and common claim of Eastern peoples being
more intuitive than the Western ones became an appealing possibility.
2. Research on Western vs Eastern intuitiveness
Management studies found that Japanese, Singaporean, Hongkongese, Taiwanese and
Indonesian are less intuitive than British and North Americans (Abramson et al., 1993;
Allinson and Hayes, 2000; Savvas et al., 2001). Another body of research covering some
previous studies as well as those from disciplines other than management (all of which
I will call here traditional) indicated that East Asian nations (Chinese and Japanese in
particular) are more intuitive than the Western ones, without, however, comparing the
two explicitly (Nakamura, 1964; Yukawa, 1973; Nisbett et al., 2001; Norenzayan et al.,
2002; Needham, 2004). This shows an acute opposition of the findings between the two
bodies of research. The main distinguishing factor between the two bodies of research
managerial and traditional is of the epistemological nature. The two differ in
the perception of the concepts on which their paradigms rest, definition of intuition and
culture, and its construction, methodology applied and population taken into account.
The traditional study presents more variety of approaches to the phenomenon of
intuitiveness of East Asians and Westerners. It analyzes intuition as a source of
knowledge, a way of understanding of the world (Nakamura, 1964; Yukawa, 1973;
Needham, 2004), a cognitive process (Nisbett et al., 2001), a reasoning system
(Norenzayan et al., 2002), and an epistemological question (Needham, 2004; Redding,
1980). Within management studies, intuition is conceptualized as cognitive style
preference (Abramson et al., 1993; Allinson and Hayes, 2000; Savvas et al., 2001).
Various definitions for an intuitive person and the way they are constructed is
another element within the scope of epistemological differences between the studies. In
management studies the intuitive manager was assigned a number of characteristics:
ability to see how details form patterns, perception without use of senses, appreciation
for imagination, theoretical and abstract concepts (Abramson et al., 1993; Weintraub
and Heinemann, 1998), willingness to make immediate judgment based on feeling,
propensity to nonconformity, to an open-ended approach and to random methods of
exploration, and ability to deal with ideas requiring overall assessment (Allinson and
Hayes, 1996; Savvas et al. 2001). In contrast, traditional studies characterize
intuitiveness not as a set of abilities, but rather link occurrences of intuition to concrete
practices. For instance, Nakamura (1964) observed that the Chinese tended to explain
events and give answers to questions about phenomena in a metaphorical way, which
stimulated intuitive understanding. In Chinese science, intuition obtained through
contemplation was favored more than formal reasoning, as a trustworthy mode of
inquiry (Yukawa, 1973; Northrop, 1944, cited in Redding, 1980). Breen (1990) described
the Chinese as intuitive by demonstrating the way in which they make presentations.
In some cases, the traditional studies present a contrary view to the one presented by
management studies. For example, Nakamura (1964) and Norenzayan et al. (2002)
define intuitiveness by propensity for direct perception of concrete, as opposed to
management intuitivists inclination towards an abstract experience and theoretical
concepts (Abramson et al., 1993; Weintraub and Heinemann, 1998, p. 62).
One more aspect arising from paradigmatic differences is the variety of
methodologies used. Management science, aiming at model testing, applied mostly
self-report surveys (Abramson et al., 1993; Parikh et al., 1994; Allinson and Hayes,
2000; Savvas et al., 2001). The traditional studies, due to their interdisciplinarity,
presented greater variety of approaches. Frequently, they did not even relay on any
paradigm, and did not aim at comparing the level of intuitiveness explicitly or at
checking the correctness of the results. The traditional studies sought to build up
holistic understanding of the notion of the intuitive person heuristically. Consequently,
intuition was explored by analysis of language (Nakamura, 1964), religion (Nakamura,
1964; Yamaguchi, 1969), scientific developments of a given community (Needham,
2004), as well as economical and ecological factors (Nisbett et al., 2001). Nakamura
(1964), for example, carried out a comprehensive examination of the reasoning of the
Chinese by investigating their way of thinking about concrete, empirical questions,
involving value judgments and questions of values in ethics, religion and aesthetics.
Breen (1990) approached an intuitive judgment by designing a phenomenographic
study and linking intuitive decision-making style of the Chinese to the nature of the
Chinese language.
Methodologies of the two groups of studies differ also with respect to the
populations and time intervals that were taken into account. Traditional studies
referred to the general population or, in some cases, to the scientific or religious one of
the mainland China and Japan, often taking a historical perspective. Management
research focused on contemporary managers, usually investigating countries, where
inhabitants of Chinese origins constitute the majority of the population. Irrespective of
culture, managers differ in many ways from the overall population of the countries
which they represent. They constitute a cast of people characterized by better
education, used to working in various cultural environments, leading lives
characterized by an above-average standard and, in most cases, above-average
levels of stress. All these aspects are not without influence on the mental life of an
individual.
3. Implications of the use of cognitive style concept in cross-cultural
research
One of the differences between the two bodies of research mentioned is the way they
conceptualize intuition. The management research represents an example of
inclination of Western mainstream science towards categorization (cognitive styles
as categories), abstract ideas (cognitive style models) and universality (assumption of
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universal validity of mental life across cultures (Teo and Febbraro, 2003)). The next
few paragraphs present a critique of the notion of cognitive style, limitations of which
might have caused the inconsistencies of results in various studies mentioned. The
investigations, being the object of the present discussion, are an illustration of the more
general confusion over cognitive styles reported in the literature (Sternberg and
Grigorenko, 2001). One of the explanations for this state is the nature of style concept,
involving both cognitive and affective elements (Sternberg and Grigorenko, 2001).
However, another reason for the perplexity could be found in the historical studies of
theory and methodology of Western psychology (e.g. Danziger, 1997).
From metaphor to de-contextualized model
Concepts such as mind, imagination, cognition were introduced to a language in
order to describe experience of an individual (Locke, 1959, cited in Leary, 1990; Sarbin,
1990). Seen at first as metaphors of mental processes, over time they became used as
substantives, which changed their meaning (Locke, 1959, cited in Leary, 1990; Sarbin,
1990). Figures of speech developed into entities holding properties, and were moved
from the sphere of private experience into the public realm. Cognitive style is a notion
of a similar nature. Initially, it stood for a metaphor of processes of problem solving,
thinking, perceiving and remembering, typical for an individual (Rayner and Riding,
1997). Over time the style metaphor developed into a number of style models such as
the wholist-analytical/verbaliser-imager dimension (Rayner and Riding, 1997). The
shift from the metaphor to a model brought about some implications.
Shift in self-perception
Metaphors not only describe a phenomenon, but also transform a persons perception
of this phenomenon and as a result change human self-reference and self-consciousness
(Leary, 1990). The transformation from a metaphor into precise hypotheses leads to
going beyond this initial metaphor in descriptive or explanatory power (Hoffman et al.,
1990). Shift from a metaphor of individuals style to universalistic cognitive style
model changed the nature of the phenomena investigated. Cognitive style, seen as a
process of thinking and problem solving, became perceived in terms of static
dimensions and theoretical frameworks, which were easy to communicate to and to test
by a scientific community. Construction of cognitive styles models constituted an
attempt to move a private experience under the investigation of the public domain.
However, this relocation proceeded with a change in the individuals experience itself.
Danziger (1997) observes that categories exist only in the realm of public discourse and
by the means of psychological texts affect readers understanding of their actions,
feelings, hopes and thoughts.
Managerial learning process, within the style theory, emphasizes the importance of
raising managers awareness of their styles through assessments (Sadler-Smith, 2002).
However, managers who are aware of their cognitive styles risk suppressing their own
vocabularies describing their mental life, and take over the scientific language. This
leads to a situation where managers, who submit themselves to style testing, change
the perception of themselves to, e.g. analytical or intuitive. Having definitions and
properties of such categories provided, managers self-perception has a propensity to
transform accordingly. As Danziger (1997, p. 190) puts it:
A person who learns not to think of his or her actions as greedy or avaricious but as
motivated by need for achievement or self-realization has changed as a person.
Western logic and style theory

Management research attempts to find definite answers to the questions about mental
differences between representatives of various cultures. Generalizable theories tend to
assume the form of binarity a form that difference is most simply conceived as
opposition or dichotomy (Schleifer et al., 1992, p. 41), or is/is not couplet (Chia, 1994).
Western logic favors such a view of the world (Chia, 1994). Cognitive styles theory
presents a plethora of such binarities: field-dependency versus field-independency as
perceptual style, impulsivity versus reflectivity, convergent versus divergent thinking
styles, holist versus serialist thinking styles, intuition versus analysis, to name just a
few (Rayner and Riding, 1997). This approach reduces human experiences into discrete
and static states creating an irreducible gap between what one experiences and what
can be articulated through language (Chia, 1994). It seeks generalizable hypothesis at
the cost of investigation of dynamic relations, actions and interactions accompanying
the process of thinking, and differing from culture to culture, whenever the latter is
seen as nation, ethnic community or language group.
Cycle of scientific cognition
The studies in management represent recent development. They were designed to
explore inconclusiveness of the findings in the area of thinking styles across cultures
(Allinson and Hayes, 2000) and were aimed at testing the assertion of existence of
cross-national differences in preferred ways of organizing and processing information
(Savvas et al., 2001). Therefore, the two bodies of research, traditional and management
ones could be seen as representing two compatible phases of the process of scientific
cognition rather than as competing approaches to truth (Rubinstein et al., 1984). The
traditional studies provided an abundance of hypothetical input (Rubinstein et al.,
1984) and the management investigations attempted to systematize this input and
test the model constructed from it. When results obtained within such a cycle are
discrepant, as it is in this case, Rubinstein et al. (1984) suggest reformulation and
retesting of the model being discussed.
The discussion above allows the conclusion that an attempt to enter the phase of
model testing in managerial studies of intuitiveness is premature. Discrepant results of
investigations within management and traditional studies call for more exploratory
research and a holistic view of managerial cognition that would take into account two
issues neglected so far: contemporary management context as well as the local
epistemological context. The scope of investigation could include: propensity of
managers towards intuition in relation to the nature of their work, contemporary
business and social environment, language, life-style as well as religious and
contemplative practices carried out by these managers. The new method should move
from a static to more dynamic approach when investigating intuition.
4. Toward story-based practice in management science and practice
The traditional, universally designed psychological tests in cross-cultural research
seem to pay insufficient attention to the cultural context (in various meanings of this
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word) in which managers act. Danziger (1997) observes that phenomena produced
through the application of psychological tests, questionnaires and rating scales
constitute only a set of artifacts, not natural phenomena. The latter are not concerned
with cultures, whereas, the former are cultural constructs (Danziger, 1997). Cognitive
style is a cultural construct originated in the Anglo-American psychology. Other
cultural groups, if not influenced by the Western science, developed different linguistic
forms for describing the experience of mental life of its members.
Therefore, as an alternative to the quantitative instrument of psychological
investigation, Danziger (1997) proposes analysis of language. However, he emphasizes
that language can act as the carrier of concepts only when deployed by its users in
specific discursive context (Danziger, 1997). This condition is met by the narrative
mode, which leads to conclusions not about certainties in an aboriginal world, but
about the varying perspectives that can be constructed to make experience
comprehensible (Bruner, 1986, p. 36). Comprehension of these varying perspectives
by the means of narration can lead to an improvement of communication and
cooperation between representatives of different cultural groups without being caught
into the trap of naming the particular differences.
Eastern thought and narratives
Teo and Febbraro (2003) claim that Euro-American psychology performs poorly in the
understanding of other cultures mental life because of its assumption of universality.
Understanding mental life requires taking into account ones context, history,
categories and forms of intuition present in a given culture (Teo and Febbraro, 2003). In
order to meet these requirements, I propose that a researcher that aspires to arrive at
valid conclusions when comparing, say American and Chinese managers, apart from
being acquainted with Western canons of science, should become more sensitive
towards particularities of Chinese epistemology. The present study refers to the
traditional Chinese science, which stands here for a symbol of worldview
underestimated in the West. A closer look at the traditional Chinese way of doing
science reveals its concurrence with the narrative method.
Sensitivity towards context. Chinese scholars were recognized as sensitive to context
and relationships (Redding, 1980). In their perception, the idea of a person included
both these aspects. A person was described in relation to his or her context and
interactions with people from the persons environment. Therefore, an attempt to
describe an individual by the means of style, personality, or attitude would have
been meaningless for them. By contextualization, Chinese scientists were able to be
more attentive to the cultural idiosyncrasies of a person under investigation. This is
also an attempt of narrative approach, which sees in contextualization a way to escape
from universal-truth approach. Narrative approach and narrative form pay attention to
contextualization of reality (Steyaert, 1998). Creation of knowledge in context is
based on the principle stating that social reality cannot be discovered in each society
independently of the vocabulary of that society (Steyaert, 1998). It is inseparably linked
to the appreciation for the linguistics of language, without necessity to assume a
universal language (Steyaert, 1998). Unlike the questionnaire-based studies, it does not
aim at creation of the generalizable theory of intuition, but rather at locally valid
accounts, without any objective to transfer it to other accounts (Steyaert, 1998). It also
does not need to provide any a priori definition of culture, as it does not attempt to
compare one attribute across cultures. Rather, it develops a holistic understanding of
every culture individually.
One system. Consequently, contextualization affected also the method of
classification used by Chinese Buddhist scholars. It was to include all things in one
system (Nakamura, 1964). Newly developed doctrines tried to explain all other
doctrines relative to their own basic principles. It resulted in an awareness shared
among scientists with regard to equality of the phenomenon that they investigated,
and recognition of variations in perspectives and discourses used. Such scientific
empathy did not encourage domination of any discourse, but rather created a climate
of understanding of various views. Similarly, narrative approach pays respect to all
forms of local knowledge (Steyaert, 1998), which in the case of cultural studies is of a
particular concern. Additionally, according to Geertz (1983, cited in Steyaert, 1998)
narratives do not reduce concrete differences to general abstractions, identical
phenomena are not covered up by different names and, finally, conclusions are
connected to the management of difference, not to its abolition. This connects strongly
to the Chinese principle of mutual understanding of each others discursive practices.
Applied to the cultural research, it could result in better understanding of concrete
differences.
Interest in particular and concrete. Chinese scholars were concerned with particular
instances and were little interested in universals, which comprehend or transcend those
individual instances (Nakamura, 1964). As a consequence, they did not seek to create
universal from particular. Generalizing was of little interest for them. Instead,
explanations of particular phenomena were given in a figurative way, which
encouraged intuitive understanding. This was the reason for the extensive use of
symbols and metaphors in Buddhist scholars teaching. When presenting a concept or
a relationship, they used a metaphor, and making a connection between the two was
the task of a student, which was seen as a way of learning. A similar tendency was
present in the teaching of Confucianism. Confucius claimed:
If, when showing [the students] one corner and they do not return with the other three, I do
not repeat myself (Lunyu, 7.8).
Hence, his students were expected to elaborate on his hints and succeed in drawing
the whole picture. Whether they came back with squares or rectangles of various areas
did not matter. Once they did their assignment, they learned a rule. Narrative form
seems closely related to the idea of metaphor and simile in the Chinese Buddhist
scholarship. Stories, myths and fables are extended and sustained metaphors
(Turbayne, 1970, pp. 11-20, cited in Leary, 1990). They are far from generalizing and
searching for abstract meanings, but rather are particular and concrete in nature.
The strength of a narrative as a mode of knowledge, when compared with
logico-scientific or paradigmatic mode (Bruner, 1986, cited in Czarniawska, 2004)
(represented by mainstream managerial psychology) may be observed in the nature of
its approach to a relationship under investigation. Some kind of causality may be
inferred by both, but the narrative, unlike logico-scientific mode, leaves open the nature
of the connection (Czarniawska, 2004). While a logico-scientific text demonstrates and
proves a relationship, a narrative simply puts elements close to each other, exhibiting,
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rather than demonstrating an explanation (Czarniawska, 2004). By the means of such

an operation, it offers an alternative mode of knowing (Czarniawska, 2004).
How can story-telling improve managerial and organizational practices?
Steyaert (1998) suggests that the use of a metaphor and of a story allows one to create
local theory, bound to context and audience and then to retell this story elsewhere. For
this reason, narratives represent not only a research tool, but also a technique that can
be used in managerial practices. The primary reason for the conduct of cultural studies
on cognition within management is to help an organization to manage its employees
better. Allinson and Hayes (2000) suggest that cross-national differences in cognitive
style have important implications, as they tend to create difficulties in work encounters
between managers from various countries. The authors propose that one of the ways to
overcome this problem could be offered by a training program teaching how to identify
and respond to various cognitive styles or modify ones own cognitive style in order to
facilitate effective interaction. Savvas et al. (2001) proposes that in multicultural teams
various national groups need to be aware of their own cognitive styles and those with
whom they interact. They also should understand the impact and manifestations of
style difference. All these actions reside on the rational level, and require logical
reasoning and acceptance of the Western notion of intuition by team members of other
cultures. Logical thinking, however, can be obstructed in various situations in which
conflict and emotions come into play.
Dougherty (1992, cited in von Glinow et al., 2004) brings forth an example of
emotional conflict in heterogeneous teams, which occurs because of interpretative
barriers arising from different values, beliefs and language systems, acquired from
divers socialization experience. Intuition as cognitive style is recognizable by Western
psychology and partly, by Western managers, but does not constitute a universal
category. Therefore, its application in the practice of multicultural team may have little
meaning for non-Western team members. Furthermore, according to von Glinow et al.
(2004) understanding and rationalization of the conflict in a team does not help, as
people have difficulties in placing thoughts into words when highly emotionally
engaged, and in finding word equivalents for emotions across cultures. Awareness of
the cognitive style of other members occurs on a rational level, and when emotions are
involved, rational thinking may be disturbed. In other words, understanding of
differences in a rational (in the Western sense of this word) way does not imply that
these differences will be easier to manage. As an alternative von Glinow et al. (2004)
suggest using aesthetic means of communication, which have capacity to transcend
cultural boundaries and allow people to express emotions non-verbally. By means of
aesthetic activity, intuition of participants is not only explained to them, as their
cognitive style, but also it is in fact activated.
Story-telling and story-listening require self-reflection and trigger analogical
thinking. Content expressed as a story creates relationship, translates information into
image and excites ones imagination and sense of wonder (Strauss, 1996). Therefore,
story-related activities may aspire to be aesthetic ones and employed to manage
conflicts in multicultural teams. Stories have a much shorter way to travel to stimulate
action, than the quantitative methods and tools (Johansson, 2004, p. 282). They also
tend to build a relationship of trust between those who exchange stories (Downing,
2005). Therefore, it may be more important to make managers, working as members of

multicultural teams, aware of the advantages resulting from the use of narratives than
to make them aware of their proper cognitive styles. Conflict management is not the
only area that the narrative forms finds application. When the benefits of this
phenomenon are better understood by social scientists as well as by HR managers,
they can be also applied to other organizational processes, such as personnel selection,
training and development, career guidance, task design or team composition.
5. Conclusions
In this paper, presentation of the discrepancy of the results of the studies in
intuitiveness became a starting point for the discussion of methodological issues.
Management science joined a number of other disciplines which for many years had
been trying to explain the phenomenon of dichotomy between an intuitive East and
analytic West (Allinson and Hayes, 2000). However, instead of recognizing and
describing its distinctiveness in relation to the managerial activity, it entered directly
to the phase of model testing by the means of cognitive style theory. The paper
proposes that the generation of more qualitative data, by the means of narratives, is
now necessary. Narratives appreciate the local context, forms of knowledge and
language. All these aspects link closely to the phenomenon of intuition. For that reason,
application of narratives in cultural research on managerial intuition may bring a
number of new insights to the discipline.
In practice, stories affect both, academicians and practitioners. On the one hand,
stories as a form of analogy, may encourage inter-disciplinary and creative way of
generating scientific knowledge about phenomena, they may influence researchers to
look for inspiration beyond the narrow confines of their own discipline, and develop
expertise in areas in which one may not be familiar (Tsoukas, 1993). On the other hand,
owing to its capacity to articulate and explain ones identity to others and to oneself,
they are important tools to be used in management training and development and in
multicultural team management. Applied to the area of study of intuitiveness of East
Asian and Western managers, it could result in enriching the field as well as the
general understanding of intuition, its status in relation to the notion of cognitive
style and its significance for the theory and practice of education and training in the
twenty-first century.
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Students questions: building a

bridge between Kolbs learning
styles and approaches to learning
Helena T. Pedrosa de Jesus and Patrcia Albergaria Almeida
Students
questions
97
Department of Didactics and Education Technology, University of Aveiro,

Aveiro, Portugal
Jose Joaquim Teixeira-Dias

Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal, and
Mike Watts
Roehampton University, London, UK
Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this study is to identify the types of questions that students ask during the
learning of chemistry; discuss the role of students questions in the process of constructing knowledge,
and investigate the relationship between students questions, approaches to learning, and learning
styles.
Design/methodology/approach The questions raised by 100 first-year chemistry students in
Science and Engineering courses at the University of Aveiro, Portugal, were collected. These students
were invited to complete Kolbs Learning Styles Inventory (LSI) and were observed during diverse
class activities. Ten of these students were then selected for interview.
Findings The paper finds that the data enable the placement of students at different stages of
learning development, at an acquisition, specialisation or integration phase. The ten interviews
confirm the results of the LSI survey, and indicate that these students show either deep or surface
approaches to learning, with evidence of a meso approach (intermediate between the two, with
characteristics of both). The paper concludes that it is possible to relate students questions to their
learning styles and approaches to learning. Students, who show a surface approach and stay within
the acquisition stage, tend to formulate low-level questions. Students at the other end of this
continuum seem disposed to ask higher-level questions.
Research limitations/implications The generalisability of the overall study is limited because
of the few students involved in the interviews. However, there are some clear pointers here for the
relationship between the level of students question asking and increasing sophistication in learning.
Practical implications Appreciating the diversity of learners, and their approaches to learning,
enhances the possibilities of improving the quality of teaching at this level.
Originality/value This paper expands on two congruent models that are frequently considered
separate and distinct.
Keywords Learning methods, Learning styles, Students, Portugal
The authors acknowledge the support of the Fundacao para a Ciencia e a Tecnologia (FCT),
Portugal, Project POCTI/36473/CED/2000.
Education Training
Vol. 48 No. 2/3, 2006
pp. 97-111
0040-0912
DOI 10.1108/00400910610651746
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98
1. Introduction
In Portugal the general aims of higher education in science emphasise the need for:
.
developing a scientific spirit and reflexive thought;
.
prompting a long-term search for cultural and professional development; and
.
enabling the concretisation and integration of acquired knowledge into a strong
intellectual structure.
This is similar to many other countries where external evaluations of higher education
have stressed the need for a greater degree of deep learning, as a way of avoiding
simple procedural learning, and a need for conceptual (Beattie et al., 1997) and
integrated learning (Kolb, 1984). Brockbank and McGill (2000, p. 4) condense this by
stating that the principal aims of higher education can be summarised in one unique
expression transformational learning. This kind of learning involves being critical,
asking critical questions, so that Scriven and Paul (2004) suggest that critical thinking
entails reasoning, purpose, problem solving, and tackling questions-at-issue. It is this
last element that is of interest to us in this paper. Like Fisher (1990) and Browne and
Keeley (1997) we see the process of question-generation and, in particular, the design
and use of quality questions (Teixeira-Dias et al., 2005), as exercises in critical thinking
and in the development of critical thinking skills. We see critical thinking to imply a
clear propensity to ask questions: the most significant indicator of critical thinking is
the ability to question, leading in turn to a deep approach to integrated learning. This
leads us to the explorations described in this paper.
Students questions
Students questions play a crucial role in the learning process since questioning lies at
the heart of scientific inquiry and meaningful learning (Chin et al., 2002, p. 521). As
Dillon (1988) has stated:
No other event better portends learning than a question arising to the mind.
The value of students questions in science learning has been emphasised by several
authors (for example, Pedrosa de Jesus, 1991; Shodell, 1995; Watts et al., 1997).
A series of studies place the responsibility of questioning onto students rather than
their teachers, and indicate that this benefits student learning (King, 1994; Pedrosa de
Jesus et al., 2003). Student-generated questions play a significant role in motivating
meaningful learning and can serve different functions within this. For example, these
functions can include confirmation of expectations, answers to unexpected puzzles,
and filling a recognised knowledge gap (Biddulph and Osborne, 1982). The questions
that learners ask are also indicative of their need for resolution in their thinking, for
understanding within the domains in which they are working and studying, and for
some degree of interaction with both teachers (Pedrosa de Jesus et al., 2003) and other
students within sessions (Dillon, 1988). Student questioning, particularly at the higher
cognitive levels, is also an essential aspect of problem solving (Chin and Chia, 2004).
Besides helping students learn, student questioning can also guide teachers in their
work. Some researchers (Crawford et al., 2000) have explored the potential for using
students questions to influence the curriculum. Some questions indicate that students
have been thinking about the ideas presented and have been trying to extend and link
these with other things they already know. Questions can also reveal much about the
quality of students thinking and conceptual understanding (Watts et al., 1997), their
alternative frameworks and confusion about various concepts (Maskill and Pedrosa de
Jesus, 1997), their reasoning (Donaldson, 1978) and what it is they want to know
(Elstgeest, 1985).
Kolbs experiential learning theory
Kolb has suggested that learning shapes the course of development through four
learning complexities: effective, perceptual, symbolic and behavioural, which are
linked together in the learning process (Mainemelis et al., 2002). Effective
complexity in concrete experience results in higher-order sentiments; perceptual
complexity in reflective observations results in higher-order observations; symbolic
complexity in abstract conceptualisation results in higher-order concepts, and
behavioural complexity in active experimentation results in higher-order actions
(Kolb, 1984).
Kolb (1984) explains his experiential learning model of development with the help of
a cone (Figure 1), with the lower levels of development forming its base and the point
as their climax, which indicates increased integration of the four complexities at the
higher levels. Such a process of progression is characterised by an increasing
composite structure and relativity in managing the world and ones own experiences,
as well by the integration of the four fundamental learning modes at a higher level. At
the lower levels of development, progression can take place at any of the four
dimensions relatively independent of the others, while at the higher levels of
Students
questions
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Figure 1.
The experiential learning
theory of development
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development the individuals dedication to learning and creativity requires integration

of all four adaptation modes.
Kolb (1984) differentiates between three broad stages in the developmental process:
acquisition, specialisation and integration. While we have depicted the stages of the
growth process in the form of a simple three-layer cone, the actual process of growth in
any single individual life history probably proceeds through successive oscillations
from one stage to another.
Pedrosa de Jesus et al. (2004) have undertaken to relate Kolbs learning styles to
students questions. We defined three categories of questions, according to Kolbs
experiential learning theory: acquisition questions, specialisation questions and
integration questions. Each one of these categories is directly related to the acquisition,
specialisation and integration phases defined and characterised by Kolb and
associates. Pedrosa de Jesus et al. (2004) conclude that students within each of these
phases tend to ask questions that are congruent with their stage of development.
Students in the acquisition phase ask mainly questions that are related to simple facts
and concepts acquisition questions. Students within the middle phase ask mainly
specialisation questions, those that go beyond the mere search for information.
Students in the integration phase show the ability to ask higher-level questions. These
questions contained hypotheses and new applications of knowledge learned
integration questions. At times, however, these students also asked acquisition and
specialisation questions, according to their needs and to the learning environment.
Approaches to learning
Marton and Saljos (1976) original study used a naturalistic experiment in which students
were asked to read an academic paper, knowing they would be asked questions on this
afterwards. Besides what they remembered of the papers content, these questions also
required them to explain how they went about reading the article. Students who had only
a weak understanding of the paper focused on the text itself, while students who really
understood the article focused on what the text was about and on the authors intention.
The first students were concerned with memorising the text, without comprehending it.
The second group of students tried to understand the message by looking for relations
within the text or by looking for relations between the text and phenomena of the real
world, or by looking for relations between the text and its underlying structure.
According to the authors of the study (Marton and Saljo, 1984, p. 41): these learners
seemed to have seen themselves as creators of knowledge who have to use their capacities
to make critical judgements, logical conclusions and come up with their own ideas.
This distinction was gradually refined through qualitative analysis to produce a
descriptive concept with two categories deep and surface approaches to learning
in which a specific intention brings into play learning process which leads to
qualitatively different learning outcomes. In the deep approach, the intention to extract
meaning produces active learning processes that involve relating ideas and looking for
patterns and principles on the one hand, and using evidence and examining the logic of
the argument on the other. The approach also involves monitoring the development of
ones own understanding (Entwistle et al., 2001). In the surface approach, in contrast,
the intention is just to cope with the task, which sees the course as unrelated bits of
information which leads to much more restricted learning processes, in particular to
routine memorisation (Entwistle, 2000). Accordingly, approaches to learning refer to
the ways in which students go about their academic tasks, thereby affecting the
nature of the learning outcomes (Biggs, 1994, p. 19). Chin and Brown (2000) have
already related approaches to learning to students questions and conclude that
students using a surface approach raised basic, factual and procedural questions, while
students using a deep approach asked questions which focused on explanations and
causes, predictions, or resolving discrepancies in knowledge. These authors also stress
that to encourage a deep learning approach teachers should encourage students to ask
questions.
This paper builds on previous work where we have established a link between
students questions and Kolbs learning styles (Pedrosa de Jesus et al., 2004). As our
research has unfolded, some characteristic features of approaches to learning have
began to appear during interviews and students learning activities, and we decided to
let such data lead our research. Thus, in this paper we propose to:
.
identify and characterise students approaches to learning;
.
identify and characterise their learning styles based on Kolbs theory;
.
examine the use of students questions in the learning and teaching of
undergraduate chemistry;
.
identify and characterise students questioning styles;
.
relate students questioning styles to approaches to learning; and
.
relate students questioning styles to learning styles.
2. Method and procedure
Participants
At the start of the course, all first-year chemistry students were introduced to the
research project Questions in Chemistry. This project, began in 2000, is being
developed with undergraduate Chemistry students at the University of Aveiro,
Portugal. With innovation for improvement in mind, the teaching of chemistry at the
Aveiro, particularly for first year students of the physical sciences and engineering,
has been subjected to continuous innovation to implement quality and student-centred
approaches (Teixeira-Dias et al., 2005). The development of the course has involved
shifts in practice, protocol and emphasis suggested to, and sometimes by, students. For
example, a major precondition for the success of this work has been that students have
been drawn into the project with staff that they feel free to ask questions of teachers
and are encouraged to do so at any time in the classroom. That is, the atmosphere
surrounding the student has provided ample stimulus and encouragement for asking
questions. The students are invited to raise both oral and written questions on and
around the subject matter, with several routes provided for them to do so.
Collaboration has been readily provided and, most recently has extended to completing
surveys and participating in interviews.
From October 2003 to January 2004 (1st semester) and from February 2004 to June
2004 (2nd semester), all the chemistry classes (approximately 140 classes), including
lectures, tutorials, conference-classes, supplementary classes, Questions in
Chemistry lectures, and mini-projects sessions (Pedrosa de Jesus et al., 2005) were
tape-recorded. Observation grids for every class were completed by a researcher, who
was present at all classes. The main sample was composed of 100 undergraduate
students (58 female, 42 male; mean age 19 years) who were all tackling Foundation
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Chemistry, although following different degree programmes: Environmental

Engineering (32 per cent), Chemical Engineering (29 per cent), Meteorological and
Oceanographic Physics (9 per cent), Teaching of Physics and Chemistry (19 per cent),
Physics (4 per cent), Physical Engineering (4 per cent), and Chemistry (3 per cent). For
the purpose of this paper, ten students were selected according to specific
characteristics: their learning style according to Kolbs (1984) theory, their
approaches to learning, the types and number of oral and written questions they
posed, and their level of individual involvement observed during classes.
Gathering student-generated questions
For the purpose of this study, a question is considered as a speech act that is either an
inquiry or an interrogative expression, that is, an utterance that, in print, would be
followed by a question mark (Graesser and Person, 1994). In order to eliminate any
possible students embarrassment in asking oral questions, and to encourage
student-generated questions, a relaxed atmosphere was encouraged in all classes and
sessions. All the students involved understood the nature of the research project, and
the approaches being adopted to collect questions, and provide responses to these. A
software intranet system and a question box were used for the learners to deliver their
questions in written format.
Software intranet system. This software system has been accessible through the use
of an appropriate password, operating within the building dedicated to the teaching of
first-year students of Science and Technology. Computers with this software installed
were available in the laboratories, in tutorial rooms and in the interconnecting
corridors, thus providing free access to Chemistry students. This software enabled the
students who had internet facilities outside the university to work at home and access
the system.
Question boxes. These were placed in each laboratory and in the tutorial room.
These were acrylic containers, very much like ballot boxes, with an outer compartment
where a pad of post-it notes were available for students questions posted at any
point in the session or during the day. Oral questions were also collected, since the
researcher tape-recorded the classes.
Observation. Since a researcher was present in all chemistry classes, and these
classes were also tape-recorded, and all students oral questions were also collected.
Learning Style Inventory
The Learning Styles Inventory (LSI) (Kolb, 1999) is organised into 12 groups of
statements, four statements per group, with one statement in every group
corresponding to one of the stages of the learning cycle. Within each group,
students must organise the four statements according to their own preferences. LSI
measures the relative emphases of each one of the four modes of the learning process
(concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualisation and active
experimentation), and the relationship between abstract and concrete, active and
reflective modes.
Kolbs LSI was adapted to a Portuguese context by Goulao (2001). The results
indicated an acceptable degree of reliability, with coefficient alpha reliabilities ranging
from 0.76 to 0.82. These results are similar to those of Kolb and Smith (1986) and
Willcoxson and Prosser (1996), and suggest that the LSI has high reliability in terms of
internal consistency, with evidence of strong validity.
The LSI was administered during the seminar-tutorial classes. The researcher
explained the purpose of this activity as part of the Questions in Chemistry project.
The students were invited to write their names on the inventory sheet since the
purpose of this activity is to relate the learning style with the questions students ask.
They were given the opportunity to know the results from the inventory and discuss
the implications, since the inventory was not anonymous.
Interviews
As mentioned earlier, the ten students selected displayed distinct learning styles
characteristics as well as approaches to learning. They were also chosen in
consideration of the number and kinds of questions they raised and their particular
attitudes in class. They were interviewed individually in a quiet, private room, within
the Science and Technology building. All the interviews were semi-structured and
tape-recorded.
Data analysis
Data from multiple sources (transcripts of classroom discourse from audio-tapes and
videotapes, audio taped interviews with the students, field notes, students oral and
written questions) were analysed in relation to each other; this served to triangulate the
data and to help enhance the credibility of the findings and assertions made (Lincoln
and Guba, 1985).
All students questions have been categorised against the acquisition, specialisation
and integration (ASI) classification. Before this classification of student-generated
questions this categorisation was validated by a panel of seven non-project colleagues.
A document with the characteristics of each kind of question and some examples of
each question type was given to each member of the panel. Then, each member
classified ten new questions, according to the information given earlier. The degree of
concordance was of 89 per cent.
In analysing students learning approaches and learning styles, a large part
involved the study of students thinking, behaviour and their internal states manifested
in their observed performance. However, since it is not possible to gain direct access to
the mind or internal state of the learner, the analysis must be inferential to some extent.
Thus, in developing grounded interpretative analyses of the students learning
approaches and learning styles, the purpose was not to characterise what was really
going on in students, since this was not open to direct inspection. Rather, it was to
articulate the subtleties of the general constructs, such as deep, surface, convergent,
divergent, assimilative and accommodative, by looking closely at naturalistic student
interactions and using interpretative analyses to assist in this.
3. Results
Kolbs learning styles and students questions
The results generated by this study confirm the results obtained by Pedrosa de Jesus
et al. (2004). From the ten students that were selected from the main sample, which
included 100 students, four were in the acquisition phase, five in the specialisation and
only one student revealed to be in the integration phase. Students in the acquisition
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phase asked mainly acquisition questions. These questions deal with relatively simple
ideas, objects, processes, or concepts that do not require evaluation, judgement, or
drawing conclusions. When asking acquisition questions, students were attempting to
elucidate issues, to confirm explanations or to clarify conceptual issues. Students may
feel they have grasped an idea, or the structure of an argument, and are testing for
reassurance that this is in fact the case. These are stick-to-the-facts questions, whose
answers will mainly rely upon memory processes. Drawn from our project, some
instances of these questions are:
What does disproportion mean?
What is the chemical meaning of the expression intensive properties?
Is copper sulphate soluble in water?
Students in the specialisation stage, ask principally specialisation questions. Drawn

from our project, some instances of these questions are:
Since one O2 molecule can bind to each of four heme groups of haemoglobin, why is it that the
second and following O2 molecules are more easily bound than the first one?
How might one confirm that cathodic protection prevents corrosion?
As these examples show, specialisation questions tend to go beyond the mere search for
information; the student establishes relations and tries to understand and interpret the
surrounding world. These kinds of questions transcend the specific or detailed level of
comprehension, in order to generalise or relate these specifics into meaningful patterns.
The student has reached a sense of conviction in his or her understandings, and then uses
the security of this base camp to launch a few sorties into the neighbouring terrain.
Students seek to both expand knowledge and test constructs that they have formed.
In the integration phase, students seem to have the ability to ask different kinds of
questions, according to the learning context, the learning demands and their needs. In
this phase students can ask acquisition and specialisation questions but also have the
capacity to ask higher-level or integrative questions. One of the major characteristics of
integrative questions is the reorganisation of concepts into novel patterns and to
hypothesise new or different applications of principles learned. Integration questions
are attempts to reconcile different understandings, resolve conflicts, test
circumstances, force issues, and track in and around complex ideas and their
consequences. Such questions may have some direct relevance to the classroom topic
being taught, though questions may be triggered by tangential issues or are stimulated
by something from outside the class entirely (Figure 2). Drawn from our project some
instances of these questions are:
Figure 2.
Kolbs experiential theory
of development related to
students questions
I wonder if it would make sense to design a H2/O2 fuel cell-based vehicle that would avoid
carrying H2 and O2 in bottles by including an electrolytic cell, powered by solar panels, to
decompose H2O?
Approaches to learning and students questions

Questions associated with surface approaches to learning tended to refer to more basic,
factual (requiring only recall of information), or procedural information. These
questions were mostly questions with a single unambiguous answer. When asking
these kinds of questions, students were attempting to clarify information and detail,
ask for exemplification and/or definition. The answers to these questions mainly rely
on memory processes, and do not show any relation between new information and
prior knowledge. Drawn from our project, some instances of such questions would be:
What are nanomaterials?
How does heavy water form?
What is an example of the causes of acid rain?
Questions associated with a deep approach tended to reflect some re-structuring or

reorganisation of the students understanding. These questions reflected students
curiosity, scepticism or speculation. The student seems to want to get further inside
the ideas, to be hypothetic-deductive, to seek extensions to what is known, to cross
knowledge domains. They focused on explanations and causes, predictions, or on
resolving discrepancies in knowledge, and were more open, imaginative, and reflective.
These questions challenge accepted reasoning. They were pitched at a conceptually
higher level, required an application or extension of taught ideas, and apparently
sprang from a deep interest of the students or arose from an effort to make sense of the
world. Unlike questions associated with a surface approach, which were typically
simply responded to with a simple short answer, these questions served to direct
further inquiry, and had a greater potential contribution for an advancement in
conceptual understanding. Drawn from our project, some instances of such questions
would be:
If the variation of entropy of the universe is always higher then zero, that is, if we are going
towards disorder, how do structures like planets, planetary systems and galaxies form?
Water has a high surface tension that allows, for instance, insects to rest on the water and not
to sink. But, there is a huge Australian lizard which runs over the water and never drowns. I
cant understand this because that lizard is really quite heavy. How is this possible? Water
cannot sustain a mouse or a squirrel, and yet can sustain the Australian lizard?
Thus, establishing a link between approaches to learning and students questions, we

decided to call the first group of questions as surface questions and the second as
deep questions. Some questions, however, did not fit into either of these two
categories; they seemed to be in between. Since approaches to learning represent a
continuum between two extreme poles (surface and deep) it is therefore not surprising
that we find some questions that locate between the two poles. We called these meso
questions, since they are in the middle, between deep and surface questions, having
characteristics between these two kinds of questions. These questions are not factual,
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but they neither are reflective; these questions tend to go beyond the mere search of
information, but do not imply a new hypothesis. These kinds of questions transcend
the specific or detailed level of comprehension, in order to generalise or relate these
specifics into meaningful patterns. Drawn from our project, some instances of such
questions would be:
How can we quantify the acidity or the basicity of a solution, when the solvent is not water, or
when in a gaseous medium?
What happens to the indicator that explains this colour change?
What might be the ways in which we could prevent acid rain?
When analysing students characteristics, we find that students who ask mainly meso
questions, also showed characteristics between deep and surface approaches. These
students were somewhere in the middle of this continuum, in an unnamed region, that
we decided to call the meso approach (Figure 3), with the purpose of facilitating our
analysis and interpretation. It is important to notice that these students do not use a
combination of these two approaches; they are not strategic students (Entwistle,
2000). They stand between the two approaches in not relying simply on rote learning,
but also not making judgements or creating their own knowledge. As an example, we
can refer to one student called Ana. Most of the time she tries to understand what she is
learning, and she establishes some relations between new and previous knowledge.
However, Ana has some difficulties in relating what she is learning in Chemistry
classes with the other subjects she is studying. For instance, she understands the
chemical meaning of surface tension, but she never thought how this could affect the
position of an insect on the surface of water:
I dont know . . . humm . . . It never occurred to me that all this Chemistry could affect an
insect!! . . . I am used to learning Chemistry, and I really dont think of how what I am learning
here is related to the world out there . . .
Otherwise, she is very concerned with the relations of the topics within the same
subject, for example relating the topics learned during lectures and practical classes.
Surface students tended to ask mainly surface questions, and meso students tended
to ask mainly meso questions. On the other hand, deep students showed the ability to
raise higher-level or deep questions, but also formulated surface and meso questions,
whenever these kinds of questions were more adequate to the context. From the ten
students that were selected to be interviewed, four showed a predominant surface
approach, five were meso students, and only one student frequently used a deep
approach.
Figure 3.
and students questions
4. Discussion and implications

This study has confirmed results and conclusions from previous research: we have
confirmed the relationship between students questions and Kolbs experiential
learning theory (Pedrosa de Jesus et al., 2004), and the relationship between approaches
to learning and students questions (Chin and Brown, 2000). In the last case, although
confirming the results obtained earlier, we felt the need to advance a new category of
questions, as well as an intermediate stage between deep and surface approaches.
Having a bipolar categorisation of students questions is too rigid, too narrow, to
embrace the kinds of questions raised by students. Each one of the categorisations
presented has three categories of questions. When analysing these categories we
observe an obvious congruence between acquisition and surface questions,
specialisation and meso questions and also between integrative and deep questions.
Although defined according to different theories (approaches to learning and Kolbs
experiential learning theory), the characteristics of acquisition and surface questions
are clearly equivalent, happening the same to specialisation and meso questions, as
well as to integrative and deep questions.
Students questions represent a tool that allows us to establish a relationship
between approaches to learning and Kolbs theory that represent two different
dimensions of learning styles (Riding and Rayner, 1998), and that lie in different
theoretical backgrounds (Kolb, 1984; Marton and Saljo, 1976). Nevertheless, both
theories have the similar issues in common: that there is a continuum in learning
development and students can move along this continuum. They might remain at the
base acquisition phase or superficial approach or move up until they reach a
higher-level of thinking, the integration phase or deep approach. Between the base and
the top of this continuum, there is learning space where students have in between
characteristics the specialisation phase or the meso approach (Figure 4), as we call it,
as a mean of facilitating our explanation.
Students
questions
107
Figure 4.
Relations between
approaches to learning,
Kolbs learning styles and
students questions
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108
We use the deep, meso and superficial questions categories in this study with the
purpose of relating and establishing a parallel between these questions and those
defined elsewhere (Pedrosa de Jesus et al., 2004) related to Kolbs learning styles. Since
our study supports the idea that these two categorisations are equivalent, from now on
we will refer only to the ASI classification, as a mean of reducing the complexity
associated with the categorisations of students questions.
What emerges from this work is that, in spite of students questions being an
indicator of their learning development; they also allow us to establish a link between
Kolbs theory and approaches to learning. Going beyond Kolbs first-order learning
styles (assimilator, divergent, convergent and accommodative) permits us to find a
theory of development that is somehow related to approaches to learning. And, when
analysing students questions this relation appears clear. Maybe, with some audacity,
we establish a parallel between these two learning styles dimensions (Figure 5).
This study has expanded the knowledge base about students learning approaches
and students learning styles, by including more ecologically valid data. The data were
derived not only from interviews with students and written tasks, but also from the
students engagement in:
.
hands-on activities;
.
the development of mini-projects about topics of Chemistry, that sometimes also
involved experiments; and
.
device activities (Graesser and Olde, 2003) that asked students to explain some
chemical incidents.
As such, they were situated in the authentic context of a naturalistic setting (Lincoln
and Guba, 1985), as opposed to a setting outside the classroom context. That is, the
students were actually observed performing the tasks during normal instruction, and
the analysis of their learning approaches and learning styles was based on this on-site
performance, together with information from follow-up interviews. Furthermore, the
data from this study also refer to activities in which the students interacted with their
peers in a group setting. This allowed direct comparisons to be made of the students
and their learning approaches and learning styles. A combination of detailed
observation, video recording of device activities and mini-projects presentation,
Figure 5.
and Kolbs experiential
learning theory of
development
interviews also completed each other in providing a more holistic picture of the
students learning approaches and learning styles.
5. Conclusion
Our aims within in this paper are clear. first, we are interested in exploring learning
development, from surface or acquisitional phases through to deep and integrative
modes. In general we are interested in supporting teaching and learning at this level so
that learners have enhanced opportunities to transform their thinking and learning.
In practice, students bring to the classroom a great diversity of learning preferences,
and the question has been: How to respond? It is not possible to differentiate fully
between, and provide for, learners on the basis of all possible learning preferences,
styles and strategies. Differentiation is a complex and difficult business that can defeat
even the most experienced of teachers.
The course at the University of Aveiro has been tuned through consecutive course
editions towards both the requirements of the curriculum and the satisfaction and
involvement of the teachers and students (Pedrosa de Jesus et al., 2005). This activity of
tuning is not so much a result of once-and-for-all modification, but a relatively constant
concern and evolution that requires almost permanent consideration of students
questions and feedback, and of the data generated concerning their learning styles and
approaches. Kolbs theory and the results of the LSI research have informed, guided
and, in some instances, has catalysed changes in the Department of Chemistry.
First, there have been small shifts in practice, protocol, subject emphasis or minor
subject diversions suggested to students or by students. The course team has been
keen to turn these minor moves into a more structured reality, by creating and
adopting strategies for teaching and learning that explore ways to stimulate active
learning by improving the quality of classroom interactions. This has entailed the use
of approaches to teaching based on students data and feedback and has led to
increased channels of communication, a range of different lecture formats, small group
project work, challenging tutorial sessions, and changes to assessment patterns. It has
proved difficult to target specific teaching to specific learning styles and approaches:
the goal has been to broaden provision to embrace as wide a range of approaches to
learning as possible.
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Internationally-educated health
professionals: a distance
education multiple cultures model
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Lillie Lum
Faculty of Professional and Liberal Studies, York University, Toronto, Canada
Abstract
Purpose This paper aims to explore issues that must be addressed in post-secondary educational
planning and delivery such that social cultural factors within the learning environment are recognized
in ways that affirm the learners cultural traditions.
Design/methodology/approach The adoption of a multiple cultures model of instructional
design with an emphasis on implementing flexible learning using instructional technology is
proposed.
Findings The paper finds that as student mobility continues to increase across educational
programs and geographic borders, the need to accommodate cultural differences in an increasingly
heterogeneous study will have to increase dramatically and, for this to occur, institutions and faculty
will have to improve their insight into cultural and learning differences that affect teaching and
learning.
Practical implications Distance education courses are commonly offered in professional
upgrading or bridging programs as one solution to addressing the apparent knowledge and
experience gaps of newly immigrated internationally-educated practitioners. Useful strategies for
accommodating individual styles and preferences in a multiple cultures professional online learning
context have been described.
Originality/value Learning preferences and styles are inextricably related to cultural background
as well as curricular and course design. This paper provides a much-needed professional distance
education framework that integrates the skills and values of the student with those of the local
professional community to create a unified and authentic learning environment.
Keywords Distance learning, Professional education, Health services, National cultures, Learning styles
1. Introduction
The highly multicultural context of post-secondary education in Toronto, Canada is
unique. Acting as a host city for the majority of new immigrants, over 150 languages
are spoken in addition to English. One contributor to the cultural diversity within the
Canadian educational system is the longstanding shortage of healthcare professionals
in North America necessitating the global recruitment of many highly skilled workers.
As a result of a lack of reciprocity in professional credentialing between countries, a
large cohort of multilingual, highly educated international health professionals such as
physicians, nurses and physiotherapists are required to upgrade their knowledge and
skills despite being qualified in their home countries. In order to obtain a license to
Education Training
Vol. 48 No. 2/3, 2006
pp. 112-126
0040-0912
DOI 10.1108/00400910610651755
The research from which this paper emerged was supported by a grant from the Social Sciences
and Humanities Research Council of Canada and the Canadian Department of Heritage
(2004-2005). The content of this paper does not necessarily reflect the position of the granting
council or Canadian Department of Heritage.
practice, they must meet Canadian professional standards through upgrading of their
social/professional language as well as demonstrating knowledge and technical
proficiency in computer-based educational and healthcare environments.
Internationally-educated health professionals who immigrate to North America
may find themselves regarded as a threat to local professionals who view newcomers
negatively as a result of difficulties encountered in working with individuals from
different cultures and educational systems. Gustafson (2005), in writing about nursing
migration, describes local attitudes, which view foreign-trained professionals as a
major source of competition in limited job markets, for example, in urban centers.
Together, these perceptions imply that those who are culturally different are a threat to
a supposedly homogeneous society, adding potency to viewing cultural diversity as a
problem. Educators in post-secondary institutions are increasingly challenged with the
need to design courses that respond to external market demands and adhere to
professionally-determined performance outcomes while simultaneously responding to
the need for flexibility and the diversity of students learning styles.
Cultural differences and diverse learning styles create course design opportunities
and challenges for educators as they attempt to provide locally relevant, yet culturally
inclusive, programming. Culture, communication and learning are intertwined and
interdependent. Giroux (1997) has described culture as the dynamic interplay between
the experiences of people and the social structure at large; it is the individual
perceptions of ones societal situation. Wang (2001) describes culture as ones
identification with the shared social construction or sameness that is shared with
others. Cultural differences, as referred to in this paper, are not limited to simply
differences in ethnicity or nationality; they refer to patterns of thought, attitudes and
behaviors, which vary according to the sameness shared by distinct groups.
References to dominant or mainstream culture refer to a westernized system of practice
in North America.
This paper is primarily concerned with the multiple cultures context, a collective
online learning environment that is created by individuals from diverse ethnic,
professional and learning styles coming together. There is a specific focus on key
issues associated with the provision of a specialized type of college or university
education that has developed as a result of the increased global mobility of health
professionals. Professional bridging programs that assist students in making the
transition into Western practice is one solution to addressing the knowledge and
experience gap of local and international practitioners.
Culturally sensitive, appropriate online bridging education can be provided if
designers are aware of the background and learning styles of their learners. Our
research has identified inherent biases towards students learning styles within health
professions bridging programs. Educational programming based upon a deficit model
of learning which casts international students as lacking essential academic and
professional competencies and therefore requires students to upgrade is an
ethnocentric view which may prevent integration into the mainstream culture of the
North American healthcare system. This approach assumes that international health
professionals must abandon or unlearn their original knowledge and skills and adopt
completely new methods of learning in order to assimilate Western values.
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Although there is little disagreement about the need for these educational
initiatives, the actual design and delivery of effective programming has posed a greater
challenge than expected by the education sector. The provision of bridging programs
through distance education has been cited as a best practice, that is, using different
modes of delivery improves student access and flexibility in course scheduling (Austin
and Dean, 2004). While distance education has many merits, there are also associated
limitations. For example, the virtual learning environment is more suited to
independent learning and is highly suited to visual learners. This format may create
barriers for those who are auditory or kinaesthetic learners or for those who prefer
face-to-face contact. Distance education also involves a degree of isolation that
contravenes the overall objective of bridging education which is to socialize learners
into a westernized professional culture.
We propose the adoption of a multiple cultures model of online instructional design
to ensure the integration of both original and new knowledge, skills and behaviors.
Certain characteristics, such as communication and knowledge exchange, shared
experience and co-construction of knowledge, and supportive teacher roles and
expertise, of a multiple cultures community of learners within technology-enhanced
environments are critical to successful professional learning. This paper explores
issues that must be addressed in educational program planning and delivery that
include the need to recognize cultural identity, language, social, political and economic
requirements in ways that affirm cultural traditions, while simultaneously promoting
the ability of international health professionals to work within a Western society.
2. Health professions education and learning styles
Understanding learning styles provides a link to predicting and improving educational
achievement as well as improving vocational selection, guidance and placement.
Sadler-Smith and Smith (2004) propose that when designing and facilitating learning
experiences, in addition to organizational and environmental contexts, it is necessary
to consider the characteristics of the learner with particular emphasis on responding
effectively to a variety of learning styles and preferences. Sadler-Smith (1996) defines
learning styles as an information-processing activity and learning preferences as the
individual choice of one particular mode of learning over the other. Although there are
a number of different constructs labeled as learning styles, learning-centered
approaches such as those described by Kolb (1984) and Sternberg and Grigorenko
(1997), as opposed to cognitive approaches, are emphasized, as they are more relevant
to the student population discussed in this paper. Upgrading professional
competencies principally concerns modifying learning behaviors and
predispositions. Increasing the efficiency and effectiveness of flexible work-related
learning and the development of new skills and knowledge are consistent with the
goals of professional bridging education for adult learners who are attempting to adopt
a different style of health practice.
Aside from the continued interest in learning styles of medical students, there has
been a serious lack of formal attention to learning styles and student outcomes in
contemporary westernized health professions education. In contrast, learning style
concepts have inadvertently become deeply embedded in formal professional licensing
mechanisms controlling the right and ability of individuals to practice in North
America. Nelson and Purkis (2004) have noted that in the past two decades,
competency standards enforced through legislation have been developed in response to

government initiatives aimed at improving consistency in workforce training and
accreditation, and in fostering national and international portability of qualifications.
Mandatory self-reflection of ones practice and learning styles has become central to
monitoring and promoting safe practice. The Kolb Learning Style Inventory, which
enables individuals to identify their preferred learning style, is currently being used as
the self-development, reflective practice tool for nurses in Canada (The College of
Nurses of Ontario, 2005).
Kolbs model of learning is one of several available models, but is one that has been
widely used. The Kolb Learning Style Inventory (Kolb, 1984) describes an experiential
cycle of learning with four dimensions consisting of concrete experience, reflective
observation, abstract conceptualization and active experimentation. From these stages,
four learning types have been identified: accommodator, diverger, assimilator and
converger. Accommodators rely on concrete experience and active experimentation,
learn from hands-on experience and rely heavily on other people for information.
Divergers learn from concrete experience and reflective observation. Assimilators
combine abstract conceptualization and reflective observation, understand a wide
range of information and are more interested in abstract ideas and concepts.
Convergers utilize abstract conceptualization and active experimentation, find
practical uses for ideas and theories, deal with technical tasks and are less
interested in social and interpersonal issues.
For internationally-educated health professionals, Western bridging education and
professional work may be significantly different from previous education and working
conditions. Style, approach and format flexibility are required in order to choose or
develop an appropriate strategy and employ appropriate tactics to succeed in novel
situations (Curry, 2000, p. 250). Lack of academic success may not be directly as a
result of lack of ability but attributed to differences in learning style, studying
approaches and instructional format preferences. Learners demonstrating stress or
failure may not have the flexibility or resources to bridge from their usual patterns of
practice to those that are more appropriate to new circumstances. Although she
suggests that educational institutions need to either teach the required flexibility or
modify the task/environmental demands while maintaining outcome performance
standards, our experience suggests that neither option occurs.
A review of the medical literature revealed some empirical evidence of relevance to
international bridging educational programming. Zhang and Flipse (2005) concluded
after examining learning styles at year one and four of American undergraduate
medical students that styles changed during the course of the program. Assimilators
and convergers were the two predominant learning styles among beginning medical
students. However, divergers and accommodators became the two common learning
styles among the fourth year students. This trend is consistent with Kolbs theory that
effective learners will move towards a more reflective and actively experimental style
of learning, traits which are highly valued in health professional practice. Despite
curricular and learning style differences at years one and four, there appeared to be no
significant difference between students learning style and academic performance. The
authors concluded that medical students choose their own learning preferences
independently, suggesting that learning styles are context-dependent, and students
adapt to different learning environments.
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A second major result of this longitudinal study was that medical students
remained self-directed irrespective of their learning styles or context. These authors
support the proposition that self-directedness may be enhanced in small group learning
environments, but is not context dependent. Previous studies have found that
self-directed learning scores, measured by the Guglielminos Self-Directed Learning
Readiness Scale, among American medical students were much higher than those
reported for the general adult population. The assumption is that the higher the score
the greater the readiness for self-directed learning of the subject. Self-directed learning
is interpreted to be a preference for independence where the student prefers to exercise
influence on the content and structure of learning programs (Sadler-Smith, 1996).
Research has suggested that individuals who have developed high self-directed
learning skills tend to perform better in jobs requiring a high degree of
problem-solving ability, creativity and change (Guglielmino and Klatt, 1994).
Independent or self-directed learning is also considered to be an essential element of
learning success within virtual learning environments. The assumption that all
students are similar or need to move towards being homogeneous proves to be
problematic in the multiple cultures learning groups because there will most likely be a
combination of self-directed students and those who prefer a more dependent or
teacher-directed learning. Our experience with a multidisciplinary sample of
international health professional students suggests that students vary in their
degree of self-directedness as well as in preference for independent learning. Whether
students increase in self-directness over the duration of a course or program as they
gain better understanding of themselves and the organizational context of westernized
practice needs further exploration.
In many Western classrooms, cultural diversity and heterogeneity, in terms of
ethnicity, rather than homogeneity characterize student populations. In the case of
internationally-educated health professionals, different approaches to learning,
previous experiences and differing expectations regarding educational training may
pose a barrier to integration into the dominant culture. Here, dominant culture refers to
values and practices of a westernized system of healthcare services. Alternately, the
system may also be sufficiently rigid such that integration is prevented. Cultural
differences in cognitive, learning, and affective style may also contribute to
under-representation of culturally diverse groups in North American professional
education, and we are arguing that this is the case for internationally-educated health
professionals seeking entry to the Canadian workforce. Any assumption that
internationally-educated health professionals exhibit inferior or ineffective learning
preferences must be explored and challenged since there is little support for the notion
that there is one correct way to learn.
There are little data to explain just how professional training and learning are
influenced by learners original cultural identity and the effects of integrating into a
new culture. In the absence of substantial evidence as to how culture influences
learning styles, stereotypes within multiple cultures learning environments exist. The
complexity of how culture, in terms of social roles, geographic location, personal
attributes and profession-specific practice expectations, affects learning and
performance is largely underestimated. Moreover, learning styles and thinking
styles may change with time and the demands of the environmental context which are
governed by cultural norms.
One of the relatively few studies examining the relationship between cultural
background and behavioral outcomes was conducted by Zhang and Sternberg (2001)
who explored how thinking styles influenced academic achievement in post-secondary
institutions. In a comparative study examining mental self-government and thinking
styles of Hong Kong and mainland Chinese, and American university students,
thinking styles were demonstrated to be closely related to students learning
approaches and have significant relationships with students characteristics such as
age, socioeconomic status and leadership experience, as well as work and travel
experiences. Although common thinking styles were found in all three cultures, these
styles manifested themselves differently across cultures with direct implications for
teachers in their enhancement of teaching and learning.
Thinking styles of Hong Kong students that facilitated academic achievement were
those that required conformity, orientation toward a sense of order or a hierarchical
style and preference for working independently. On the contrary, styles that allow
self-directed and norm-challenging ways of performing tasks and a preference for
working in groups were negatively associated with students academic achievement.
Unlike Hong Kong and American students responses, the Mainland Chinese group
illustrated that an executive thinking style, where roles and participatory style are
clearly defined, had a negative impact on academic achievement. This challenges the
traditional view that Chinese students are more conforming in their thinking than are
Western students (Zhang and Sternberg, 2001, p. 208).
3. Cultural issues in distance education
There has been a considerable increase in the use of flexible methods through the use
of instructional technologies for workplace learning and development (Sadler-Smith
and Smith, 2004). Modes of delivery such as distance learning, programmed instruction
and e-learning enable learners to acquire knowledge and skills at a place, time and pace
that is convenient to their needs. Flexible learning has provided learner-centeredness to
a degree but may be undermined if due consideration is not given to diversity of
individual learning style, preferences and strategies. Furthermore, they have observed
that advances in knowledge regarding individual differences in learning and cognition
as well development in instructional design and technology appear to have proceeded
largely in isolation from each other (Sadler-Smith and Smith, 2004, p. 396). This trend
has certainly been evident in the instructional design of bridging education courses for
internationally educated health professionals.
Different cultural levels, that is, societal, personal, organizational and disciplinary,
affect learners response and acceptance of instructional technologies and distance
education. Researching and theorizing about the ways that diverse groups of learners
participate in online education and to begin developing web-based learning
environments which meet the needs of those they seek to serve has been advocated
by Gunawardena and Nolla (2001). Damarin (1998) argues that technology is not
neutral; that it is imbued with Euro-American cultural values and as such is consistent
with the notion of technophillia, the belief that all educational problems would be
solved if learners had access to technology. McLoughlan (1999) labels this as a form of
technological determinism, which undermines the cultural values and needs of diverse
populations of learners. She recommends an emancipatory pedagogy, which
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recognizes students capacities to construct their own knowledge, and to apply prior
experience and culturally preferred ways of knowing.
The design of web-based instruction can draw on a range of learning theories and
goal orientations, styles of collaboration and teacher support, all of which must be
evaluated for cultural contextualization while meeting the need for flexible learning
environments (Chisholm and Wetzel, 1997). While design features may be intended to
support learning, enabling aspects of these course features may present barriers due to
differing interpretation of purpose. Features of a web-based learning environment
might be interpreted and more or less accepted depending on the social and cultural
meaning of the learning activities or behaviors. Values in one culture may be culturally
inappropriate for another as in the case of students attitudes to self-directed versus
group directed learning or the expectation that students may challenge the teachers
point of view. A range of course design issues identified by McLoughlin are illustrated
in Table I.
Classroom norms, communication roles and procedures may be regulated by the
teacher, but such practices may in fact not be congruent with students culturally
acquired patterns of interaction and their prior experiences of technology
(McLoughlan, 1999, p. 2). While a culture of casual conversational style online may
be the norm in British and North American academic cultures, it may be perceived by
some internationally educated students as academically substandard (Bates, 2001,
p. 129). Bates (2001) has also raised the issue of pedagogical cultures, arguing that in
many educational institutions in the West, there is an emphasis on critical thinking
that even encourages students to challenge teachers and canonical texts whereas
academic cultures outside of this context may be teacher- rather than student-centered.
Differences in learning styles can arise between cultures as well as within a distinct
culture. Both are equally important and at times, it is difficult to recognize the impact
on learning experiences.
Web-based course features
Implications
E-mail, chat, peer dialogue
Expectation to communicate may impose burdens on

participants, especially if volume of communication
is assigned a graded value
Cultures vary in the amount of information or degree
of detail desired or required; some cultures may
prefer implicit messages, others more explicit
Variations in understanding of task sharing and
context; leadership role often assumed by dominant
native-speaking English students; unequal sharing
of burden and outcomes
In many Western cultures, students seek control over
their environment, while in other cultures
individuals try to accommodate the external
environment (Norman, 1993)
Groups may have relationship or task focus;
therefore online tasks are perceived differently by
group members
Lectures, information presentation

Collaborative assignments/projects
Resource sharing and prescribed content

Table I.
Web design issues that
are open to cultural
interpretation
Social networks and relationships
4. Components of a multiple cultures model for professional distance

education
McLoughlan (1999) concluded from a study of Australian indigenous students that
conventional approaches to course design may cast these students as lacking in
essential academic skills, thereby becoming stranded outside of the mainstream
academic culture. This deficit view assumes that once minority students are shown the
superiority of the dominant culture, they will reject their own culture and become
westernized. She asserts that this ethnocentric view flounders on the assumption that
minority students can totally abandon or unlearn the essence of their own culture
and assimilate Western values and practices. This concern is particularly relevant
when considering international health professionals who are adult learners with both
practice experience and pre-established patterns of learning. This may pose a dilemma,
as they are unlikely to totally reject their original culture in exchange for new and
possibly faulty ways of knowing and doing, but must find ways to integrate previous
and new learning.
Henderson (1996) has identified several course design paradigms reflecting
particular world-views of a particular societal and cultural context and consisting of
values, pedagogies, inclusions and exclusions. In the inclusive paradigm, the social,
cultural and historical perspectives of minority groups are considered but do not
challenge the dominant culture and are therefore superficial. An inverted curriculum
paradigm is one in which an attempt is made to deliberately design an instructional
component from the minority perspective but fails to provide learners with
educationally valid experiences as it does not admit them into the mainstream
culture. A unidimensional paradigm, which excludes or denies cultural diversity
assumes that educational experiences are the same for minority students as they are
for others.
In contrast, a multiple cultures model of instructional design enables the
endorsement of multiple cultural realities or zones of development. Henderson asserts
that this is an eclectic paradigm, which incorporates learning resources that allow
variability in learning styles and flexibility in course design features which include
multiple ways of learning and teaching by combining mainstream and
non-mainstream cultural interests. The multiple cultures model enables design
instruction that allows for a multiple zone of development for international learners in
terms of content, perspectives and pedagogies. McLoughlins original model has been
adapted to illustrate the overlapping knowledge areas that have to be considered in
developing online professional courses for international students (Figure 1). The
explicit cultural background and learning styles of the students have to be integrated
with the academic knowledge of the mainstream tertiary academic study, while
computing skills and knowledge of technology, such as internet-based communication,
constitute a further zone for development.
In the case of international bridging education, academic knowledge would consist
of factual and experiential or practice components specific to the students profession.
Within the multiple learning zone opportunity needs to be provided to discuss
similarities as well as differences in profession-specific knowledge and practice as well
as non-specific professional attributes of working in a North American healthcare
system. Collaborative communication in and across cultures in the online learning
environment requires the willingness to explore shared meaning, to be flexible in the
Multiple cultures
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Figure 1.
Multiple learning zones for
international health
professionals
acceptance of ambiguities, to develop cultural sensitivity and to understand the value

of multiple perspectives, features which are essential in Western healthcare systems.
Developing a multiple cultural knowledge would also consist of integrating
students learning styles developed in the country of the students original training
program, along with the integration of new styles of learning (Collis, 1999; Henderson,
1996). For example, in Canadian health professions education, there is a strong
emphasis on self-reflection, respect for individual autonomy and experiential learning
in comparison to more authoritarian or paternalistic forms of healthcare practice.
Students who recognize their own styles as good indicators of the learning
environmental characteristics that they perceive to be a help in their learning are more
likely to achieve academic success. A cost-effective use of learning styles and studying
approaches in international health professions education would be to provide
comprehensive, detailed and interpretive information to these students early on in their
bridging education. This would allow students to utilize this personalized information
to structure their coping strategies and achievement tactics better.
5. Implications for a multiple cultures instructional design
Internationally-educated health professional students choose their own learning
preferences independently while adapting to the cultural demands of different learning
environments. Diversity of learning styles arising from within the individuals and their
cultural group must be considered in curriculum design and instructional strategies. A
variety of teaching methods should be used to create a favorable distance education
learning environment for all types of learners. Issues that must be addressed in a
multiple cultures course design recognizes the collective identity of students, their
language, and social and political requirements that affirm cultural traditions while
simultaneously promoting students ability to work within the dominant society. This
approach recognizes and envisions international students learning in a bi-cultural

setting so that they can effectively function in both minority and mainstream contexts.
Creating pluralistic learning communities
A key element of the multiple cultures model of instructional design is integration of
the skills and values of the community, its cultural traditions and its problems and
issues in order to create a unified and authentic learning environment. The importance
of a shared context is one in which individual cognition is not the primary focus but an
environment where learners interact in a group using cultural resources to construct
meaning (Brown, 1997; McLellan, 1997). The online environment needs to be designed
to replicate the essential features of a dynamic, socially active community where
members from diverse backgrounds can learn to support each other and have a
common goal. During the early stages of a course, students would be required to use
electronic messaging, communication forums and tools such as email and bulletin
boards to establish their presence online. The assignment of at least one mixed
group-based activity consisting of students from different cultural backgrounds would
provide opportunity to use structured shared workspaces. Students also need to be
encouraged to explore wider learning space on the web such as online library resources
and relevant health professional information web sites.
Flexible communication configurations
Technology has greatly enhanced the ability to conduct online discussion but courses
need to be carefully designed to promote effective communication among the
community of learners. However, what constitutes effective communication is highly
culturally dependent. Horizontal communication (between students) and vertical
communication (between faculty and students) vary in appropriateness in different
cultures. Yildiz and Bichelmeyer (2003) found that EFL (non-native speakers of
English) graduate students experienced text-based communication in ways that were
both encouraging and discouraging. These students spent minimal time correcting
their postings for grammar and spelling, perceiving quantity, rather than the quality of
the messages was more likely to influence their course grades. Interestingly, the EFL
students limited their reading to the shorter and simpler postings, preferring to bypass
longer and more complicated ones that would require more decoding. However, it is
important not to assume that more communication is better than less; rather that the
amount should reflect cultural considerations. Collis recommends that a flexible
assortment of tools that can be combined be offered for different communication
configurations. Mechanisms for ensuring anonymity of responses should be a
switchable feature in order to promote respectful and safe learning spaces.
Situated dialogue and higher-order thinking
Lipman (1991) has identified a number of behaviors that promote learner engagement
which lead to higher-ordered thinking. These include questioning, requesting reasons
for beliefs held, demonstrating criteria for judgments made, and cooperation in
developing and applying problem-solving strategies. A supportive learning
environment for the development of higher ordered thinking can be created through
the use of problem-based task design, a space for posting frequently-asked-questions
and threaded discussion forums for posting of responses to learning tasks
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(McLoughlan, 1999). These strategies are particularly relevant to those students for
whom academic success and job market entry is dependent on their ability to grasp the
practical differences between Westernized healthcare practice and those of their
original training. This type of situated dialogue would also provide an opportunity for
students to gain an understanding of their preferred learning style and possibly
observe changes in themselves as they proceed through a course or program of study.
122
Constructive faculty roles and expertise
A key part of the student experience in the online community is to develop expertise in
the multiple zone of knowledge development. An important part of this process is the
application of a range of skills, from computing to conceptualizing abstract ideas, with
an increasing level of confidence and expertise. Teachers can engage students in online
discussion of course content and practice experience, modeling the processes that are
required for academic success. Students are more likely to engage in different learning
modes if techniques such as reflective observation and abstract conceptualization are
evidenced in teacher behavior. Besides the advantage of increased opportunities for
reflection, the teacher has the opportunity to monitor students progress more closely,
perhaps e-mailing students who demonstrate difficulty in participating in discussions.
The importance of this component of the faculty role may be underestimated in
multiple cultures learning environments. A key requirement of licensure through the
demonstration of competent practice in North America is the ability to adopt
westernized styles of learning and health practice (Nelson and Purkis, 2004). Through
faculty modeling, learners are more likely to experience effective professional
socialization. Jonassen et al. (1999) suggest that in order to support problem solving,
faculty function as learning coaches. For example, faculty may model problem solving
by accepting another problem and showing students how to model the solution process
but also to reflect on the reasoning used to solve each step (Jonassen et al., 1999, p. 136).
Matching learning styles and activities
Hayes and Allinson (1996) suggest that matching students learning styles and group
activities has a positive interaction effect thereby improving learning performance.
They further suggest individualizing learning activities to suit the different learning
preferences of trainees. A range of learning activities designed to offer the same
learning content or modifying instructional treatment and visual content to
accommodate a wider range of learning styles within a single learning activity
would be a strategic design feature. Sadler-Smith (1996) acknowledges, however, that
matching may be the educational ideal, since this goal may not be feasible due to
resource or course design constraints. He proposes that a more pragmatic approach
would be to match all learning preferences in a given group of learners to a limited
extent by using a variety of methods or a balance of instructional design features. The
least desirable approach would be a failure to acknowledge that there are different
learning styles and preferences that are inevitably present in any learning group.
Because of concerns about specialized learning needs, such as language training,
many Canadian bridging programs attempt to match students learning needs with
appropriate teaching methods by creating segregated homogenized classes. While this
approach may have its merits in terms of efficient use of resources and students can
identify with others having similar learning styles, this approach may deprive students
the broader opportunity for social integration into Western culture. Deliberate
enhancement of the diversity within multicultural learning groups could be achieved
through strategically creating a tension between mismatching cultural backgrounds,
learners preferences and teaching methods. A multiple cultures model provides a
framework for constructing such a learning environment.
Teachers could create new opportunities for a diverse mix of international students
and local students with similar learning styles to discuss their perceptions of
healthcare experiences, facilitating all students in developing a more global conception
of healthcare services. Similarly, diversity could consist of engaging students in a
variety of learning activities. Either approach would assist students in developing
learning strategies that could improve learning outcomes in a variety of learning
environments (Hayes and Allinson, 1996). Smith (2001) has proposed that there are
benefits to any strategic approach to provide learners with the opportunity to develop
comfort with a wider range of training materials and delivery methods in order to
broaden their repertoire of learning experiences.
Evaluation strategies
Respect for diversity means students with different preferred learning styles and
abilities have a choice in learning methods and course assessments. In
competency-based curricula such as health professional programs, there is a
tendency to emphasize the acquisition of facts and information to the point where other
forms of knowledge are excluded. Applied, experiential and reflective learning needs to
be promoted and developed as well as evaluated. Technology has the capacity to
empower students through increased access to course materials to examine course
materials in a more comprehensive manner. Cook et al. (2003) report that
undergraduate economic students whose first language was not English especially
appreciated the opportunities to access course announcements and instructions in a
written rather than verbal format. Students recommended including different types of
assessments rather than conventional tests and exams, voicing concerns about the lack
of ability of tests and exams to accurately reflect their understanding of certain skills
or concepts learned in the course. More comprehensive approaches to course evaluation
that incorporate both cognitive and experiential learning outcomes are needed.
Policy perspectives
From an instructional perspective, it is essential that there be clear policy, direction and
support of professional distance education if the positive benefits are to be realized.
Smith (2001) concluded that effective systems for the support of instructional designs
that acknowledge and accommodate differences in learning styles and preferences
which are common in multicultural classrooms will most likely require the institution
to provide faculty development or training. Faculty will need guidance and support in
how to identify and adapt to individual styles. Implications for resource allocation and
policy changes need to be considered if successful educational programs are to be
developed.
Cook et al. argue that an institutional action plan with explicit and sustained
commitment of senior administration and academic policies is necessary to ensure
success and provide the best exemplars and prototypes. In other words,
university/college reward structures need to recognize this work as scholarly
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activity. Formal systematic and sustained design support is necessary to the

development of curriculum based on a multiple cultures model of online education. It is
also essential to study and evaluate progress and outcomes to not only improve the
design, but also to provide the information that will retain the support of senior
administration.
Although much has been written about student development, the issue of faculty
development and support has received little attention from the policy perspective. As
more and more educational institutions are adopting distance learning technologies,
the need for faculty to have a thorough understanding of the basic principles of these
technologies increases if they are to design effective teaching environments. An
equally important aspect of faculty development is the necessary shift away from
simply teaching the course content towards a focus whereby faculty enable students
to learn and to respond to differences in learning styles between students (Briggs,
2000). Faculty incentives such as release time, recognition and rewards for creative
innovative learning course designs could be implemented to provide the necessary
motivation to develop new programs.
6. Conclusion
In knowledge-based economies, there is a new emphasis on concepts such as lifelong
learning, widening participation, and inclusive learning. This paradigm shift has
created an added responsibility for educators, as well as their institutions to respond to
the needs of the individual learner as well as the complexities of diverse learning needs
of groups of learners. This responsiveness involves consideration of the applicability
and effectiveness of teaching styles, students learning preferences and learning
situations, as well as industry expectations. As student mobility continues to increase
across educational programs and geographic borders, the need to accommodate
cultural differences in an increasingly heterogeneous study will have to increase
dramatically. For this to occur, institutions and faculty will have to improve their
insight into cultural and learning differences that affect teaching and learning (Collis,
1999).
Learning preferences and styles are inextricably related to cultural background as
well curricular and course design. Culturally sensitive or appropriate online instruction
can be created if designers are aware of the socio-cultural background and learning
styles of their students and if an appropriate instructional paradigm is applied. As
discussed earlier, in health professions education, the current evidence affirms the
presence of distinctive learning styles and preferences within professions. Failure to
acknowledge the presence of changes from one style to another as students progress
through a program, and that differences exist within cultural groups could jeopardize
successful learning.
Sadler-Smith and Smith (2004) suggest that recognizing the preferences of
individual learners or groups of learners can provide essential information useful in
designing instruction that is not only more flexible and engaging but also enables some
insight to preferences that may need to be changed or developed to suit particular
learning tasks or contexts. The proposed solution is the adoption of a multiple cultures
model of design that accommodates plurality of learning styles by incorporating
students preferences as well as communicating a desire to be inclusive. Within
international health professions bridging education, the challenge is to provide locally

relevant, yet culturally inclusive, programming.
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pp. 1259-65.
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learning in asynchronous online courses, Distance Education, Vol. 22 No. 2, pp. 306-31.

Using concept maps to reveal

conceptual typologies
Using concept
maps
David B. Hay
School of Management, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK, and
127
Ian M. Kinchin
Kings Institute of Learning and Teaching, Kings College, London, UK
Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explain and develop a classification of cognitive structures
(or typologies of thought), previously designated as spoke, chain and network thinking by Kinchin
et al.
Design/methodology/approach The paper shows how concept mapping can be used to reveal
these conceptual typologies and endeavours to place the concept-mapping method in the broader
context of learning styles and learning theory.
Findings The findings suggest that spoke structures are indicative of a nave epistemology, or of
learning-readiness; chain structures are indicators of goal-orientation and networks are indicators
of expertise. Furthermore, change that comprises simple elaboration of existing spokes or chains is
likely to be the result of surface learning styles and the emergence of networks indicative of deep
learning. The utility of these different cognitive approaches is discussed.
Research limitations/implications The work is limited by the general lack of empirical testing,
but the approach is presented as an important source of hypotheses for future research.
Practical implications The practical implications of the research are considerable. First, concept
mapping provides a framework for documenting and assessing understanding at novice and
expert levels. Second, where definitive criteria can be developed from the learning styles literature,
cognitive change in the course of learning can be evaluated to distinguish between deep versus surface
or holist versus serialist approaches, for example.
Originality/value The paper is original and comprises a synthetic approach to the study of
learning style and learning theory through the use of the concept-mapping method. It has both
practical and theoretical value because it suggests a new approach and is an important source of
testable hypotheses.
Keywords Cognitive mapping, Learning
Paper type Conceptual paper
1. Introduction
In the last 50 years or so, our understanding of general learning processes and of
individual difference in learning style has advanced considerably. Since the
publication of Kolb and Frys (1975) work on the experiential learning cycle, many
researchers have developed models of learning through processes of reflection,
evaluation, theory generation and practical experimentation. Notably, Honey and
Mumfords (1992) approach to the diagnosis of preferred learning style is now widely
used in both the business and the academic community to assess both the
appropriateness of different approaches to learning support, and to help individuals
develop their abilities as learners. Similarly, Jarvis work on adult learning (e.g. Jarvis,
1992; Jarvis et al., 1998) owes considerable antecedence to Kolb (Figure 1) and is now
Education Training
Vol. 48 No. 2/3, 2006
pp. 127-142
0040-0912
DOI 10.1108/00400910610651764
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Figure 1.
Jarvis model of adult
learning
regarded by some authors as one of the most significant contributions to adult learning
theory in recent years (Gray et al., 2004).
In Jarvis original research, participants from the UK and the USA were invited to
write down details of a learning incident in their lives; stating when it started, how it
progressed and when and why they concluded that it was completed. Pairs of
participants were then asked to discuss their experiences and examine similarities and
differences between them. Participants were then asked to adapt a simplified copy of
Kolbs learning cycle and relate it to their experiences. The exercise was then repeated
and the last phase was to adapt the adaptation produced by the previous round of
participants. The resulting model (Figure 1) was then tested in seminars in the UK, the
USA and Denmark (Jarvis, 1993). The model shows the various routes to learning (or
non-learning) through memorisation, practice, evaluation and reflection. There are two
distinctive characteristics of this model. First learning is about personal change (and
the person) is at the centre of the model. Second, learning can lead to change or to
consolidation of knowledge frameworks without structural or morphological change.
The approach of Jarvis (1993) also has considerable similarity with Knowles (1980)
definition of andragogy, particularly because its implications for teaching imply
emphasis on facilitation of individual learning rather than teacher-centred approaches.
Nevertheless, Jarvis (1987, 1992), does not distinguish reflective and non-reflective
learning according to age (see Jarvis et al., 1998).
A different (but complementary) set of learning style frameworks has also been
developed by workers such as Marton (e.g. Marton et al., 1993; Entwistle and Marton,
1994; Saljo, 1975: Marton and Saljo, 1976), Entwistle (and his co-workers (e.g. Tait and
Entwistle, 1996; Entwistle and Tait, 1990; Entwistle and Ramsden, 1983)) and
Novak (1998). The work of these, and other researchers, is distinct in that it is based not
on learning process but on individuals conceptions of the learning. Thus, for example,
various articles in the co-edited book by Marton et al. (1997) have shown that learners
descriptions of learning can be divided into two broad categories: learning as the
acquisition of knowledge and information; and learning as the development of
understanding and even personal change. In much of the work of Entwistle and
colleagues, these two broad categories of conceptions of learning are equated with
surface and deep learning. Furthermore, Entwistles Learning Style Inventory
(see Tait and Entwistle (1996), for example) aims to identify students who are at risk of
non-learning as a consequence of their (surface) approach.
This theme is developed in the work of Novak (1998), although the terminology used
is different. Here the terms rote and meaningful learning are used to differentiate
between individuals who acquire information without understanding and those who
seek to integrate new knowledge meaningfully in with what is already understood.
Nevertheless, the implications are broadly similar. Novaks approach, however, is
particularly powerful. First, his approach is built on a long-standing and robust theory
of learning process (Ausubels (1963) theory of assimilative learning). Second, the term
meaningful learning is defined in precise and deliberate ways that make it
measurable. Third, Novak has developed and under-pinned his approach with a
specific method (concept mapping) by which learning can be documented and assessed
in terms of meaning development (see below).
Concept mapping
Concept mapping is a graphic organisational technique designed to help individuals
(and groups), explain and explore their knowledge and understanding of a topic. It has
some commonality with some more familiar techniques like spider diagrams and mind
mapping (see Buzan and Buzan, 1993). However, by comparison it is both more tightly
prescribed and more demanding. The rules for concept map construction (see Novak,
1998) are relatively simple:
.
The concepts that an individual deems important in illustrating their personal
understanding of a topic are placed in text-boxes and arranged hierarchically on
a page (so that broad and inclusive concepts are at the top and detail or
illustrative example, at the bottom).
.
Concepts are then linked with arrows that are annotated with linking
statements to explain the nature of the link.
.
Concepts may be listed only once, but any number of links may be made between
any number of concepts at any number of conceptual links
Figure 2 is a concept map designed to illustrate the key features of the concept
mapping method.
In practice, concept mapping is a demanding activity: it is a robust test not only of
knowledge but of understanding. Each pair or linked concepts comprise a discrete
proposition and the validity of each proposition can be examined. Propositions that are
not explained (i.e. concept pairs that lack linking statements) can be dismissed and
links that are invalid (or so trivial as to be meaningless) can be dismissed. The end
result is an explanatory route map illustrating individual knowledge and
understanding for a given topic.
Using concept
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Figure 2.
A concept map of the
concept mapping method
2. Concept mapping and cognitive structure

Since 1998, Kinchin, Hay and various co-workers have been using concept mapping
methods to explore individual understanding of topics in science, engineering, nursing,
teaching, business, enterprise and the arts. This has been done among both adults and
children. Their first major study was based on analysis of maps from among school
children and science undergraduates. That work, showed that there were three basic
cognitive structures common to all subjects (Kinchin et al., 2000), designated chain,
spoke and network structures (Figure 3).
Subsequent work has shown this system of classification to be remarkably robust.
It has been applied to the teaching of university undergraduates studying science
(Kinchin et al., 2005), nurses and midwives (Kinchin and Hay, 2005), engineers (Kinchin
and Alias, 2005), and both teachers and business people.
Concept mapping has considerable utility in learning and teaching. First, concept
maps can be used to enable sharing of understanding between teachers and students
(e.g. Kinchin, 2000a, 2003) and to facilitate group work (Kinchin and Hay, 2005).
Second, the approach enables clear identification of superficial understanding and the
prevalence of misconceptions that appear to hinder learning (e.g. White and Gunstone,
1992; Driver et al., 1994). Third concept mapping is an important tool in lesson
planning, revision and learning about learning (e.g. Kinchin and Alias, 2005; Kinchin
et al., 2000). However, it is the power of concept maps to reveal the structure,
organisation and elaboration of understanding that is their greatest attribute. The
prevalence of chain, spoke and network structures has considerable implication for an
ability to apply and contextualise knowledge and information and for future learning
(see below). Within the literature, there has been some attempt to link variations in
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131
Figure 3.
The chain, spoke and
network classification of
cognitive structure
concept map morphology with learning styles such as holist and serialist (e.g.
Kinchin, 2000b; Huai, 2000), nevertheless, a broad conceptual framework is still lacking
for understanding the elaboration and development of different structures and for
describing switching and change between structures of one type and another. This
is the primary aim of this paper. The theory we describe is tentative in some respects,
but we suggest it as an important source of testable hypotheses for the future
development of this important field.
3. Cognitive structure, development and change
Figure 4 summarises the key differences between spoke, chain and network structures
and their compatibility with development or change (after Kinchin et al., 2000).
Structural development
Observations of structural changes over time within large numbers of concept maps
produced by learners of varying ages have been observed and commented upon, with
speculations about their possible causes and trajectories (Kinchin, 2000c). Chains,
spokes and networks can be developed in meaningful ways without a gross change in
map structure. This is structural development, as opposed to topographical change
through elaboration or re-structure. It is achieved simply by meaningful addition of
new concepts to existing knowledge structures. Since concept addition is simplest in
networks and in chain structures these will be considered first.
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132
Figure 4.
In networks many different concepts can be reached through a variety of routes of

linkage. New knowledge acquisition is facilitated by the availability of numerous
potential linkage sites (Figure 5a).
Similarly, the development of spokes is a simple process, although here, only basal
addition is tenable (Figure 5b). In contrast to networks and spokes, chain development
is impeded by the underlying cognitive structure. Since concepts are linked
sequentially, only terminal concept addition can occur if the gross map structure is to
be preserved (Figure 5c). In chain structures, introduction and linkage of a new concept
at any stage prior to the chain terminus is likely to cause concept loss or restructure of
the overall map (see the section Structural change, below).
Structural elaboration
Simple addition of new concepts to existing structures can also lead to the gradual
emergence of cognitive structures of increasing complexity and of different types.
Networks can arise from chains and either chains or nets can arise from spokes. This
can be facilitated by addition of new concepts, addition of new links, or both. It is a
process of elaboration and requires little change.
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Figure 5.
Development of
conceptual networks,
spokes and chains
The systematic elaboration of spokes into chains is relatively commonplace and is

probably enhanced by the sequential nature of most classroom-based lesson plans and
instructional approaches (see Kinchin (2000c) for a detailed discussion). Elaboration
from chains to nets, however, is rare. The sequence-based structure of chains is a
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considerable barrier to the development of the cross-links that characterise networks.

Chains usually prescribe specific and temporal statements about cause and effect and
inhibit interdependent and non-sequential understanding. Networks do arise from
individuals spokes and chains maps (over time) but usually only after considerable
structural change (not elaboration). Here, the spoke is commonly the transitional phase
between chains and networks (see below).
134
Structural change
Structural change involves a measurable shift from one cognitive typology to another.
This may be temporary or more long lasting. It is a key step in the learning process and
it is best illustrated by learning among chain thinkers. In chain structures, new
concepts that are introduced to the base of the sequence commonly cause structural
collapse. This is because so many of the previously held concepts become untenable (or
intractable in the sequence progression). Such cognitive conflict has provided the
backbone of innovative programmes such as CASE (Adey et al., 2004), which have
endeavoured to promote higher order thinking skills among students. The chain
structure is then either radically shortened or abandoned in favour of the spoke (at
least temporarily). This is exemplified in Figure 6.
Network structures too, that are radically challenged by new concept addition or
linkage, collapse to simple spokes (prior to further re-organisation and network
development). This constitutes a major shift in view and it is often radical in nature.
Networks are by necessity, well-developed and robust models of understanding. They
are resistant to structural change because they can accommodate development and
elaboration well. Furthermore networks may constitute mechanisms of knowledge
compartmentalisation allowing potentially conflicting propositions to coexist (see
below). When radical re-structure of networks does occur it is usually the result of
Figure 6.
Chains collapse to simple
spokes to avoid concept
loss
prolonged reflection and evaluation and is synonymous with the deepest descriptions
of deep learning (learning as personal change (Marton et al. 1997)). Network collapse
and subsequent re-emergence constitutes the discovery and incorporation of
significant new insights.
Wherever structural change occurs, however, it inevitably comprises a difficult
learning process. One that involves transition states in which all concepts and links are
carefully re-examined and tested (see for example, Kinchin, 2000c). It is this period of
deliberation that is perhaps the hall-mark of deep learning. The process is
illustrated in Figure 7.
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4. Cognitive switching and hidden cognitive structures

Concept mapping is a method which can be used to reveal existing knowledge
structures, but, like any other research tool designed to reveal personal meaning and
understanding, it can also hide them. Individuals can retain a series of alternative
cognitive chains that they deem (rightly, or wrongly) appropriate to different contexts
and situations. Concept mapping may sometimes fail to reveal competing cognitive
structures. This is linked to the motivation for creating the map (intrinsic or extrinsic),
and may be driven by teacher-pleasing behaviours (i.e. an attempt to guess the
response that is sought by the teacher or manager).
Moving between alternative cognitive structures (of the same or different
typologies) constitutes conceptual switching and it is likely to be a (relatively) common
phenomenon. In addition, networks can sometimes belie hidden or underlying
networks (hidden structures). These issues are explored below. This does not
Figure 7.
Processes of structural
change
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compromise the validity of the concept mapping approach: all qualitative methods
must deal with possible discrepancies between replete exposition of knowledge and
understanding, and expressed opinion or behaviour (i.e. the role of emotions and
intentions (see Sinatra and Pintrich, 2003)). Furthermore, the addition of concept
mapping methods to more traditional tests (such as examination, practical testing and
interview techniques), is likely to add richness to these intractable issues. This is an
important priority for future research.
Cognitive switching
What is known and understood in one context (i.e. in the classroom) is used and
espoused differently in other contexts (the home). Figure 8 is a caricature of one of
many such situations commonly documented in educational research, in which the
Figure 8.
Alternative cognitive
expositions
domestic use of the term plant food comes into direct conflict with the scientifically
accepted views of plant nutrition and photosynthesis. Both frameworks have their
utility, and the student may be able to switch between these ideas depending on the
context (Kinchin, 2000b).
Switching from one exposition to another may be intentional. Indeed, it may often
be a desirable strategy designed to promulgate favourable reception of partial
information in a specific context or to ensure the retention of control through limited
disclosure. Nevertheless, it is often more deeply-rooted than this, and can reflect real
and problematic contradictions in conceptual understanding. Compartmentalisation
(separating different and contradictory preposition sets in discrete chain structures) is
a mechanism by which these contradictions are kept hidden. It is persistent as long as
the conflict is kept from becoming too apparent and is likely to be a persistent barrier
to learning anything but chain development. Well-documented examples of such
contradictory conceptual frameworks are extant in the educational literature. Driver,
for example, has repeatedly reported such issues in the schools science literature (e.g.
Driver et al., 1994). In the business literature too, examples are common.
Compartmentalisation is the antithesis of evaluation and reflection (on what is
known) and inhibits either elaboration or change in cognitive structure.
Hidden structures
Switching between one conceptual framework and another is indicative of an
underlying cognitive structure that is more complex than that first revealed and may
represent a particular case of expertise. Even where hidden structures comprise
compartmentalised concepts and propositions that conflict with espoused views, they
may represent a richness of knowledge and understanding that should not be
dismissed. When hidden structures are intentionally disguised or omitted because of
tacit understanding of correctness in a given situation they may be deemed
advantageous when set against assessment strategies that reward this. Where they are
distinct barriers to further development and learning it would be prudent for them to
be identified. Again this is an important theme for future research.
5. Cognitive structures in practice and in learning
The chain and network models of cognition represent distinct modes (or typologies) of
thought (whether ever they are to be located on the continuum between fixed styles
and adaptive strategies). It is therefore important to consider their utility in different
practice situations and learning environments. This we do below as an exercise in
conjecture. We emphasise that experimental tests (or even correlation studies) of spoke
chain and network structures and performance in different operational contexts (of
either application or learning) have not been done in order to establish correlations
with preferred learning styles. We offer, what seems to us a series of tentative (but we
hope, logically justified) hypotheses and once more suggest that this is likely to prove a
rewarding area of research in the future.
Expert networks
Networks are synonymous with the expert view (see Dreyfus and Dreyfus, 1982).
They constitute a rich body of knowledge in which complex understanding is
demonstrated by linkage across a variety of concepts at different levels of hierarchy.
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The network thinking structure is a robust and adaptable cognitive typology since a
variety of concepts can be reached through different but related routes of thought.
Concepts can be added through development and elaboration without gross structural
reorganisation. Learning is also enhanced among network thinkers because
redundant concepts can be deleted without loss of cognitive integrity. Network
thinking is indicative of flexibility, creativity and ability to learn. Nevertheless,
network thinking is also likely to have its drawbacks. In some situations it is possible
that network thinkers are impeded by the very richness and complexity of their
understanding. The blind-stab-in the-dark that results in unprecedented discovery or
the serendipitous event that breaks-new ground may not always be the providence of
network thinkers. Indeed they may be disadvantaged in these areas. The very
robustness and coherence of their prior understanding makes conceptual change
(collapse and re-structure) less likely than it is for those who think in chains.
Furthermore learning through reflection and evaluation may be enhanced, but the
development of new theory and learning through practical experiment is likely to be
impeded for the exact same reasons. We do not suggest that networks cannot do these
things. In fact when they do, they probably do so better than any other. Nevertheless,
the deliberate re-examination of what is already known is likely to be a considerable
task.
Chains of achievement
In contrast to network thinking structures, chains, are likely to be indicative of
achievement, drive and goal directed behaviour. Chains do not emphasis linkage and
richness but tend to move through the available information from start to finish as
quickly as possible. Where conceptual progression is a priority the simplicity of chains
may be an advantage. Nevertheless, chain thinking is susceptible to conceptual
collapse and chains are often poorly translated in different situations and contexts.
Chain thinking must be applied in situations and contexts that are always the same
(the one in which the working chain has been developed) otherwise collapse is
inevitable. Only an ability to switch between different (and perhaps contradictory)
chains will allow chain thinking to persist in an environment that is at least moderately
unpredictable. Successful chain thinkers may be those who disguise hidden networks
for the purposes of simplicity and directness (or for other intentional or covert
motivations).
Commonly, however, chain thinking is likely to reflect prior-learning that has been
achieved superficially, to maximise expediency or even with intentional neglect of
information. Its advantage is that it is unencumbered by complexity but its
disadvantage is lack of applicability. Among chain thinkers, flexibility is not gained by
the cognitive structure itself but by the persistence of a variety and alternative
structures that can be retrieved and utilised in different contexts and situations. In this
case entirely contradictory concepts and concept links might persist because they have
different utilities. On the one hand, chain thinking may be indicative of early closure
of previous learning episodes, on the other it may be a practical and expedient means of
translating goals into achievement. The tendency to describe linear chains while
disguising more complex and alternative chains (or networks) may be a distinctive
characteristic of successful entrepreneurs.
Spoke structures
Spoke thinking is indicative of superficial and undeveloped knowledge of a subject.
The author of a spoke map knows that a variety of concepts is important in a
particular topic, but can not explain how or why. However spoke maps also suggests
learning in progress (or learning readiness). Both chains and networks are likely to
collapse after serious conceptual challenge (chains more so than nets), but the spoke is
the precursor for future conceptual development and elaboration. Spoke thinking
should not be dismissed and it is probably an important signal for teachers (and others
who support learning and development) that care, tact and engagement will promote
learning change.
6. Concept mapping and the broader study of learning styles
A better understanding of the ways in which people learn is a clear goal of educational
research. That people learn differently is intuitive and that people conceive of learning
in different ways is phenomenologically demonstrable (see Saljo, 1975; Marton and
Saljo, 1976; Marton et al., 1993; Entwistle, 1990). Furthermore, there is now a
considerable body of empirical research data to suggest that individual approaches to
learning can have considerable impact on the outcomes they achieve (e.g. Entwistle
and Tait, 1990) and that the assessment of learning style may be a useful means of
identifying students at risk as a consequence of their approach (e.g. Entwistle, 1990;
Entwistle and Marton, 1994). Nevertheless, the literature that reports the evaluation of
learning style assessment is mixed and often overtly critical (see for example, Garner,
2000; Coffield et al., 2004a, b). This is largely because the field lacks a broad theoretical
underpinning that is explanatory for the discipline as a whole (Sternberg, 2001; Coffield
et al., 2004a, b) and tangible evidence for change that can be defined in terms of
recognisable styles is lacking.
Concept mapping has the potential to address these criticisms in several important
ways. First, the method allows learning to be reduced to discrete and observable
phenomena that are tangible measures of learning over time. Second, changes that
occur in the course of learning can be assessed in the context of defined criteria that
may be derived from the learning style literature. Hay, for example, has used the deep
versus surface distinction (that is the basis of Entwistles (1990) Learning Style
Inventory to distinguish between the grasp of meaning and the acquisition of
additional knowledge by rote. This provides an important bridge between the
diagnosis of style and learning outcomes. Third cognitive change may be assessed for
direct evidence of different learning styles and approaches.
A number of researchers have explored the teaching and learning process as a
conversation (see for example, Laurillard, 1993; Pask, 1976). This approach was
formalised by Pask (1976) in his conversation theory and the approach is commonly
underpinned by the mapping of nested conversational frameworks between teacher
and student. However, the maps produced in these studies are rarely concept maps in
the way that Novak (1998) defines them; they do not comprise labelled links that build
concepts into sets of verifiable propositions. Concept mapping (see Novak, 1998) is
likely to be a powerful addition to the further development of this line of enquiry and
theory generation. Novaks (1998) approach to concept mapping is precise and highly
defined; concepts must be linked together with explanatory statements (to form
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propositions), and the validity or explanatory power of these linking statements can
therefore be assessed.
7. Conclusion
In this paper we have placed the concept-mapping approach in the broader context of
learning style and learning theory. We have explored and developed the concept
mapping method for the identification and classification of thinking typologies. We
suggest that networks are often hidden and belie an apparent tendency to think in
chains. Overall, the network structure is a robust and adaptable cognitive typology
because redundant concepts can be deleted without loss of cognitive integrity while
new concepts can be added at many places in an over-arching cognitive hierarchy.
Nevertheless, network thinking has its drawbacks. It is complex and best suited to
reflective deliberation rather than action. Although it is an adaptable strategy, network
thinking is also highly resistant to radical re-structure and change (i.e. it develops
slowly). Network thinking is probably synonymous with approaches to learning that
are either deep (see Entwistle, 1990), or holist (see Pask, 1976) and take time to change
because of the radical re-organisation of knowledge and information that is required.
Chain thinking, on the other hand, leads to achievement, drive and goal-directed
behaviour. Chain thinking is vulnerable to collapse and is often poorly translated in
different situations and contexts. It can only persist if alternative conceptual chains are
simultaneously retained and conceptual switching strategies are used to accommodate
different situations and structures. Chain thinking has considerable utility in practical
situations. Nevertheless, an ability to retain complex networks in an underlying
structure while moving quickly to prescriptive chains is likely to be the hall mark of
the successful manager and leader. This is a strategy that retains the attributes of both
structures and promotes control through the limited and selective disclosure of
information. In our view concept mapping is a powerful approach for the study of
learning and learning style and we suggest that analysis of gross cognitive structure is
likely to generate considerable insight in the future. In particular, future work should
be done to integrate concept mapping methodologies with other research techniques
(empirical analysis of exam and test results, detailed and probing interviews and the
variety of learning style inventories that are now available). Longitudinal studies
tracking change in cognitive structure and testing our theories of cognitive switching,
hidden structures and cognitive utility are desirable. Some of our assertions may prove
invalid, but we are convinced that the field will be advanced.
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Constructing and maintaining an

effective hypertext-based
learning environment
Web-based learning and cognitive style
Web-based
learning
143
Martin Graff
Department of Psychology and Education, University of Glamorgan,
Pontypridd, UK
Abstract
Purpose This paper aims to review the literature on the utility of employing the construct of
cognitive style in understanding behaviour in web-based learning environments.
Design/methodology/approach The paper initially examines whether the web architecture may
be matched to an individuals cognitive style in order to facilitate learning, before progressing to
assess whether different architectures influence a web users internal representations of web-based
learning systems, as measured by concept map drawings. Other issues explored are users web
navigation and users sense of learning community when receiving instruction via web-based learning
environments.
Findings The studies reviewed indicate that cognitive style is a pertinent factor for consideration
when assessing the success with which users engage with web-based learning systems.
Research limitations/implications Some of the studies reviewed here are small-scale and
caution is urged in generalising the findings.
Practical implications In terms of the practical implications, however, it is suggested that
web-based systems should be designed with consideration to individual differences in user
characteristics, as this is related to the success with which users learn, navigate and interact socially in
an online environment. However, it is concluded that more research is required in order to produce
general rules relating cognitive style to the use of web-based learning systems.
Originality/value The findings from the numerous studies on the implications of considering the
function of individual differences in using web-based learning are notable and useful in the context of
web-based instruction.
Keywords Learning styles, Cognitive mapping, Data handling, Worldwide web, Architecture,
Navigation
1. Background
Web-based learning environments are constructed from a system known as hypertext
from which there are various historical derivations. For example the Memex system
developed by Bush (1945), Randall Triggs NoteCard system (Trigg, 1983; Halasz et al.,
1987) and Doug Englebarts oN Line System (NLS). The revolutionary point about
hypertext is that it brings something extra to the learning situation in the way of
providing an explicit structure to the material to be learned, which should theoretically
be advantageous to the learner. Computerised hypertext may be considered to be a
user-driven medium, where individuals feel a necessity to move actively around the
system. In other words, individuals want to feel that they are active when using
computer-based hypertext. This viewpoint is supported by Landow (1992), who
Education Training
Vol. 48 No. 2/3, 2006
pp. 143-155
0040-0912
DOI 10.1108/00400910610651773
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suggests that learners in a hypertext environment are active by choosing which links
to follow. He quotes Jonassen and Grabinger (1990, quoted in Landow, 1992, p. 121),
who stated that hypermedia users must be mentally active while interacting with the
information. Therefore it is important to analyse and synthesise the results from
individual studies examining the relationship between hypertext architecture and
learning in order to design effective web-based learning environments. This is one of
the aims of the paper.
2. Hypertext architecture and learning
Mohageg (1992) looked at question answering performance using three hypertext
architectures, namely:
(1) hierarchical, where the information was arranged so that superordinate pages
were linked to lower order pages;
(2) network, where one page may be connected to any other page to form a complex
structure with many links; and
(3) mixed, which was a combination of the two other structures.
Mohageg found that performance was poorest in the network condition, however he
found no performance differences between the mixed and hierarchical conditions. The
mixed hypertext condition contained more links than the other conditions, which may
have had the effect of increasing performance in this condition. The results provide
support for the facilitative instructional effects of a mixed hypertext architecture in
computer-based learning. In a further study assessing the benefits of learning from
hypertext, McDonald and Stevenson (1998) employed 30 undergraduate and
postgraduate students and three hypertext architectures: hierarchical, non-linear
(which was where the nodes were connected to form a network based on a large
number of links) and mixed (which was hierarchical with lateral links). Participants
read the hypertext document and then used it to answer ten questions. They found that
participants in the mixed condition found the information quicker than those in each of
the other two conditions. The result is explained in terms of the mixed hypertext
condition facilitating the ease with which participants grasped the conceptual
structure of the material.
Findings from the above studies suggest that a mixed hypertext architecture would
appear to be the most effective way of structuring learning material. However, no
consideration was given in the above studies to individual differences between users in
the ways in which they engaged with the hypertext. One relevant individual difference
factor that may potentially have an important influence on the way in which users
learn from hypertext is cognitive style.
Cognitive style, hypertext and learning
Cognitive style refers broadly to the way in which people process information, for
example how they perceive, remember and use information from their surrounding
environment. There are numerous models of cognitive style, many of which define
style as opposite extremes of a particular dimension, for example reflective-impulsive
(Kagan et al., 1964), convergent-divergent (Guildford, 1959), leveller-sharpener
(Holzman and Klein, 1954) and serialist-holist (Pask, 1972). However, one of the most
extensively used models of cognitive style is that referred to as field
dependent-independent, which developed from the work of Herman Witkin in the late
1940s (Witkin and Goodenough, 1979). This model of cognitive style suggests that
people perceive entities either in discrete units (field independent approach) or as
complete wholes (field dependent approach). Subsequent evidence suggested that
differences in learning strategies are apparent between field independent (FI) and field
dependent (FD) individuals (Witkin et al., 1977). This is because FI individuals have the
ability to impose or extract structure from material to be learned, whereas FDs must
rely on external information to organise information. Accordingly then it is likely that
a highly structured hypertext instructional architecture would provide an
organisational aid to learning that would benefit FD individuals. In contrast, a less
structured environment, where organisation would need to be provided by the learner
would be less facilitative to FDs. FIs on the other hand would be able to learn from less
structured environments due to the manner in which they organise information
internally. In summary then it would be expected that instructional methods involving
greater structure or organisation should be more beneficial to FD individuals, and less
important for FI individuals. However, the evidence does not fully support this
reasoning.
For example, Lin and Davidson-Shivers (1996) investigated the effect of hypertext
architecture and cognitive style as measured by the Group Embedded Figures Test
(GEFT) on recall of verbal information with 139 undergraduate college students. Five
hypertext architectures were used, which corresponded to linear, hierarchical,
hierarchical-associative, associative and random. All hypertext architectures featured
the same informational content. Overall, their results showed that students with higher
scores on the GEFT and labelled as field-independent, outperformed those with lower
scores, labelled as field-dependent. They also found that the FI students had more
favourable attitudes to using hypertext than FD students. Furthermore, they observed
that hypertext architecture did not influence performance. Lin and Davidson-Shivers
(1996) explain the effects of cognitive style in terms of FI individuals being more
self-motivated and having greater expectations of achievement. A further study by
Korthauer and Koubek (1994) looked at the difference between 40 FD and FI
participants ability to answer questions following a session of hypertext browsing.
They found that FD participants who were experienced in the subject matter of the
hypertext document performed less well than experienced FI participants. They
account for these findings by suggesting that the existing knowledge of the
experienced FD participants and the way in which these individuals represented this
knowledge internally conflicted with the explicitly structured hypertext.
However, tests of disembedding figures have been found to be correlated with
standard tests of spatial ability (McKenna, 1984, 1990). Therefore it is possible that the
superior performance of FI individuals in the studies of Lin and Davidson-Shivers, and
Korthauer and Koubek may be more a function of differences in spatial ability rather
than individual differences in the strategies individuals employ for organising
information. Accordingly, there is a need to test learning from hypertext employing a
cognitive style measure that is independent of individual attitudes to computer-based
delivery and independent also of spatial ability.
Self-report measures of style and learning from hypertext
Melara (1996) used Kolbs (1976) Learning Style Inventory to assess learning style and
related this to a task delivered via hypertext. A total of 40 participants who were
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students in computer science, engineering or mathematics were employed in the study.

The learning styles of the participants were assessed, and each participant was
classified as possessing an active or reflective style. Participants were then randomly
assigned to one of two hypertext conditions corresponding to a hierarchical
architecture or a network architecture. The network structure was described as one
which linked together related concepts to form a web. Participants were required to
answer ten questions on the information included in the hypertext. Melara found no
difference in performance between participants of different learning styles in either
hypertext condition. However, the results were approaching significance (p 0:06),
with superior performance from participants in the hierarchical condition. In addition,
individuals with both learning styles, activist and reflective, displayed superior
performance when using the hierarchical structure. Melara suggests that the results
indicate a consistent difference between the two structures, and that learning style
made no difference. However, it is important to note that participants in the
hierarchical condition took significantly longer to complete the task than those using
the network structure, which is a possible explanation for the superior performance of
participants in this condition.
The studies cited so far have sought to measure learning by using tests of simple
recall of information. Recall is synonymous with knowledge or comprehension at the
lower levels of Blooms (1968) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, and it could be
argued that this does not reveal whether learning has occurred on a deeper level, which
would involve an understanding of the structure of interrelationships between
concepts and procedures in a particular domain, and how they are organised into a
unified body of knowledge. Accordingly, an assessment of an individuals
understanding of how the information contained within a hypertext document may
be combined into a unified whole is required in order to test learning at a deeper level.
3. Learning assessed by description
Shapiro (1998) used an essay test in an attempt to investigate how effectively learners
had gained an overall understanding of the structure of the information in a hypertext.
This investigation employed three hypertext architectures conforming to: hierarchical,
with some lateral links; unstructured, which provided the same links and documents as
the hierarchical condition, but with no explicit information about the hypertext
structure; and linear, where there was no inter-connectivity between the pages apart
from those which were next to each other, rather like a book. The 72 participants
employed were instructed to write an essay that required them to integrate the material
from the hypertext. The essays were rated on four criteria:
(1) integration of the material in the essay;
(2) how well the participant understood the topic about which they were writing;
(3) the clarity of the participants essay; and
(4) the overall quality of the essay.
Shapiro found that on all criteria, participants in the unstructured hypertext condition
scored higher than those in the hierarchical and linear conditions. Shapiro interpreted
this finding by arguing that the lack of explicit information in the unstructured
condition required a deeper level of processing of the information in order for
participants to understand it, which resulted in a higher level of performance.
Graff (2003a) investigated whether different hypertext architectures could be

matched to an individuals cognitive style in order to facilitate learning as measured by
essay questions. Three hypertext architectures were employed, which were linear,
hierarchical and relational. Each architecture condition represented the way in which
the information in the hypertext was arranged. In the linear condition, one piece of
information followed another; in the hierarchical condition, superordinate pieces of
information were provided before more detailed information; whereas in the relational
condition, users of the hypertext could move freely between pieces of information,
which were conceptually related. Cognitive style was assessed using the Cognitive
Styles Analysis (Riding, 1991), and essay scores were measured by number of words
and amount of detail included. The findings revealed that in the relational architecture
condition, intermediates (i.e. individuals between wholist and analytic) obtained
superior scores, whereas in the hierarchical condition, bimodals (i.e. individuals
between imager and verbaliser) obtained superior scores. The findings were explained
not in terms of ease of use of the hypertext, but rather by specific architectures being
more suited to the cognitive styles of particular users.
To conclude this section briefly, the findings would appear to suggest that a
consideration of cognitive style is pertinent to the design of hypertext learning
environments. However, what is evident is that the findings are derived from an array
of cognitive style measures, and evidently more research is needed here with a view to
unifying the study of cognitive style research and hypertext-based learning.
Nevertheless, the findings reported above reveal that a consideration of cognitive
style is important for simple learning, such as recalling information, and for essay
writing tasks. However, also worthy of consideration is the application of cognitive
style testing to more complex cognitive tasks within hypertext.
4. Concept mapping of hypertext
Concept mapping is a technique whereby individuals are required to reproduce
diagramatically the relationship between the concepts belonging to a particular subject
domain. The technique was developed by Joseph Novak at Cornell University in the
1960s, and is appropriate as a means of testing a users understanding of hypertext.
Shapiro (1998 (described above)), compared the performance of participants in three
hypertext architectures on a concept mapping task. She asked participants to freely
recall the structure of the hypertext on paper and used a measure of link density, which
was derived by dividing the total number of links in each concept map by the total
number of nodes, in order to assess the complexity of the participants
conceptualisation of the material. Shapiro found no significant effect of hypertext
architecture on concept map link density. Further analysis to try to assess the amount
of detail present in each map revealed that participants in the linear condition recalled
less detail than those in the other hierarchical and unstructured conditions. This was
explained by the fact that participants in the two non-linear conditions visited the same
pages in the hypertext many more times than those in the linear condition, thus mere
exposure to the information may have caused the differences in amount of detail
recalled. Finally, Shapiro also reported that the presence of system links affected
participants internal representations of the hypertext, in that participants who were
exposed to the hierarchical and unstructured conditions produced concept maps that
largely reflected the system links in each of these structures. A slightly different
finding to this was reported by McNamara et al. (1989), who observed that when
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producing maps of the environments in which they had worked, individuals

representations tended to be hierarchical in form even when the environment had no
predefined hierarchy. McNamara et al. (1989) account for this by proposing that certain
types of information tend to be organised hierarchically by individuals in order to
facilitate efficient recall.
It is also conceivable that cognitive style may account for differences in the types of
concept maps produced by learners, and this issue was investigated by Graff (2002a,
2005a). In one study 55 participants were assigned to one of three hypertext conditions
(linear, hierarchical and relational, described above) and were required to recall
information and produce maps of the hypertext (Graff, 2005a). Cognitive style was
assessed using the analysis-intuition dimension of cognitive style (Allinson and
Hayes, 1996). The findings confirmed earlier research that individuals possessing
different cognitive styles differed in recall performance when using different
hypertexts. Those with an analyst style scored highest in the hierarchical condition,
intermediates scored highest in the relational condition and intuitives scored highest in
the linear condition. For assessment of concept map density, (the degree to which users
are able to integrate the concepts in the hypertext), participants in the hierarchical
architecture condition produced the least dense maps with little difference between the
relational and linear architectures. The higher density scores produced by participants
in the relational architecture was explained by the fact that the intricate relational
architecture encouraged participants to produce dense maps purely because of the
impression that this architecture gave them. This finding differs from that of Shapiro
(1998) who found no difference in density scores between participants performing in
different architectures. No significant effects were observed for cognitive style;
however, the greatest variation in density scores between conditions occurred for the
intermediates, with little variation for the analytics and intuitives. Assessments of
complexity (the degree of representation of map breadth) revealed that participants
performing in the relational architecture produced the most complex maps, followed by
those in the linear condition, with those in the hierarchical condition producing the
least complex maps. The findings here are explained partly as being due to differences
between individuals perceived ease of use of the hypertext. In conclusion, the findings
from the studies cited above suggest that awareness of an individuals cognitive style
has utility also for predicting success at more cognitively complex tasks within a
hypertext environment.
5. Segmentation of hypertext
In terms of the design of hypertext, one further question to address is the degree to
which the hypertext should be segmented. The issues of the degree of segmentation
which is appropriate to apply in a web structure and whether the provision of an
overview is appropriate have been addressed by Dee-Lucas and Larkin (1995) who
found that providing an overview makes a hypertext easier to use, directing readers
to different aspects of the system. However, again it is feasible that the degree to
which segmentation of a hypertext and provision of guidance is beneficial may be
contingent on an individuals cognitive style. Graff (2003c) employed 50 participants
who were assigned to one of two web-based instructional systems on the subject of
psychological ethics. The information in one system was more segmented than the
other, and half the participants were given an overview of the system and half were
not. Following a period of time using the system participants were requested to
answer questions. The findings here suggest that cognitive style and segmentation
had an effect on learning from the system, with analytics showing superior learning
performance in the less segmented condition, whereas wholists showed superior
learning performance in the more segmented condition. However, the provision of the
overview of the system had no effect; a similar finding to this was observed by Graff
and Byrne (2002).
Further information on an individuals ability to apprehend effectively the structure
of a hypertext document may be derived from an analysis of the way in which he/she
navigates hypertext. It is likely that the route followed through an environment,
physical or virtual, will influence an individuals internal or mental representation of
that space. Maglio and Matlock (1999) reported that the way people navigate hypertext
has implications for the way in which they think about it. Using data from interviews
with participants, they argue that people think of hypertext as a kind of physical space
in which they move, and see it in terms of a cognitive map. They remember only a few
places they visit, but they remember landmarks and routes and they also remember
key information. They also rely on personal routines when trying to find information.
As with maps of physical space, personal routines correspond to the routes that
individuals use to get from one point to another. The suggestion is that navigation will
influence an individuals internal representation of the hypertext. The following
section examines first, the types of hypertext navigational strategies that have been
identified in the literature, and then assesses how these relate to cognitive style.
6. Hypertext navigation
Numerous distinctions have been made between the terms navigation and
browsing with regard to using hypertext (Batley, 1989; Hammond and Allinson,
1988; Hildreth, 1982), and it is important to distinguish between these terms. The broad
differentiation would appear to be that browsing is considered a more casual
non-goal-related task, whereas navigating is considered as targeted towards some
distinct end goal. Both are characterised by the manner in which an individual moves
around the hypertext system, and it is this style of movement that is of interest in the
present review.
Navigational strategies
This review continues with an analysis of the types of navigational strategies that
have been identified and classified in the literature. For example, in their research into
the way in which users navigate through a hypertext document, Batra et al. (1993)
noted differences in navigational behaviour according to hypertext architecture. They
used two architectures, which were hierarchical and hypertorus (nodes are arranged in
a rectangular pattern), and the effect of each architecture on participants ability to
answer ten questions, the answers to which were located within the hypertext. Their
findings suggest that the hypertorus structure fostered more exploratory browsing,
but participants found it significantly easier to locate information using the
hierarchical structure. Batra et al. (1993) explain the results in terms of the differences
in the number of links in each hypertext architecture, which motivated different
browsing strategies.
Canter et al. (1985) classified navigational strategies in terms of the functions each
serves when a user engages with hypertext. They devised a series of indices for the
navigational routes chosen by users:
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pathiness, where users follow long linear paths;

loopiness, where users navigate in circles around the document;
ringiness, which are small loops or circles; and
spikeness, where users follow paths to dead ends.
They also looked at the number of nodes and pages users visited, and the ratio of the
number of different pages visited to the total number visited. Using this information,
they derived five discernible navigational strategies: scanning (covering a large area
without depth), browsing (following a path until a goal is reached), searching (striving
to find an explicit goal), exploring (finding out the extent of the information system)
and wandering (purposeless and unstructured globe-trotting). Canter et al. (1985)
further concluded that each of these strategies, except for the last, has an appropriate
function in navigating hypertext. Scanning and exploring are used to get an overview
of an application. Browsing is following a train of thoughts, and searching is following
to a dead end. Other investigations of navigational strategies include an analysis of
search strategies, (Hill and Hannafin, 1997) and also time spent navigating through
selected pages (Korthauer and Koubek, 1994). The above studies provide useful
classifications of navigational behaviour, although a consideration of cognitive style
and how this could influence navigational behaviour would also seem appropriate.
Studies that have examined navigational behaviour according to cognitive style
differences are examined in the following section.
Cognitive style and hypertext navigation
One study which examined this issue was undertaken by Ellis et al. (1992), who looked
at individual differences in cognitive style and hypertext navigational behaviour. They
tested students using a Study Preference Questionnaire (SPQ) a non-standardised test
developed by the authors to assess holist and serialist study strategies. Navigation
tools were provided for using the hypertext document in this study which were:
.
a self-orienting global concept map;
.
keyword index menus; and
.
a backtracking facility.
The subject matter of the hypertext document was the European Single Market. A total
of 40 postgraduate students were assigned the task of using the system to answer a
number of questions requiring first, specific factual recall and, second, generalisation
using information from more than one location in the hypertext. It was found that
participants with a holist strategy made use of a map whereas participants with a
serialist strategy made use of an index. A further study by Chen and Ford (1998) tested
20 postgraduate students who learned from a hypertext system designed to give an
introduction to the field of artificial intelligence In this study cognitive style was tested
using the Cognitive Styles Analysis (Riding, 1991). It was found that wholists made use
of the main menu for navigation, whereas analytics made more use of the previous or
next buttons on the browser software. However, it is possible that the sample size
was too small to generalise navigational tendencies to either style. Furthermore, both
of the above studies provided the user with a variety of navigational aids, and therefore
tell us more about the users selection of such aids rather than the navigational
strategies employed by users with different cognitive styles.
Two further studies addressing the issue of a relationship between cognitive style
and browsing strategy are worthy of note. Stanton and Stammers (1990) employed 60
participants who used a structured hypertext architecture and completed the
Embedded Figures Test in order to assess their cognitive styles. Results indicated
that FD participants tended to use bottom-up navigational strategies, progressing
from the more basic information upwards, whereas FI participants tended to use
top-down strategies, which meant that they looked at the most important information
first. This is consistent with the notion that FI individuals who are able to apprehend
the structure on the hypertext use a top-down strategy, while FD individuals who
characteristically approach tasks more sequentially use a bottom-up strategy. It was
also reported that the FI individuals viewed fewer pages than the FD individuals.
Stanton and Stammers explained this by suggesting that FI individuals use top-down
strategies so that they can make greater inferences about the content of the lower
order pages. Verheoj et al. (1996) used the Dutch Inventory of Learning Styles
developed by Vermunt and Van Rijswijk (1987) that identifies individuals as deep or
surface processors. The study involved asking participants to search for information
within a hypertext environment. Verheoj et al. (1996) found that there were
differences in strategy between the two learning styles, with the individuals identified
as deep processors adopting a global strategy to navigate through the text, while
surface processors adopted a more step-by-step approach. However, a major problem
with this type of self-report instrument is its reliance on retrospectively reported
information.
Graff (2002b, 2005b) investigated differences in web browsing strategies between
individuals displaying verbaliser and imager cognitive styles. Graff (2005b) employed
58 participants who were allowed ten minutes to read information in either a
hierarchical or relational hypertext with the expectation of answering questions on this
information. Browsing strategies were assessed firstly by using three indices of
browsing patterns, (number of pages visited, proportion of pages visited and pages
revisited) and secondly by analysing assessments of browsing strategies given by
independent judges. Cognitive style was assessed using the Cognitive Styles Analysis
(Riding, 1991), which revealed the extent to which participants possessed an imager or
verbaliser cognitive style. Differences were found between imagers and verbalisers for
the indices of browsing patterns, with verbalisers visiting more pages in the
hierarchical architecture and imagers visiting more pages in the relational architecture.
However, no differences were observed between verbalisers and imagers for the
independent judges ratings of browsing strategy. The evidence cited above is
encouraging in as much as they appear to illustrate that distinctive hypertext
navigational strategies are identifiable, and furthermore that such strategies are
related to various cognitive style models. The ability to predict how an individual may
navigate a hpertext learning system is of paramount importance to the overall design
of such systems.
7. Social behaviour and sense of online community
Finally it must be noted that using hypertext for learning is now seen as a more
dynamic activity, with learners engaging more actively with such systems, and
communicating with each other online. One concept which describes this
interactive behaviour is referred to as sense of community which more precisely
may be described as the sense of trust and interaction between groups of learners.
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As well as proving useful in explaining differences in educational attainment, the

construct of cognitive style has also been found to be related to social behaviour.
Graff (2003b) investigated the relationship between cognitive style as measured by
the Cognitive Styles Index (CSI) (Allinson and Hayes, 1996) and sense of classroom
community as measured by the Classroom Community Index (Rovai, 2002) in a
group of students pursuing courses which featured a mixture of face-to-face and
online instruction, typically referred to as a blended learning environment. The
findings indicated that the participants with intuitive cognitive styles reported a
lower sense of community than students with intermediate or analytic styles. This
finding is interpreted by the fact that intuitive individuals, being more outgoing in
social orientation, need to feel a greater sense of community than analytics in the
same interactive environment.
8. Summary
This review has looked at various studies assessing the use of hypertext as an
instructional instrument, which have generated an array of findings in several areas:
the effectiveness of hypertext in facilitating learning (Mohageg, 1992; McDonald and
Stevenson, 1998), the navigational strategies employed by users (Batra et al., 1993;
Canter et al., 1985) and social behaviour and sense of online community (Graff, 2003b).
However several further research questions emerge from the studies reviewed in this
paper. For example, differences in hypertext architecture have revealed that the most
facilitative structure for learning, in terms of a users ability to answer recall questions
was a hierarchical structure with lateral connections. Further investigation also
revealed that individual differences in cognitive style can influence the effectiveness of
learning from hypertext (Korthauer and Koubek, 1994; Lin and Davidson-Shivers,
1996). However, both of these studies using the field dependence-independence
construct found field-independent individuals to be superior to FDs in performance at
learning across all hypertext architectures. This finding fails to support the rationale
that an explicitly structured hypertext architecture should be of more benefit as an
instructional aid to field dependent individuals and alludes to the suggestion that FDI
cognitive style as assessed with tests of disembedding shapes is merely a test of ability
(McKenna, 1984).
A further research question concerns the assessment of learning. Learning in most
of the studies reviewed in the early part of this paper, were assessed by means of
simple recall questions, which assess learning on a lower level. Deeper levels of
learning involve an understanding of the structure of interrelationships within a
particular domain which can, according to Shapiro (1998), be assessed by an analysis
of responses to essay questions. According to Shapiro, performance on essay questions
reveals whether a learner has comprehended the overall structure of the learning
material. Furthermore, the manner in which an individual navigates a hypertext
document may influence his/her ability to effectively apprehend its structure, in as
much as the route followed through an environment, physical or virtual, will influence
an individuals internal or mental representation of that space. Batra et al. (1993) and
Canter et al. (1985) sought to classify navigational strategies and suggested that they
were dependent firstly on the hypertext architecture, and secondly on the tasks which
users were asked to perform. Graff (2002b, 2005b) has also demonstrated that cognitive
style is useful to consider in assessing hypertext navigation.
9. Implications
The evidence reviewed in this paper suggests that numerous research questions
regarding use of hypertext and cognitive style still need to be addressed. First, whether
the wholist-analytic and verbailser-imager cognitive style constructs prove to be more
appropriate in assessing style differences in learning from hypertext; second, whether
essay questions provide a more realistic measurement of learning performance than
recall questions; and third, whether navigational behaviour and the amount of
disorientation experienced by users is influenced by cognitive style. The overall
conclusion to be drawn however, is that differences in hypertext architecture have
revealed that the most facilitative structure for learning, in terms of a users ability to
answer recall questions was a hierarchical structure with lateral connections.
Furthermore, it seems also that individual differences in cognitive style can influence
the effectiveness of learning from hypertext. Indeed, the manner in which an individual
navigates a hypertext document may influence his/her ability to effectively apprehend
its structure, in as much as the route followed through an environment, physical or
virtual, will influence an individuals internal or mental representation of that space.
Finally, some tentative findings suggest that online interactive behaviour may be
related to cognitive style. Overall, the findings reported in this paper indicate that
individual differences in cognitive style are a pertinent factor for consideration in the
design and implementation of hypertext-based instructional systems, and this
consequently will have implications for the practice of education and training, in
environments that utilise hypertext as an instructional tool.
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Web-based
learning
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Course experience, approaches

to learning and academic
achievement
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ge Diseth, Stale Pallesen, Anders Hovland and Svein Larsen

A
Department of Psychosocial Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
Abstract
Purpose The present study seeks to compare scores on factors from the Course Experience
Questionnaire (CEQ) with scores on an abbreviated version of the Approaches and Study Skills
Inventory for Students (ASSIST) and examination grade among undergraduate psychology students.
The purpose is to investigate the relationship between course experience and approaches to learning,
and to examine their relative importance as predictors of academic achievement.
Design/methodology/approach Confirmatory factor analyses and structural equation modelling
were utilised in order to find measurement models for each of the constructs and to test hypothesised
structural relations between these constructs.
Findings The original CEQ and ASSIST factors were reproduced. A model in which course
experience factors predicted SAL was supported, but the same model did not provide evidence for any
indirect or mediator effect between course experience, approaches to learning and academic
achievement. Indirect empirical support for a hypothesised causal link between course experience and
approaches to learning was found.
Research limitations/implications Weak relations between the predictor variables (course
experience/approaches to learning) and academic achievement limited the possibility of identifying
mediator effects, and future research should address this issue.
Practical implications Lecturers and course designers should take into account that students
approaches to learning are influenced by course experience, especially with respect to the adoption of a
surface approach to learning.
Originality/value This paper included a comparison between course experience, approaches to
learning, and academic achievement, whereas most previous research has not included academic
achievement. The utilisation of confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modelling gave a
stronger test of construct validity than exploratory analyses, and it facilitated the testing of
hypothesised structural models.
Keywords Learning methods, Learning styles, Qualifications
Education Training
Vol. 48 No. 2/3, 2006
pp. 156-169
0040-0912
DOI 10.1108/00400910610651782
1. Introduction
Measurement of students approaches to learning (SAL) is considered to be relevant
and important for educational practice because it may encourage a more systematic
approach to academic teaching (Trigwell and Prosser, 1991), assist individual
academics who are concerned with monitoring and improving the effectiveness of their
own teaching (Richardson, 1990) and identify students at risk through ineffective study
strategies (Tait and Entwistle, 1996). It has been described as an important aid for
course, curriculum and assessment design (Coffield et al., 2004). SAL is furthermore
assumed to be influenced by the students perception of the learning environment
(Richardson, 2002, 2003), which has been conceptualised as course experience (CE)
(Ramsden, 1991). This construct is also important for educational practice, because
research has shown that students are best placed to evaluate many aspects of teaching,
and their ratings are valid, multidimensional, and reliable (Marsh, 1987; Wachtel,
1998). Previous research has shown a close relationship between CE, and SAL (Lawless
and Richardson, 2002), and there is also indirect empirical evidence for a causal link
between these variables (Richardson and Price, 2003). These findings support the view
that students adoption of particular approaches to learning are considered to be partly
dependent on the students perception of the content, the context, and the demands of
specific learning tasks (Richardson, 2003; Laurillard, 1979; Ramsden, 1979; Marton and
Saljo, 1976).
Research on the relationship between approaches to learning and CE gives an
opportunity to identify aspects of study programmes that may be improved in order to
produce more desirable approaches to learning and better academic achievement. It is
also important to examine further aspects of validity in instruments measuring CE and
approaches to learning, such as the Course Experience Questionnaire (CEQ) (Ramsden,
1991) and the Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for Students (ASSIST)
(Entwistle, 1997). However, whereas the relationship between SAL and academic
achievement is well documented (Entwistle et al., 2000), there have been relatively few
investigations of the relationship between CE and achievement, or the relative
importance of CE and approaches to learning as predictors of academic achievement.
Hence, it is the main objective of the current investigation to examine these issues.
CE
Research on the measurement of students course experience has resulted in the
development of the CEQ (Ramsden, 1991), which was designed as a performance
indicator of teaching effectiveness at the level of the whole course or degree. All of the
items in this scale were designed to measure aspects of the learning environment
across disciplines and institutions about which students have direct experience and are
therefore able to comment (Lizzio et al., 2002). A higher order structure of the CEQ has
been established, consisting of a teaching quality factor (good teaching, clear goals and
standards, appropriate assessment, and emphasis on independence scales) and
workload (appropriate workload) (Wilson et al., 1997). Another study showed that the
factors in the CEQ may be expressed as a single higher order factor (Lawless and
Richardson, 2002)
SAL
Approaches to learning may be regarded as a description of acquired intentions,
motives and strategies, which are partly determined by the learning context in terms of
the students responses to situational demands (Entwistle, 1987; Biggs, 1999; Diseth,
2003). A deep approach refers to an intention to understand, with use of evidence and
relating of ideas as the predominant strategies, and interest in ideas as the
predominant motive. This approach is the result of the students interest in a subject
(Fransson, 1977), lecturers interest, support and enthusiasm (Ramsden, 1979), and the
students possibility to manage their own learning (Ramsden and Entwistle, 1981). It is
furthermore encouraged by teaching and assessment methods which produce active
and long-term engagement with learning tasks, stimulating and considerate teaching,
clearly stated academic expectations, and interest in and background knowledge of the
subject matter (Ramsden, 1992).
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In contrast, a surface approach refers to an intention to reproduce the learning

material and to fulfil minimum course requirements, and an external motive to avoid
failure by means of rote learning, or reproduction of the learning material. A surface
approach is encouraged by assessment methods which emphasise the recall, or the
application of, trivial procedural knowledge, assessment methods that create anxiety,
cynical or conflicting messages about rewards, an excessive amount of material in the
curriculum, and lack of interest in and background knowledge of the subject matter
(Ramsden, 1992). Finally, a strategic approach refers to an intention to succeed and
the motive to achieve the best grades possible, by organisation of time and learning
environment. A strategic approach is characterized by great effort, finding the right
conditions for studying, effective controlling of time and effort, attention to
examination demands and criterions, and adjustment of studying according to
perceived demands.
CE, approaches to learning and achievement
Students approaches to learning may be determined both by student and context
characteristics (Newble and Hejka, 1991), and they may be both variable and consistent
(Ramsden, 1988). However, most of the research literature considers individual
differences in SAL to be primarily a result of contextual influences in terms of
strengths and limitations in the learning context (Entwistle and Tait, 1990, Newble and
Clarke, 1987), and Entwistle (1987) emphasised that it is the perception of the learning
environment, rather than the environment in an objective sense, which influence
learning most directly. For example, there is evidence that students who adopt a deep
approach report a higher level of satisfaction with a course of study (Ramsden, 1992).
Richardson (2003) reported moderately strong correlations between an overall
measurement of positive CE and approaches to learning (r 0:27 (strategic), r
20:44 (surface) and r 0:31 (deep)) among students taking a short web-based course.
Lawless and Richardson (2002) found a strong overlap between scores on the CEQ and
scores on the Approaches to Studying Inventory (ASI) among students in distance
education. Furthermore, Lizzio et al. (2002) found meaningful, significant relations
between CE variables and deep/surface approaches to learning. Finally, Kember and
Leung (1998) found significant relations between perceived workload (corresponding
to appropriate workload in the CEQ) and surface approaches to learning.
With regard to the relationship between approaches to learning and academic
achievement, research findings typically show that deep and strategic approaches to
learning are positively and surface approaches are negatively related to examination
grade, although some studies suggest that a deep approach does not necessarily
correlate with exam success (Entwistle and Ramsden, 1983; Entwistle et al., 2000;
Diseth, 2003). It should be noted that correlations between approaches to learning and
academic achievement are often rather weak.
The relationship between CE and academic achievement has been less studied.
However, Richardson (2003) found a correlation between the overall measure of
perceived positive CE and assigned marks for coursework (r 0:46). These assigned
marks were also correlated with strategic (r 0.22) and surface (r 20:36)
approaches to learning, but they were not correlated with deep approaches to learning.
Finally, Lizzio et al. (2002) found that the CEQ factor good teaching significantly
predicted GPA among students in several faculties.
Causality of relationship
Even though most of the research literature assumes that CE influences approaches to
learning (Lizzio et al., 2002; Entwistle and Tait, 1990), Kember and Leung (1998)
concluded the causality probably is bi-directional, such that CE may influence
approaches to learning and approaches to learning may influence CE. They reasoned
that students with a surface approach could perceive the workload as high because of
their lack of intrinsic interest in the material and the [. . .] attempting to rote-learn
material (Kember and Leung, 1998, p. 295). But Richardson and Price (2003) and
Richardson (2002) argued that if it is the case that approaches to learning influence CE,
then demographic variables (age and gender), which predict approaches to learning,
should also predict CE. Hence, causality may be indirectly inferred. However, they
found that these demographic variables and CE were mutually independent predictors
of approaches to learning, and they therefore concluded that CE influences approaches
to learning, and not the opposite.
2. Problems and hypotheses
Given these relations between CE, approaches to learning, and academic achievement,
it is reasonable to assume that CE also may have an indirect effect on academic
achievement, via approaches to learning, or that approaches to learning may be
mediators between course experience and achievement, in line with models proposed in
previous research (Lizzio et al., 2002; Kember and Leung, 1998). A mediator effect
occurs when the relationship between a predictor variable and a dependent variable is
affected by an intermediate variable (Baron and Kenny, 1986). The hypothesised
relations in the current paper are also in accordance with Biggs (1999) 3P model, in
which student learning is considered to be a function of a causal relationship between
presage (student characteristics and course/departmental learning context), process
(students perception of context and approaches to learning), and product (students
learning outcomes in terms of performance and understanding). Students perception
of context correspond with CE, which also may be considered as being somewhere in
between presage and process variables. To sum up, the current article will primarily
address the following problems:
.
Testing of the validity of factors in the CEQ and an abbreviated version of the
ASSIST.
.
Investigation of the relationships between CE, approaches to learning, and
academic achievement.
.
The structural and causal relationships between CE, approaches to learning, and
academic achievement.
3. Method
Participants, procedure and context
The participants were 486 undergraduate psychology students (110 male and 366
female ten did not report gender), with a mean age of 21.4 years (range 18-60 years,
SD 4.13) who studied an introductory psychology module. Some of the participants had
too many missing responses, and the total sample was therefore reduced to 476
students, of which 204 responded during lectures (response rate: approximately 43 per
cent and 272 responded by mail (the response rate was 57 per cent, which is considered
an adequate response rate for a postal survey (Kidder, 1981). Statistical analyses
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showed no significant difference between the group of participants who filled out the
forms during lectures and the students who responded by mail. Participation was
voluntary.
The PSYK100 is an introductory course in psychology for undergraduate students.
Students participated in diverse study activities, such as lectures, seminar groups, and
individual reading, and some also formed private colloquial groups. The formal study
programme was equal for all of the participating students. The examination was
administered at the end of the semester, and this exam was the only means of grading
students.
Measures
ASSIST. Students approaches to learning were measured by means of a modified
version of the ASSIST (Entwistle, 1997). The ASSIST originally comprises a 52-item
questionnaire which is based on statements made by university students when asked
what they usually do when they go about learning. The resulting three approaches to
learning are divided into subscales and motives scales, as follows: deep approach
(seeking meaning, use of evidence, relating ideas, interest in ideas), surface approach
(lack of purpose, unrelated memorising, syllabus-boundness, fear of failure), and
strategic approach (organised studying, time management, alertness to assessment
demands, achieving, monitoring effectiveness). Previous research on a Norwegian
translated version of this inventory has indicated good structural and predictive
validity, although it has been difficult to reproduce the two subscales alertness to
assessment demands and monitoring effectiveness (Diseth, 2001). Hence, the
subscale monitoring effectiveness was excluded, and the items in the subscale
alertness to assessment demands were changed for the present research in order to fit
the learning experiences of the respondents. In addition, the number of items was
reduced in order to facilitate data collection, in accordance with other efforts to develop
shorter questionnaires for the measurement of approaches to learning (Kember and
Leung, 1998). A re-analysis of data from previous research (Diseth, 2003) showed that
reliability, factor structure, and predictive validity were good, even if the number of
items in each subscale was reduced from four to two. Hence, a shortened version of the
ASSIST, which comprised 24 items and 12 subscales, was used in the present study.
Items with the strongest reliability and validity were selected. This method of
producing a shorter instrument to measure approaches to learning may be better than
using for instance a short form of the ASI, which has failed to show satisfactory
internal consistency in some studies (Richardson and Price, 2003; Richardson, 2003).
The participants were instructed to reply according to how they actually study at
present on this particular course, and they indicated their relative agreement or
disagreement with the statements on a five-point scale (5 agree, 1 disagree).
The participants were instructed not to mark 3 (unsure) unless they really had to or if
the statement/item did not apply to their learning situation, in accordance with the
original inventory (Entwistle, 1997).
CEQ. Factors from the CEQ were adapted to fit the learning context of the present
sample, in accordance with procedures in previous research (Lawless and Richardson,
2002; Byrne and Flood, 2003). The CEQ (Ramsden, 1991) originally consisted of 30
items covering the following factors: good teaching, clear goals and standards,
appropriate workload, appropriate assessment, and emphasis on independence. In a
shorter form (23 items) made up of the items with the strongest loadings for four of the
five scales in the original version, the emphasis on independence factor was
eliminated due to its weaker scale structure (Byrne and Flood, 2003). For the present
study, an adapted version of the CEQ, consisting of 20 items measuring the four factors
of good teaching (six items), clear goals and standards (four items), appropriate
workload (six items), and appropriate assessment (four items), was utilised. A total of
18 of the items were adapted from the above-mentioned 23-item version by Byrne and
Flood (2003). In addition, two items covering perceived textbook volume and difficulty
for this particular course were included. The generic skills factor was excluded,
because the present course does not emphasize the development of these skills. The
students were instructed to indicate how they actually perceived the course as a whole
(not with reference to any particular lecturer), on a scale ranging from 5 (definitely
agree) to 1 (definitely disagree).
Academic achievement. The students sat a four-hour exam, and they had to answer
two out of three essay-style questions and a 60-item multiple choice (MC) test. The
students were recommended to spend approximately one hour on the MC test, and the
rest of the time on the essays. The exam was assessed by a committee, such that the
essays contributed two-thirds and the MC test to one-third of the total grade. The
students were only given a total grade score (this is also the only available grade score
for the present research), ranging from A (excellent) to F (fail). These scores were
converted to numbers for data analytic purposes, such that higher numbers reflected
better grades (A 6, B 5 . . . F 1).
4. Statistical analysis
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modelling (SEM) were
employed because these analyses provide stronger tests of validity and allow for more
options in the design of predefined multivariate models. The AMOS 4.0 programme
(Arbuckle, 1999) offers several goodness-of-fit-indices, including chi-square
(x 2)/degrees of freedom (df) ratio, RMSEA and CFI. The CFI (Bentler, 1990) is a
comparative fit index which provides an evaluation of the difference between an
independent model and the specified model. A model has been considered to offer an
acceptable fit to the data when the CFI . 0:90 (Byrne, 2001), whereas Hu and Bentler
(1995) recommended a CFI close to 0.95. The root mean square error of approximation
(RMSEA) estimates how well the model would fit the sample if optimal parameters
were available (Browne and Cudeck, 1993). An RMSEA below 0.05 indicates good fit,
but this index is sensitive to the number of estimated parameters in the model (Byrne,
2001). Finally, the x 2/df ratio should preferably not be significant. However, for most
SEM empirical research, it has been unrealistic to find well-fitting hypothesised models
where x 2 approximates the degree of freedom, and the RMSEA tend to over-reject
models when the sample size is low (Byrne, 2001).
The data analytic strategy was as follows: first, CFA models were fitted to each of
the constructs; next, these constructs were utilised in a SEM, comprising CE and
approaches to learning factors, as well as examination grade. This stepwise procedure
is in line with recommendations put forward by Joreskog (1993).
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5. Results
CFA measurement models
Separate CFA for all the constructs supported the hypothesised factor structures. CFA
of the subscales in the modified version of the ASSIST produced the three factors of
deep, surface, and strategic approaches to learning. CFA of the items in the CEQ
supported a four-factor solution, comprising good teaching, appropriate assessment,
clear goals and standards, and appropriate workload. A higher order CFA also
supported a one-factor solution for these variables (see Figure 1). The fit indices (see
Table I) showed acceptable fit for all of the factor structures. An alternative higher
order two-factor model of the CEQ variables, with appropriate workload as a separate
Figure 1.
Higher order confirmatory
factor analysis of the CEQ
variables
Table I.
Fit indices including x?,
df, p, CFI, and RMSEA
for CEQ and ASSIST
CEQ 4 factors
CEQ 1 factor
ASSIST 3 factors
x?
df
CFI
RMSEA
314.28
319.70
120.86
160
162
45
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.94
0.94
0.96
0.05
0.05
0.06
Notes: CEQ Course Experience Questionnaire, ASSIST Approaches and Study Skills Inventory
for Students
factor, produced weaker fit indexes (x 2 375:43, df 163, p 0:00, CFI 0:92, and
RMSEA 0:05).
Descriptive statistics
Descriptive statistics in Table II shows that all of the above variables (scales) were
normally distributed, with skewness and kurtosis values between 0.02 and 0.78. The
mean values show that the students reported moderate satisfaction with their CEs, that
they generally describe themselves as more deep and strategic oriented and less
surface oriented.
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experience
163
Correlations
A correlational analysis showed that examination grade correlated weakly with the
CEQ variables good teaching (r 0:15, p , 0:01), appropriate workload (r 0:12,
p , 0:01), appropriate assessment (r 0:14, p , 0:01), but not with clear goals and
standards. Examination grade was also weakly correlated with deep (r 0:19,
p , 0:01), surface (r 20:18, p , 0:01), and strategic (r 0:24, p , 0:01) approaches
to learning.
SEM
A SEM was produced in order to find the relative contribution of each of the CEQ
variables as predictors of approaches to learning, and to test SAL as mediators
between CEQ and examination grade. This model (Figure 2) produced satisfactory fit
indexes (x2 25:29, df 9, p , 0:003, CFI 0:98, RMSEA 0:06). The model
showed that good teaching predicted both deep, surface (negative relation) and
strategic approaches to learning, whereas clear goals and standards predicted
strategic approach, and appropriate workload predicted deep and surface
Good teaching
Appropriate assessment
Clear goals and standards
Appropriate workload
Deep
Use of evidence
Relating ideas
Interest
Seeking meaning
Surface
Lack of purpose
Unrelated memorising
Fear of failure
Syllabus boundness
Strategic
Organised studying
Achieving
Alertness to assessment demands
Time management
Examination grade
Min.-max.
Mean
SD
Skewness
Kurtosis
1.67-4.50
1.25-5.00
1.25-5.00
1.00-4.83
2.13-5.00
1.50-5.00
1.00-5.00
1.00-5.00
1.00-5.00
1.00-4.88
1.00-5.00
1.00-5.00
1.00-5.00
1.00.-5.00
1.25-5.00
1.00-5.00
1.00-5.00
1.00-5.00
1.00-5.00
1.00-6.00
3.15
3.31
3.07
2.86
3.95
3.97
3.76
4.24
3.83
2.64
1.69
2.32
3.24
3.22
3.45
3.21
3.94
3.63
3.05
3.14
0.55
0.66
0.77
0.69
0.65
0.79
0.93
0.83
0.80
0.73
0.91
1.01
1.21
0.98
0.85
1.13
1.00
0.96
1.21
1.67
2 0.28
2 0.43
2 0.05
0.02
2 0.53
2 0.62
2 0.68
2 1.15
2 0.56
0.16
1.44
0.42
2 0.23
2 0.26
2 0.23
2 0.21
2 0.74
2 0.54
0.01
0.00
2 0.21
2 0.02
2 0.54
2 0.35
2 0.29
2 0.17
0.13
0.85
2 0.07
2 0.29
1.46
2 0.70
2 1.07
2 0.58
2 0.78
2 0.92
2 0.38
2 0.16
2 1.19
2 1.28
0.68
0.82
0.75
0.66
0.79
0.41
0.59
0.72
0.40
0.71
0.64
0.62
0.62
0.36
0.85
0.67
0.68
0.51
0.68
Table II.
Descriptive statistics,
including minimummaximum (total score
divide by items), mean,
standard deviance,
skewness, kurtosis, and
Cronbachs alpha for
scales and subscales
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Figure 2.
Structural model of
observed CEQ, ASSIST,
and examination grade
approaches. All of these paths were significant at a 1 per cent level. Furthermore,
appropriate assessment had a non-significant negative path to the surface approach.
All of the approaches to learning variables were related to examination grade, but the
paths were not significant. However, the path between strategic approach and
examination grade was very close to being significant (p , 0:06). In sum, this model
complies with the hypothesized relationship between CEQ and SAL variables, but it is
inconclusive with respect to prediction of academic achievement and indirect/mediator
effects. The CEQ variables accounted for 15.2 per cent of the variance in deep, 30.9 per
cent of the variance in surface, and 14.3 per cent of the variance in strategic approaches
to learning. 7.2 per cent of the variance in examination grade was accounted for in this
model.
Demographic variables
It was possible to test causality indirectly, in line with the above-mentioned hypothesis
of Richardson and Price (2003). A multiple regression analysis of the present data
showed that and course experience were independent predictors of deep- and surface
approaches to learning, but not of strategic approaches to learning. Hence, there is
some indirect evidence of the view that course experience causes approaches to
learning, which is in line with previous research (Lizzio et al., 2002; Entwistle and Tait,
1990).
5. Discussion
The main purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between factors
measuring students course experience, students approaches to learning, and academic
achievement. As regards validity, the results showed that CE may be expressed both in
terms of multiple factors as well as a single, higher order factor. But it is probably more
useful to express CE at a multi-factorial level (Marsh, 1987; Wachtel, 1998). The factor
structure of the present short version of the ASSIST was also supported, and the
observed relationship between the CEQ and the ASSIST supported convergent
validity, in accordance with previous findings (Trigwell and Prosser, 1991; Lizzio et al.,
2002; Kember and Leung, 1998). The predictive validity was significant for the ASSIST
scales, and for some of the CEQ scales. The current research furthermore supported the
view that CE causes SAL, as argued by Richardson and Price (2003). It is, however,
important to remember that this research is based on correlations, and experimental
research is needed in order to produce a strong support for this hypothesis.
The structural model showed that students who were more satisfied with the level
of workload both had a lower level of surface approach as well as a higher level of
deep approaches to learning. Whereas the relationship between surface approach and
appropriate workload has been observed previously, a relationship between
appropriate workload and deep approach has not been found (Kember and Leung,
1998; Lizzio et al., 2002). The fact that the effect of appropriate assessment as
predictor of approaches to learning nearly disappeared when controlling for the effect
of the other CE variables may implicate that assessment procedures are not as
important as previously assumed (Ramsden, 1992). However, this result may also
have emerged because the students in the present sample were relatively
inexperienced with the examination procedure. Surface approach was more
strongly accounted for by CE than the other approaches to learning variables. This
suggests that the adoption of a surface approach is particularly influenced by the
learning environment as perceived by the students, whereas deep and strategic
approaches to learning may be more accounted for by student characteristics. In
particular, perception of inappropriate workload seems to be a strong predictor of
surface approach. This emphasises the importance of designing courses that are
perceived by students as having an appropriate workload, in order to avoid adoption
of surface approaches to learning.
However, the structural model gave no strong indication of mediator or indirect
effects in prediction of academic achievement. One reason for this is that the initial
relationship between the predictor variables (CE and SAL) was rather weak, especially
regarding the CE variables. Nevertheless, the correlation analysis showed that all of
the approaches to learning variables and most of the CE variables (except clear goals
and standards) were significantly related to examination grade.
7. Implications for educational theory and practice
Research on the relationship between SAL and CE is also important with respect to
theoretical considerations: Although approaches to learning may be considered as a
form of learning style, there are important differences between style constructs. On the
one hand, cognitive styles are considered to be stable, in-built and fixed dispositions
linked to personality (Riding and Rayner, 1998). They are characteristic modes of
thinking, remembering, and problem solving (Messick, 1982). On the other hand,
learning styles focus on the learning process, in terms of the manifestation of
individual differences as the person interacts with the environment (Riding and
Rayner, 1998). Some learning style models describe relatively stable individual
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differences in for example instructional preferences (Dunn et al., 1989) or cognitive

skills development (Letteri, 1980). However, approaches to learning describe learning
style as orientation to studying, which implies an interest in looking at the information
processing undertaken by the learner in a learning situation. Hence, Entwistle (1989)
describes approaches to learning as both context and student dependent.
In a critical report on learning styles, Coffield et al. (2004) claimed that many
learning style constructs may have the disadvantage of labelling individual students,
such that teachers and instructors may unduly view students as being a certain type
of learner. In comparison, it is an advantage of the approaches to learning construct
that learning intentions, motives and strategies are considered to be partly a response
to the learning environment as perceived by the students. However, Coffield et al.
(2004) warned that as the terms deep and surface become popular, they become
attached to individuals rather than behaviours, against theoretical assumptions. But
they recommended the concepts of deep, surface and strategic approaches to learning,
on the grounds of robustness and ecological validity, and they claimed that the
ASSIST is useful as a sound basis for discussing effective and ineffective strategies
for learning and for diagnosing students existing approaches, orientations and
strategies (Coffield et al., 2004). In order to avoid unjustified labelling and to
strengthen the validity of the ASSIST further, it appears to be important to link SAL
with CE, also in future research.
With regard to practical implications of the present research, it seems to be
important that lecturers and course designers focus on how the students experience
their learning environment, not only because it provides valuable feedback, but also
because it affects students in terms of their approaches to learning, which ultimately
may influence examination performance. The factor of good teaching seems to be
particularly important, because this was the single CE factor which was related to all
three approaches to learning, also when controlling for the effect of other CE factors.
Furthermore, CE seems to be especially important in relation to whether or not a
surface approach is adopted by students. More specifically, the present research
indicates that if the goal is to increase deep/strategic and to decrease surface
approaches to learning, it seems important to alter the students experience of teaching.
This can be done by providing good and motivating teaching with appropriate
feedback on coursework. Furthermore, it seems important to create a curriculum in
which the workload is perceived as appropriate. For example, a reduction of the
workload may decrease the level of surface approach and increase the level of deep
approach. However, the relationship between actual workload and perceived workload
needs further research. Finally, a strategic approach seems to be influenced by a
combination of the perception of good teaching and clear goals/standards. Hence,
clearly stated goals and standards may be especially relevant for students adopting a
strategic approach.
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Corresponding author
ge Diseth can be contacted at: aage.diseth@psysp.uib.no
A

Course
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Learning style and student

self-assessment skill
Simon Cassidy
170
Directorate of Psychology, University of Salford, Salford, UK

Abstract
Purpose In the light of the growing emphasis on independent learning and non-technical skills in
education and employment, the study aims to examine the relevance of learning style to student
self-assessment skill.
Design/methodology/approach A sample of first-year undergraduate students was asked to
provide self-assessed marks for their coursework and to complete measures of learning style. Tutors
marks for student coursework were also gathered.
Findings Results revealed a positive correlation between a deep approach to learning and
self-assessment skill, demonstrating the relevance of learning style to self-assessment skill. A negative
correlation between student-estimated mark and a surface approach suggested that students are
sensitive to the demand characteristics of assessments and are aware of how these correspond to their
preferred learning style. Both strategic and deep approaches to learning correlated positively with
tutor mark, as is commonly reported.
Originality/value It is suggested that the study provides some insight into the composition of
self-assessment skill and implications for pedagogical practice are considered.
Keywords Learning styles, Self assessment, Skills
Education Training
Vol. 48 No. 2/3, 2006
pp. 170-177
0040-0912
DOI 10.1108/00400910610651791
1. Introduction
Independent learning has become a priority in both educational and employment
contexts (Cotton, 2001). There is a need for students to develop as independent learners
to enable them to cope with the demands of the changing curriculum and structure of
higher education and to meet the expectations of employers (Cotton, 2001). Although
characterising the independent learner commonly involves a range of attributes, skills
and propensities, the ability to self-assess appears central to many studies examining
the issue of independent learning. Self-assessment is seen as helping students take
responsibility for learning, encouraging self-motivation and independence in learning
(Peckham and Sutherland, 2000), encouraging success and life-long learning
(McAlpine, 2000) and to be fundamental to the development of intrinsic motivation
and autonomous learning (van Krayenoord and Paris, 1997).
In general terms, self-assessment skill involves a high level of self-awareness and
the ability to monitor ones own learning and performance. As such, self-assessment is
associated with, or involves, metacognitive awareness and skill, which Reid (2001, p. 1)
describes as thinking about thinking, being aware of the learning process and
utilising that in new learning. A particular emphasis on metacognitive skill is evident
in both definitions of and discussions of self-assessment. Metacognitive skills have
The project was funded by the University of Salfords Teaching and Learning Quality
Improvement Scheme.
been described by Vockell (2004, p. 6) as: learners automatic awareness of their own
knowledge and their ability to understand, control and manipulate their own cognitive
processes. The particular skills cited under the metacognition banner include:
metamemory: awareness of memory systems and strategies to manipulate memory for
optimal efficiency; metacomprehension: the ability to know what has and has not been
understood and to apply strategies to improve comprehension; self-regulation: the act
of self-monitoring and evaluating and adapting learning in light of experience and
feedback (Vockell, 2004).
Both Peters (2000) and Rivers (2001) identify metacognitive skills as important in
the development of independent learners. Peters (2000) sees metacognitive skills as
enabling self-management and appraisal of own thinking and learning, while Rivers
(2001) reports students self-directed learning behaviour as being associated with
students regular assessment of their academic performance, their approach to
learning, and how this compares with that of their peers and with the teaching styles
used. In a study examining the development of independent learning in children aged
three to five years, Anderson et al. (2003) include a number of metacognitive and
self-assessment skills in their list of identified factors underlying independent learning.
These include:
.
ability to speak about own and others behaviours;
.
monitors progress and seeks help appropriately;
.
negotiates when and how to carry out tasks;
.
is aware of feelings and others;
.
is aware of own strengths and weaknesses;
.
can speak about how they have done something or what they have learned;
.
can speak about planned activities; can make reasoned choices and decisions;
.
engages in independent cooperative activities with peers;
.
initiates activities;
.
finds own resources without adult help;
.
develops own ways of carrying out tasks; and
.
plans own tasks, targets and goals.
In addition to metacognitive skills, learning style is also a feature both explicit and
implicit of many definitions of self-assessment. McAlpine (2000) emphasises
goal-directed learning and preferred learning styles, while Elwood and Klenowski
(2002) refer to self-knowledge about how we perceive, remember, think and act.
Although passing reference to learning styles is common in the context of
metacognition and, by association, self-assessment, there seems little work examining
the relevance of learning styles to self-assessment skill.
The current study aims to establish whether learning style ways in which
individuals characteristically approach different learning tasks (Hartley, 1998) and
self-assessment skill are associated and to provide some insight into the nature of any
such association.
Student
self-assessment
skill
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172
While there exist many models and measures of learning style (see Cassidy, 2004),
Entwistle and Taits (1996) model based on depth of processing during learning was
adopted given its frequent use in the context of research into learning in higher
education. The model presents four approaches to learning derived from four different
modes of orientation of the learner:
(1) deep: intention to understand, relating ideas, use of evidence and active
learning;
(2) surface: intention to reproduce, unrelated memorising, passive learning and fear
of failure;
(3) strategic: study organisation, time management, alertness to assessment
demands intention to excel; and
(4) apathetic: lack of direction and lack of interest (Cassidy, 2004).
Although there is a lack of direct research on self-assessment and learning style,
Cassidy and Eachus (2000) do report associations between students approach to
learning and judgements regarding their academic proficiency. Self-report academic
proficiency was positively correlated with a deep approach to learning and negatively
correlated with a surface approach to learning. Positive correlations between a
strategic approach and negative correlation between an apathetic approach and
academic achievement were also reported. In addition, Marton and Saljo (1997) note
that the perceived demand characteristics of assessment will influence the particular
learning approach adopted. There is also some evidence that students show a
preference for assessment formats which they perceive to reflect their dominant
approach to learning (Entwistle and Tait, 1990). Entwistle and Entwistle (1991)
illustrate the point suggesting that surface learners would show preference for
multiple-choice formats and deep learners for free-format assessments such as essays
and reports.
As the assessment used in the current study was open-ended/free-format and could
be considered to be more closely aligned with deep and strategic approaches, it is
anticipated that students showing preferences for deep and strategic approaches will
achieve higher tutor marks. It is also suggested that, as it is possible to view
self-assessment skill as sharing some common characteristics with deep and strategic
approaches, that deep and strategic learners will be better equipped for self-assessment
and will thus provide more accurate estimated marks. In addition, because students
adopting these approaches perceive themselves as more suited to the assessment
format, deep and strategic learners will be less inclined to underestimate their mark
than surface and apathetic learners.
2. Method
Design
The study employed a between subjects design to establish levels of student
self-assessment accuracy (i.e. comparing tutor mark and student estimated mark) and a
questionnaire-based correlational design to explore associations between
self-assessment skill and student learning style.
Participants
A sample of 61 level one undergraduate students took part in the study. All were
enrolled on a core introductory module in psychology. The mean age of the sample was
21.5 years (SD, 5.7; range 18-41 years) and consisted of 21 males and 39 females (one
did not declare gender).
Student
self-assessment
skill
Materials
The Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for Students (ASSIST) (Entwistle and
Tait, 1996) is a 38-item inventory measuring learning style using four sub-scales
corresponding to the following approaches:
(1) deep: intention to understand, relating ideas, use of evidence and active
learning;
(2) surface: intention to reproduce, unrelated memorizing, passive learning and fear
of failure;
(3) strategic: study organisation, time management, alertness to assessment
demands, intention to excel; and
(4) apathetic: lack of direction and lack of interest.
173
Respondents show their level of agreement to each item using a five-point Likert scale.
Summing responses to items within each sub-scale gives a score for each of the four
learning styles.
Procedure
The sample were selected on the basis that they were enrolled on a module in which the
researcher had no involvement in student assessment and the assessment format was
clearly structured with explicit assessment criteria. Students were briefed regarding
the purpose of the study and the right not to participate was made explicit. Students
were told that they would be asked to provide a confidential estimate of their
assignment mark but it was made clear that any data gained from the study would be
entirely unrelated to assessment of the module, that the researcher will not be involved
in the assessment process and that data would not be made available to anyone
involved in the assessment process. Students then completed the ASSIST. All
self-report measures were completed early on in the module prior to completion of any
course work or exams. Students were then given full contact details of the researcher
(including e-mail address) and asked to provide an estimated mark (out of 100 per cent)
for their assessed coursework once they have been completed and submitted the work.
Students were given the option of posting or e-mailing their estimates to the researcher.
Students were also given the option of providing an e-mail address in order that a
distribution list of participants could be constructed to allow reminders to be sent. Both
verbal and e-mail reminders for estimates were given to students just prior and just
after the assignment submission deadline. A notice was also posted at the assignment
submission point in the School administration office. Tutors marks were collated
using module records and reflected marks which had undergone the normal
moderation procedure. Estimated marks were received from 36 of the 61 students who
completed the learning styles inventory, representing a 59 per cent response rate. Tutor
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48,2/3
marks were available for 45 of the students completing the ASSIST. Student
self-assessment skill was represented in an index of accuracy according to the level of
agreement between student estimated mark and tutor mark. Thus, better
self-assessment skill was represented by smaller absolute differences between the
two marks.
174
3. Results
Self-assessment skill and learning style
The tutors mark was found to be significantly positively correlated with both deep
and strategic approaches to learning, while the student estimated mark was found to
be significantly negatively correlated with a surface approach. Students
self-assessment skill was significantly positively correlated with a deep approach.
None of the other correlations reported in Table I reached significance (p . 0:05).
4. Discussion
The aim of the study was to assess the evidence for an association between
self-assessment skill and learning style. The reported correlation between a deep
approach to learning and self-assessment skill (r 0:345, p , 0:05) goes some way to
establishing the relevance of learning style to student self-assessment skill. That such
an association exists supports those authors who include learning style within their
discussion of self-assessment skill (McAlpine, 2000; Elwood and Klenowski, 2002) and
establishes learning style within another conceptual area and field of practice.
The nature of the relationship of the various approaches to learning with
self-assessment skill also suggests that learning style may be legitimately bracketed
within metacognitive skills. Although only the positive correlation between a deep
approach and self-assessment skill reached statistical significance, sample sizes were
small and small positive correlations between strategic and surface approaches and
self-assessment skill and a negative correlation between apathetic approach and
self-assessment skill were reported. If we accept that a or perhaps the fundamental
element of metacognition is awareness of cognitive and learning processes (Reid, 2001;
Vockell, 2004), and if we also accept that each of the three learning styles deep,
strategic and surface represent an active approach to learning, while an apathetic
approach is essentially passive, then it is possible to albeit tentatively suggest that
engaging with any of the active learning approaches might improve self-assessment
skill. That it was a deep approach which was most convincingly aligned with
self-assessment skill fits with such a suggestion given that this approach is
Table I.
Correlation coefficients
for tutor mark, studentestimated mark,
self-assessment skill and
learning styles
Cronbach alpha
Tutor mark (n 45)
Student estimate (n 36)
Self-assessment skill (n 34)
Notes: * p , 0:05; * * p , 0:025
Deep
Strategic
Surface
Apathetic
0.73
0.252 *
20.162
0.345 *
0.8
0.304 * *
0.08
0.218
0.67
20.046
20.381 * *
0.222
0.83
20.247
20.007
20.241
characterised by active learning and Sorbals (1997) proposition that a deep approach
to learning can be enhanced by improving students metacognitive skills.
It was also suggested that because of the nature of the assessment format used in the
current study (i.e. open-ended/free-format), students showing a preference for a
strategic or a deep approach to learning would achieve higher tutor marks. Findings
did reveal a significant positive correlation between tutor marks and a both strategic
(r 0:252, p , 0:05) and deep approaches to learning (r 0:304, p , 0:025). These
findings provide some support for the notion that students show a preference for
assessment formats which reflect their dominant approach to learning (Entwistle and
Tait, 1990) and are able to perform more effectively when assessed according to their
preferred approach. It should, however, be pointed out that both deep and strategic
approaches are commonly associated with increased academic success irrespective of
the assessment format (see Cassidy and Eachus, 2000).
Jackson and Williams (2003) have demonstrated that students are able to express
preferences for assessment format and that students assessed in accordance with their
first choice outperformed students assessed according to a format other than their first
choice. That students are aware on some level at least of their assessment
preferences strengthens the assertion made in the current study that students
preferring deep and strategic approaches will recognise their potential to perform well
on the open-ended/free-format assessment used here and be less likely to
underestimate their mark, while the opposite effect will be observed for surface
learners. While no association between deep or strategic approaches and
student-estimated mark were found, student-estimated mark was significantly
negatively correlated with a surface approach (r 20:381, p , 0:025), so that surface
learners were more inclined to provide lower estimated marks for their work. Although
not completely convincing, this could be offered as some evidence for students
awareness of their preferred approach and associated expectation for success.
In terms of students ability to accurately estimate their marks, it was suggested
that because self-assessment skills may be viewed as sharing some similar
characteristics with deep and strategic approaches, deep and strategic learners will
be better equipped for self-assessment and will provide more accurate estimated marks
for their work. Increased self-assessment accuracy (indicated by smaller accuracy
index scores) was found to be significantly correlated with deep (r 20:345,
p , 0:05) but not strategic approach. This suggests that factors characterising a deep
approach are more relevant to self-evaluation than other approaches, including
strategic, despite an apparent sensitivity to assessment demands commonly associated
with the strategic approach.
5. Conclusion
Whether learning style fits within the category of metacognitive skill is better
described as metalearning (awareness of and control over self as learner (Biggs, 1985))
or process learning (emphasising developmental processes in education rather than
outcomes) or, is considered outside all of these, may be debatable. What the current
study does demonstrate is that learning style is a relevant concept when considering
student self-assessment skill. That some learning styles are associated with improved
self-assessment skill provides a better understanding of what may be the constituent
Student
self-assessment
skill
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176
parts of the skill, and provides a basis to consider how better to develop the skill in
students. As educators we are becoming increasingly aware of the need and
expectation for students to develop non-technical skills (such as independent learning)
in order to exploit educational resources and meet the demands of the employment
market (Cassidy and Weinberg, 2005). Because of this, there should be an emphasis in
educational research on understanding non-technical skill development and how best
to design learning environments which cultivate the development of both technical and
non-technical skills.
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IN, available at: education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/EdPsyBook (accessed December
2004).

Student
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styles, learning strategies and
meta-cognition
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Lena Bostrom
School of Education and Communication, Jonkoping University,
Jonkoping, Sweden, and
Liv M. Lassen
Department of Special Needs Education, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore the field of learning, learning style, meta-cognition,
strategies and teaching by classifying different levels of the learning process. The paper aims to
present an attempt to identify how students awareness of learning style and teachers matched
instruction might affect students learning and motivation.
Design/methodology/approach The paper is a conceptual paper in which a theoretical
framework built on empirical research was identified by connecting and systemizing different parts of
the learning process.
Findings The paper finds that teaching based on individual learning styles is an effective way to
ensure students achievement and motivation. Awareness of learning styles, it is argued, influences
meta-cognition and choice of relevant learning strategies. Consciousness of own improvement
provides students with new perspectives of their learning potential. Such positive academic
experiences may enhance self-efficacy.
Originality/value The paper provides useful information on unraveling concepts, methods and
effects which can aid students, teachers and researchers in understanding, evaluating and monitoring
learning, thus having practical implications for promoting lifelong learning, self-efficacy and
salutogenesis.
Keywords Learning, Learning styles, Self development, Teaching methods
Paper type Conceptual paper
Education Training
Vol. 48 No. 2/3, 2006
pp. 178-189
0040-0912
DOI 10.1108/00400910610651809
1. Introduction
This paper is an attempt to explore the field of learning, learning style, cognition,
strategies and teaching methods. It is an endeavor to classify and thereby facilitate
understanding of the different levels of the learning process in general, but more
importantly, the combination of learning styles and strategy choice (Bostrom, 2004a, b).
While by no means comprehensive, Figure 1 can perhaps illustrate the connections
among various concepts involved in learning and strategies. The relationships
depicted in Figure 1 are not linear, nor does it show the interrelationships that exist
between teacher and students. It, however, attempts to represent the many various
elements within a learning process.
Teaching is, here, perceived as an activity aimed at guiding the students toward
learning and is the foundation for many educational processes. This includes areas as
instruction, intentions, inter-subjectivity, interactions, inter-personal activities and
processes, actions and praxis (Kroksmark, 1997). A conscious awareness of ones
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179
Figure 1.
The relationships among
teaching methods,
learning styles, learning
strategies, meta-cognition
and meta-learning
pedagogical platform and its consequences is seen as fundamental for teachers as

reflective practitioners (Schon, 1983; Lassen, 2005). Various pedagogical platforms are
based on different ideologies, perspectives and methods. In Figure 1 a learning styles
platform and a pedagogical platform (for example: lecturing, problem-based learning,
Montessori pedagogy, etc.) are depicted. The learning style approach is based on
teaching methods that match the individual students learning style preference. The
later is a fairly stable individual preference for organizing and representing
information (Riding and Rayner, 1998). Learning style theory (Dunn and Griggs, 2003)
also indicate that this entails a methodical pluralism and argues that students should
initially be instructed according to the method best suited for their needs. This can,
thereafter, be expanded to include secondary style preferences (Bostrom and Lassen,
2005). Learning strategies are seen as conscious or unconscious choices made by
teachers or students as to how to process given information and demands of a learning
activity (Hellertz, 1999; Kroksmark, 1997). The learning strategies may vary and
develop over time. They include learning style, but are broader concepts with various
methods (for example: memory strategies, note-taking techniques, and emotional and
cognitive strategies).
An interesting question is whether one bases ones choice of learning strategies on
ones individual learning style and whether certain learning style characteristics
correspond with certain learning strategies? In this respect meta-cognition, or the
ability to think about thinking, may become central. This is awareness and
consciousness of the psychological processes involved in perception, memory, thinking
and learning (Coffield et al., 2004). While meta-cognition can develop without teaching
and education, a learning style pedagogical approach seems to accelerate and develop
such reflection. Meta-learning is depicted in Figure 1 as a broader cognitive operation
comprised of both how you think and learn about your own learning. The application
of this reflective ability may promote abilities for life long learning, self-efficacy and
salutogenesis[1] (Bandura, 2003; Antonovsky, 1996). More specifically, with a better
understanding of the conditions of learning and more precise knowledge of how
choices of strategies affect learning in a positive or negative way, teachers, and
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students consciousness of learning may be expanded. Thereby, teachers can perhaps

evaluate their programs better, choose appropriate strategies and empower students
(Lassen, 2004). Through increased self-awareness of their strengths, students
self-efficacy, academic competence and resilience may be enhanced (Bandura, 2003;
Skaalvik and Bong, 2003; Rutter, 1985). Such aspects may furthermore influence
salutogenesis and life long learning (Antonovsky, 1988; Befring, 1997). Salutogenesis is
a strength-based conceptualization of indicators promoting health rather than
pathology. It attempts to identify factors essential for managing stress, staying well
and learning. These are encompassed in a persons or systems sense of coherence
(SOC) which is defined as:
A global orientation that expresses the extent to which one has a pervasive, enduring though
dynamic feeling of confidence that (1) the stimuli deriving from ones internal and external
environment in the course of living are structured, predictable, and explicable, (2) the
resources are available to one to meet the demands posed by these stimuli; (3) these demands
are challenges, worthy of investment and engagement (Antonovsky, 1988, p. 19).
The three core components are comprehensibility, manageability and meaningfulness.

Meta-learning-based analysis of ones own learning can enhance these components
through reflection and experience. Even more important may be the pervasive
knowledge that one is a learning individual with strengths and possibilities for
personal growth and transformation. This becomes a fundamental aspect of ones SOC.
While somewhat influenced by life situations, Antonovsky found SOC to be fairly
stabilized by young adulthood (e.g. 25-30 years of age). Educational experiences are, in
addition to family and the community, central for developing of this dimension that
seems to underlie coping and functioning throughout life.
In the learning context several central questions, however, emerge. For example, do
learning methods matter? How can one combine learning styles, learning strategies
and meta-cognition? Bostroms (2004a) study identified several very important
differences in students academic success when learning style methods were applied.
These included achievement, retention, attitudes and comprehension. The question
arises of whether insight into an individuals learning style profile may facilitate the
development of meta-cognitive understanding and meta-learning for the individual.
Pertinent questions were: What does insight into own learning entail?; What exactly
is consciousness about learning, and what is an ability to learn how to learn?; How
can this be linked to terms such as lifelong learning and learning organizations?;
How can this be interpreted and implemented in the school world?. These issues need
to be addressed so that practitioners can get a clearer perspective of the possibilities
and complexity of learning and strategies.
These issues are highly pertinent because while the school systems task is to teach
and to transmit knowledge, schools are incapable of supplying students with all the
information needed in their lives. Arguably therefore the priority should be to provide
students with the abilities and means to search for, find, absorb and use new
information that is relevant to their lives. In Scandinavia for example, legislation
emphasizes that schools should create the best possible circumstances for enabling
students to attain knowledge and provide an environment that encourages a positive
attitude toward learning, particularly for those who have had negative learning
experiences in the past (Skolverket, 1994; Befring, 2004). This suggests that it should
be the schools goal to help students believe in their own abilities, as well as better
understand their own learning. Thus, they can evaluate and monitor their own efforts
more effectively. Most learning environments focus on the importance of providing the
students with the means, the self-awareness, and skills to learn how to learn. Teachers
must, however, first have insight and knowledge into how to provide students with the
necessary learning strategies and how to access them. The central concepts describing
the learning process are abstract. While they may be easy to use, they are difficult to
make tangible. Learning style, learning strategies, study techniques and meta-learning
are concepts that sometimes are used without being defined. Rules for usage and
concrete examples are missing, and terms often are used synonymously and without
accurate delineation. Even more confusing, words like teaching, teaching methods,
learning and meta-cognition are at times also used.
2. Learning style and learning strategies
The field of learning styles includes more than 70 models with conflicting assumptions
and competing ideas about learning (Coffield et al. 2004). In the UK, Kolbs (1999)
Learning Style Inventory (LSI), Honey and Mumfords (1992) Learning Style
Questionnaire, Ridings (1991) Cognitive Style Analysis (CSA) and Allinson and Hayes
(1988) Cognitive Style Index are widely used and known. In Scandinavia, Bostrom
(2004a) chose to use the learning style model presented by Dunn and Dunn (1999). This
is a practical model widely applied in schools in the USA as well as in Scandinavia.
Learning style is defined as:
[. . .] the way each learner begins to concentrate on, process and retain new and difficult
information (Dunn et al., 1994, p. 2).
Within this model the term learning style adapted teaching means applying the
methods that correspond to the students style as revealed in a self-report learning style
analysis (for example using the Productivity Environmental Preference Survey (PEPS)
(Dunn et al., 1984, 1991, 2000)). Teaching based on the students identified style is thus
one way to individualize instruction and is offered as a method to encourage and
develop motivation. However, PEPS does not assess a complete range of styles of
learning and thinking and other inventories (for example Entwistles (1988)
Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for Students (ASSIST), Kolbs (1999) LSI,
Ridings (1991) CSA, could also be used.
While the general consensus is that learning strategies describe the way in which
students choose to deal with specific learning tasks (Coffield et al., 2004), many
researchers utilize different definitions and add other dimensions to the term. Some see
learning strategies a spontaneous choices, learned or conscious patterns, others
differentiate between direct or indirect strategies (Kroksmark, 1997; OMalley and
Chamot, 1990; Oxford, 1990; Schmeck, 1988). Hellertz (1999) identified the following
learning strategies for students majoring in social science: listening, questioning,
talking, thinking, intuition, action, reading, writing and vision as well as combinations
of these strategies. She questions whether some strategies (for example: listening or
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thinking) should be defined as ways of gaining knowledge rather than as learning

strategies per se.
An important question is whether there exists a difference between the concepts of
learning strategy and study techniques. General study strategies (such as
mind-mapping) can be directly conflicting with the best learning strategy for some
students (Bostrom, 2004b). In investigating learning strategies for reading, Santa and
Engen (1996) emphasized that teachers should develop competence in their students so
they can create their own strategies. Tornberg (2000) points out how learning
strategies take on a distributive role arguing that students previous knowledge, their
learning style and the problems they face influence their choice of strategy. She
emphasizes the importance of understanding the conditions under which learning
takes place and creating a consciousness of this among teachers and students. Her
findings indicated that inefficient strategies result in incorrect decisions in the learning
process and that it takes energy as well as hard work to replace ineffective strategies
with strategies based on an understanding of the individual need. These researchers
emphasize the importance of meta-cognition as a basis for building strategies, and as
Sadler-Smith (1999) argued the potential of such awareness lies in enabling students to
recognize and question long-held habitual behavior. These researchers, further,
indicate that individuals can and should be taught to monitor and use various learning
styles and strategies.
Valid assessment and evaluation is essential for identifying and building out
effective strategies (Dunn and Dunn, 1999). For example, in Dunns Learning Styles
Model (Dunn and Griggs, 2003) learning strategies are included in the methods through
which teachers teach and/or learners learn. Methods and strategies which match the
different types of learners are, for example, contract activity packages (CAP), program
learning sequences (PLS) and multi-sensory instructional packages (MIP). CAP is an
instructional strategy that allows motivated people to learn at their own speed, with
their best perceptual strength and reporting their knowledge the best way. PLS is a
method for individualizing instructions. The content can be learned in small steps
without direct supervision. The objectives range from simple to complex ones. MIP
present and review the content through visual, auditory, tactual and/or kinaesthetic
instructional strategies. This is a self-contained teaching resource that enables
students to master a set of objectives by beginning with their strongest perceptual
modality and reinforcing learning with their secondary or tertiary strength. The
individuals who participated in the Bostroms (2004a) study were trained in these
approaches in order to match their different perceptual learning preference. For
example, dramatization and field studies were used for students with kinaesthetic
preferences and lecturing was used for auditory students (two components of the MIP).
CAP seems to apply better for students with strong internal motivation, internal
structure and several prominent learning senses (Dunn and Griggs, 2003). While the
Dunn and Dunn model can be criticized (see Coffield et al., 2004) with regard to its
broad basis and its assessment inventories, the attempt to concretize and
systematically apply knowledge about learning style and strategies gives students,
teacher and parents a pragmatic means of individualizing education.
Based on Bostroms (2004a) findings, we believe strategies are neither totally fixed
nor flexible and that teachers can both build on existing strengths and develop
additional competencies for their students. In Bostroms study students found learning
style-based methods to be important aspects of their learning process and were able to
use the examples of strategies given to them as well as developing new strategies of
their own. However, the question of the connection between choice of strategies, use of
strategies, and successful learning was also important. In a sense this may be a
chicken-and-egg question? Is a student successful because of the strategies he/she
chooses, or does a student who is successful in school use the most suitable learning
strategies simply because she or he is learning successfully? Further research is
required to disentangle these complex relationships.
3. Meta-cognition, meta-learning and teaching
By making students aware of which strategies can be used for different tasks and then
letting them try out what works best for them, one can assist them by providing a
framework for meta-cognition based on assessment and encouraging students to take
active initiatives in their own learning process. Being aware of ones own thought
process, how you go about problem solving, decision making and interpretation of the
written word are some examples of the activities involved. Since learning uses the self
as the subject reflection is a prerequisite for, as well as a result, of learning. Empirical
research shows that students who were able to identify and define own learning, were
able to influence their learning process, for example Bostroms (2004a) qualitative
results indicated that such students: firstly, made more precise demands on teachers,
their school and their education; second, reflected on and understood their own
learning, thus enabling them to do their homework, solve problems and better sort
through the flow of information; and third, better understood the structure of the school
system making it easier for them to participate actively. Taking control of ones own
learning is directly related to self-efficacy.
Reflection on ones thinking about learning leads to a consciousness of learning
which may lay the groundwork for meta-leaning. According to Stensmo (1997), this
process may be either facilitated or obstructed by different types of emotions. The
learning process is guided by the response given by the surroundings and by oneself.
Stensmo divides meta-learning into at least two different levels: first, procedure
knowledge, this is knowledge about abilities, strategies and resources that are
necessary to complete a task; and second, knowledge of completion, this is an
understanding that the task is complete, that you have retained the knowledge and
how to move on from this point. Ellmin and Ellmin (1999) believe that reflection can
occur on several different levels, but is the necessary foundation when experience is
converted into learning about learning. If we were to systematically photograph our
experiences, does this mean we have learned about our own learning? The question
then becomes what should be considered as part of the concept of learning. Two
examples of different qualities attached to the term are found in the work of Hard af
Segerstad et al. (1996) and Ericsson (1989). Hard af Segerstad et al. (1996) claim that
learning facilitates a change in the individuals view of his/her surroundings and
him/herself as a person. Ericssons (1989) view on the other hand is of learning as an
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internal, active and outwardly invisible process that could lead to a change in behavior.
In other words, learning should facilitate changes in ways of being or acting, in
changed ways of thinking or feeling. This development can be achieved in several
different ways (for example, modeling, insight, habit formation, etc.) of which only one
is conscious reflection. Meta-cognition may, but does not necessarily always lead to
such a reflective level of learning.
Can teaching methods be related to meta-learning? Kroksmark (1997, p. 45) defines
teaching as a clear and well chosen method to convey information that another
individual is expected to learn. Since it is difficult to separate teaching from learning
isolating the concept of teaching in this way is not an easy task (Arfwedson, 1998;
Kroksmark, 1997). They can be viewed as two sides of the same coin two integrated
entities that are not interchangeable, but make up two parts of a whole. While teaching
may lead to learning, learning can take place without teaching. In addition teaching
does not necessarily lead to either learning or meta-learning. While these outcomes can
be strived for, they must not be taken for granted. They seem to require both a
developmental level of the learner which is abstract and also relevant methodological
approaches (which expand knowledge and reflection) on the part of the teacher. In this
regard we argue that teaching based on the learners preferred learning style appears
to have greater possibility to facilitate a meta-learning process.
4. Learning, self-efficacy and salutogenesis
Learning is connected with education, but learning occurs everywhere, in every age
and is life-long. Every child is born with an innate ability to learn and it is a
prerequisite for survival and development (Knoop, 2002). While discussions about
meta-learning are related to cognitive developmental research, they also have been
spurred by the evidence that institutions can reduce or block a students motivation for
learning. As early as 1969 William Glasser pointed out that school may indeed create
deep-rooted feelings in students that they are failures (Johnsen, 2005; Befring, 2004).
Skaalvik and Bong (2003) argued that childrens self-concepts are the schools
responsibility. He noted that many children lost motivation and confidence while in
school impairing them for life and thwarting their possibilities for life-long learning. It
is paradoxical that an institution whose purpose is to promote learning, may
sometimes impede it unintentionally. This may be due to the binding and hierarchical
nature of traditional school methods that do not take into account the childs own
initiative and progression, but rather focuses on curriculum (Illeris, 2000) at the
expense of these things.
Even more crucial are the findings that this process may lead to the misconception
on the part of some individuals that they cannot learn and that there, therefore, is little
reason to make an effort. The opposite is that it is meaningful to invest energy and time
on own development. Understanding of ones learning style and how to apply this to
ones best advantage seems to be helpful. In this respect, meta-learning can be seen as a
belief concerning abilities to perform the behavior needed to achieve desired outcomes.
It is a confidence in ones own abilities and an understanding that one can influence
ones situation in this respect. Having such an internal locus of control has been
identified as a personal resilience factor protecting individuals from the impact of
stress (Rutter, 1985; Borge, 2003). Knowledge of ones own uniqueness and of ones
experiences of success when learning style methods[2] are utilized may indeed have
broader consequences than academic achievement. The key may be seeing oneself as
an individual that can learn and having the ability to monitor this by the use of ones
preferred learning style or relevant learning strategy.
This notion of meta-learning is related to elements of Banduras social learning
theory and specifically the notion of self-efficacy. This proposes that reflections are key
factors in how people regulate and control their lives. Self-efficacy is a flexible concept
(Skaalvik and Bong, 2003). The four underlying elements are:
(1) registration of previous successes and failures on similar tasks;
(2) observation of others learning;
(3) persuasion from others; and
(4) emotional arousal.
Moreover, these are always related to specific situations. Results from Bostroms
(2004a) research indicated that students taught through a learning style-based method
improved on the variables that correspond with the four elements of self-efficacy
outlined above. They registered own achievements, observed that other students
learned through different approaches and became more motivated and enthusiastic
(affecting arousal). Finally, the overall principles underlying learning style (that all
individuals can learn and have specific abilities) seemed to function as forms of verbal
persuasion or encouragement. Both the ideology and methods acknowledge the
student as a learning individual. While assessment can begin this process, presentation
of stimulation through preferred learning style methods can serve as continuous
reinforcements. Minimizing stress (by promoting confidence and enthusiasm) can help
students keep within their developmental/learning flow zone (Knoop, 2002). Through
a sufficiently large number of positive experiences in which one can control many
aspects of ones own learning (a meta-learning) students may reframe their
self-concept. From seeing oneself as a failure (Glasser, 1969; Befring, 2004; Skaalvik
and Bong, 2003), one perhaps registers under which circumstances and in which
situations one succeeds. This type of acknowledgement and self-reflection seems
essential as a basis for life-long learning (Illeris, 2000).
Experiences from specific situations may also have a profound effect on
salutogenesis. Becoming aware of ones learning style gives the individual a basis
for comprehending both the impact of internal and external stimuli. Experiencing ones
own achievements indicates that one has resources available to meet the demands that
are posed. Finally, understanding the value of learning for ones own achievement can
strengthen the meaningfulness of investing in and engaging in education. Of the three
SOC components outlined earlier, meaningfulness seems most pertinent to induce
positive pressure towards salutogenesis (Antonovsky, 1988). As evident from the
qualitative findings in Bostroms (2004a) study, the learning style-based approached
appeared to initiate search for meaning. From an academic perspective, stimulating the
students reflections about themselves as learning individuals and how they achieve
learning can make their education to a meaningful endeavour. Knowledge about ones
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own learning style and the experiences of applying this can truly empower students
(Lassen, 2004).
5. Conclusion
Bostrom (2004a) found positive connections between methods adapted to the students
individual learning style (an adaptive learning environment) and their learning and
motivation. It became evident furthermore that learning strategies could be mobilized,
developed and utilized in such adaptive learning environments. They appeared to be
based on, but also included, learning styles. Meta-cognition seems to be essential for
ensuring that learning strategies may be matched with the individuals preferred
learning style. Being able to recognize and evaluate ones learning style is a key means
of reflecting on ones own thinking processes. Valid assessment and feedback are
crucial to this process. This awareness seemed central for monitoring own learning and
proactive use of the students own strengths. However, an important question is what
consequences this may have for students and is this phenomenon only central to the
school world or does it have general effects on life more general? If the impact is more
general then the importance of schooling is much more than simply mastering
curriculum requirements. The educational settings can provide individuals with the
impetus to build self-efficacy, strengthen salutogenesis and continue learning
throughout life.
Whether the learning style approach becomes a widespread innovation within
Scandinavia depends on the teachers willingness to embrace this tradition. Changes
can, however, only be implemented when teachers feel this is meaningful for
themselves and their students. Knowledge of learning styles, learning strategies and
meta cognition in a broader learning context can give teachers tools to identify the
individual traits that effectively impact on achievement and give each learner the
opportunity to develop through their personal strengths. Implications for teachers
include a possible method to meet any legislation requirements of individualized
instruction. Furthermore, through this approach, they can stimulate and respect each
individuals intrinsic value. To empower students towards life-long learning, it seems
essential to empower teachers with feasible and effective methodological approaches.
Developing teachers knowledge of learning styles and learning strategies is a key
means by which this can be achieved.
Notes
1. Antonovsky coined the term salutogenesis in 1979. It is derived from salus which is Latin
for health and well-being. In the medical field a salutogenic model focuses on the causes of
global well-being rather than the the causes and origins of diseases of specific disease
processes. In this paper the concept is transferred and applied to the learning domain.
2. Learning styles methods are defined as methods that match an individuals learning styles
preferences.
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OMalley, J.M. and Chamot, A. (1990), Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Oxford, R. (1990), Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know, Newbury
House, Rowley, MA.
Riding, R. (1991), Cognitive Styles Analysis, Learning and Training Technology, Birmingham.
Riding, R. and Rayner, S. (1998), Cognitive Styles and Learning Strategies. Understanding Style
Differences in Learning and Behaviour, David Fulton, London.
Rutter, M. (1985), Resilience in the face of adversity: protective factors and resistance to
psychiatric disorder, British Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 147, pp. 598-611.
Sadler-Smith, E. (1999), Intuition-analysis style and approaches to studying, Educational
Studies, Vol. 25 No. 2, pp. 26-38.
Santa, C.M. and Engen, L. (1996), Lare a lare. Prosjekt CRISS. Content Reading Including Study
System, Randaberg Trykk, Stavanger (Norwegian version).
Schmeck, R.R. (1988), An introduction to strategies and styles of learning, in Schmeck,
R.R. (Ed.), Learning Strategies and Learning Style, Plenum Press, New York, NY.
Schon, D. (1983), The Reflective Practitioner, Temple Smith, London.
Skaalvik, E. and Bong, M. (2003), Self-concept and self-efficacy revisited, in Marsh, H.W. and
Craven, R.G. (Eds), International Advances in Self Research, Information Age Publishing,
New York, NY, pp. 67-89.
Skolverket (1994), Laroplan for det allmanna skolvasendet, LPO/LPF 94, (Swedish National
Curriculum Guidelines), Liber, Stockholm (steering documents).
Stensmo, C. (1997), Ledarskap i klassrummet (Classroom Management), Studentlitteratur, Lund.
Tornberg, U. (2000), Sprakdidaktik (Didactic in Languages), Gleerups, Malmo.
Further reading
Schon, D. (1993), Instructions of Students with Severe Disabilities, Macmillan, New York, NY.

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UK news
Six million benefit from LSC-funded education and training
According to the Learning and Skills Council (LSC) six million people have been able to
learn new skills and improve existing skills in the last year as a result of LSC-funded
education and training. The achievements of the post-16 education sector are
highlighted in the LSCs annual report and accounts for 2004-2005. For the first time,
the report also includes information on the performance of LSC local office areas,
demonstrating the organisations commitment to transparency and openness.
The LSC exists to make England better skilled and more competitive. In its annual
report, A Clear Direction, the LSC sets out the significant progress that has been made in
the last 12 months towards the organisations vision of raising the skills of Englands
young people and adults to world-class standards. Key achievements include:
.
six million people have benefited from LSC-funded education and training;
.
860,000 young people and adults achieved Skills for Life qualifications,
exceeding Government targets;
.
a record 175,000 apprentices recruited, exceeding Government targets;
.
progress on adult Level 2 (equivalent of five good GCSEs) with 71.7 per cent of
adults at Level 2 or above;
.
75.4 per cent of all 16-18 year olds in education and training;
.
a 24 per cent rise in capital investment in further education to 200 million on
buildings plus 70 million on IT. Total investment since 2001 has passed 2
billion; and
.
348 centres of vocational excellence (CoVEs) in operation well ahead of target of
400 by March 2006.
Mark Haysom, chief executive of the LSC said: We have made encouraging progress
in transforming the learning and skills sector over the past 12 months and my
colleagues and our partners should be congratulated for this. However, huge
challenges still remain. Resources are inevitably limited and we must focus on those
areas that will boost productivity and allow individuals to contribute to and participate
fully in society.
With a budget of 10.4 billion to invest in learning and skills in 2006/2007, the LSC
is aiming to get the best return possible on funding, focusing on the areas of highest
priority which will have the most impact on economic competitiveness. The LSC has
key initiatives in place for 2006/2007 that will drive this strategy forward including:
.
National employer training programme (called Train to Gain) will enable
employers to have access to free skills and training advice, and will allow
individuals to gain vocational qualifications.
.
National employer service one-to-one advice and support for large employers
on staff training priorities.
.
CoVEs target to achieve 400 CoVEs by March 2006.
.
Skills academies four more academies planned for 2006/2007.
Mark Haysom added: Closing the skills gap and remaining competitive in the
twenty-first century has never been more important. The achievements in the Annual
Report are evidence of the difference we have made for millions of individuals and
thousands of businesses up and down the land.
The annual report also covers the agenda for change programme that will
significantly overhaul the provision of post-16 learning and skills and create a simpler,
agile and more responsive sector that is easy for employers and learners to access and
navigate. The annual report is available at www.lsc.gov.uk
Employers to drive new skill academies
National skill academies for manufacturing, construction, food and drink, and financial
services could train tens of thousands of young people and adults each year and will
play a key part in creating jobs, tackling skill shortages and driving up productivity,
according to Education and Skills Secretary Ruth Kelly. The academies, which aim to
open by September, stand to benefit from a share of up to 40 million of investment
from the Government and industry. Figures aggregated from the National Employer
Skills Survey (NESS) in 2003 suggest that manufacturing has around 48,000 vacancies,
of which some 13,000 are skill-shortage vacancies. A key role of the manufacturing
academy, led by the Sector Skill Council for Science, Engineering and Manufacturing
Technologies Alliance (SEMTA), would be to encourage more young people and adults
to consider a career in the industry by offering real opportunities for progression and
skill development, linked closely to the vocational learning offered through schools.
The construction industry needs around 88,000 new entrants a year in craft,
technical, professional and management roles and estimates it will need 250,000 people
skilled to National Vocational Qualification (NVQ) Level 2 (equivalent to five good
GCSEs) by 2010. The national skill academy in construction will contribute to the
training of 20,000 workers a year in 2006, growing to 70,000 workers a year at Level 2
and above in 2010. Developing construction skills will be vital for major projects
associated with the 2012 Olympics. Current vacancy figures taken from NESS 2004
suggest there are just over 32,000 vacancies, of which 13,700 are skill-shortage
vacancies. In food and drink manufacturing, 150,000 new recruits, especially technical
operators and food scientists, will be needed to fill vacancies over the next eight years.
Approximately one in ten employers report skill shortages and this harms
productivity, morale and new-product development. According to the NESS 2004,
current levels of vacancies are around 8,600, of which 1,900 are skill-shortage
vacancies. The financial-services sector has continuing difficulty in recruiting young
people and adults with suitable skills, from entry level to professional. Employers
report that they currently have around 25,000 vacancies, of which 4,100 are
skill-shortage vacancies.
Well-known companies in each industry are driving the national skill academy
initiative. Names such as Bovis Lend Lease, Kier Homes, Northern Foods plc, Youngs
Bluecrest Seafood Ltd, Filtronic plc, Caterpillar, Nationwide Building Society and
Norwich Union Insurance have committed to leading the successful bids. These groups
will work with the LSC to develop detailed business plans.
Meanwhile, a survey of of 5,500 work-based apprentices on Government-approved
schemes reveals that apprentices are taking home more than 500 a month on average.
The survey is the first of its kind to analyse pay by sector. The highest paid in the
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electro-technical sector are netting an average of 183 a week. However, the research
identifies a 40-a-week average pay gap between male and female apprentices. This
can largely be explained by the high level of gender segregation in many of the sectors.
Graduate employment: the class of 99
Research into the early careers of graduates reveals that most employed university
leavers are in graduate-level jobs four years after graduation. The Class of 1999, a
study led by Professor Peter Elias, at the University of Warwick Institute of
Employment Research, and Professor Kate Purcell, at the Employment Studies
Research Unit, at Bristol Business School, details the fortunes of 8,600 graduates from
the full range of UK undergraduate courses, ranging from the oldest to most recently
established UK universities. The study follows graduates from course completion to
four years after leaving university. Job outcomes, earnings, debt, training and further
learning were investigated, as well as general satisfaction with the higher education
experience.
The study reflected the recent growth in numbers entering higher education and
assessed whether the labour market had absorbed the extra graduates at the end of
century. It found that the market for graduates remained strong, with 85 per cent of
employed graduates in graduate-level jobs four years after leaving university. It also
explored issues such as the impact of debt on the career choices made by graduates and
whether studying for a degree still represented a good investment.
Key findings four years after graduation were:
.
Almost 85 per cent of employed leavers were in graduate-level jobs.
.
Two-thirds of graduates were in jobs related to their long-term career plans.
.
Only 2-3 per cent of graduates were unemployed.
.
Employers were continuing to value graduates skills and continued to pay well
for them, with graduates earning, on average, more than 23,800, four years after
completing their courses. There was some tentative evidence of a narrowing in
the pay gap between graduates and non-graduates, a finding consistent with the
view that the increase in graduates is easing high-level skill shortages in some
areas.
.
Most graduates were satisfied with their decision to go into higher education.
Bill Rammell, Higher Education Minister, said: This research provides compelling
evidence that graduates are benefiting from the skills, knowledge and experiences that
they have obtained through higher education. What is more, graduates continue to
earn a substantial return from their degrees. Professor Elias said: There has been
considerable interest in our finding that the earnings of these graduates have not
grown as rapidly as those of previous graduates. However, it remains the case that
most graduates will earn significantly more over their lifetimes than non-graduates. A
degree remains a worthwhile investment. The research should give prospective
students encouragement, said Professor Purcell: Nearly all the students we spoke to
had good things to say about the value of their higher education. However, our analysis
also shows that there remains a significant gender gap in pay. Some 5 per cent of the
average difference between male and female earnings remains unaccounted for by any
factor other than gender. More than a quarter of a century after the introduction of
equal-opportunities legislation, we find that graduate womens skills and knowledge

are still more likely than mens to be undervalued and under-utilised.
Student debts push disadvantaged graduates towards lower-status jobs
Students from low-income families are paying more for higher education because they
incur heavier debts and receive less help with repayments once they graduate.
Financial pressures also mean they are more likely to take jobs that do not require a
degree when they leave university, according to research by the University of Glasgow
for the Joseph Rowntree Foundation. The last in a series of reports charting the
progress through higher education of young people from disadvantaged areas of
western Scotland shows that, without significant financial support from families, they
often felt compelled to take the first job that came along. This, in turn, made it harder to
launch a graduate career or gain skills that would help them to move to jobs where
they would be better able to repay their debts.
The study, based on a survey of more than 250 young people, found that their
progress from college and university into the labour market had tended to be slow. A
year after they graduated, just over four in ten had entered a graduate-status
occupation, with only one in five employed in a relatively secure graduate position. In
addition:
.
Those from the most disadvantaged backgrounds faced the greatest difficulties
in the labour market, especially women graduates. Despite having completed a
course of higher education, their job expectations were relatively low.
.
Although relatively few directly blamed their difficulties on class or gender, a
substantial minority of graduates thought their accent or the area where they
lived was holding them back.
.
Graduates from low-income backgrounds were less likely to have developed
clear plans for their future, gained in confidence or extended their social
networks in ways that could help them to find degree-level employment.
The researchers, nevertheless, emphasise that many of the young people who took part
in the study had made impressive progress in difficult circumstances since they were
first interviewed at the end of their school careers five years earlier.
International league tables should be read with caution
Many of the international league tables comparing education systems are misleading
and should be read with caution, according to research by the Learning and Skills
Development Agency (LSDA).
Recent international comparisons have suggested, for example, that the UK has one
of the worst records for young people staying on in education after the age of 17 and an
equally poor record in qualifications gained by school leavers. But this apparently
gloomy picture is misleading and much more caution is needed in drawing conclusions
from studies of other countries, says the LSDA.
In a report commissioned by the LSC, the LSDA set out to judge whether the
aspiration that young people should have knowledge and skills matching the best in
the world by 2010 is realistic and achievable. The report, which focuses mainly on
England, is based on an analysis of international data on education performance at
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post-16 carried out on behalf of LSDA by Frontier Economics. The countries selected
were judged to be leaders in economic performance. The findings show that it is
difficult to make bold comparisons about the performance of different countries from
simple indicators of education participation and achievement. For example, Germany
has a larger proportion of the population (covering all ages) who have vocational
qualifications than the UK. But when the focus is specifically on people aged 19-21, the
UK has a higher proportion gaining qualifications, both academic and vocational, than
either Germany or the USA. Other comparisons show England or the UK lagging
behind on certain indicators, but not on others.
The reports main findings are that:
.
no single country ranks as best in the world on all indicators;
.
at Level 3 (A level or the equivalent), England lags behind Australia and
Denmark for participation in education or training among 15-24 year olds, but
ahead of the USA;
.
at Level 1 (below GCSE level) England does better than Australia, Denmark and
the USA in the proportion of adults participating;
.
at Level 3, England ranks third out of five for attainment of qualifications for
both 15-24 year olds and all adults of working age;
.
at Level 2 (equivalent to 5 GCSEs at grades A *-C) the UK does better than
Germany or the USA for attainment of qualifications at ages 19-21, but not as
well as France or Singapore, but at ages 25-28 the UK lags behind Germany and
the USA, possibly because the study periods are longer than in the UK; and
.
the UK has the highest growth rate (when compared to France, Germany, the
USA and Singapore) in achievement of qualifications at Level 2 and above.
Mick Fletcher, research manager, commented: Making judgements about which
nation is best in the world in education masks a complex picture. The data suggest
that no country is top of the league in everything. While England or the UK may lag
behind in certain areas, they are ahead in others. The aspiration to produce a
world-class system makes a lot of sense as a broad goal, but should not be turned into a
precise target.
Can We Compare Post-16 Performance with the Best in the World? An Empirical
Assessment is available from: Information Services, LSDA, Regent Arcade House,
19-25 Argyll Street, London W1F 7LS. Tel: 44 (0)20 7297 9123; E-mail: enquiries@
LSDA.org.uk
Matchmakers make learning accessible for the hard-to-reach
Learning brokers people who act as matchmakers between individuals and
organisations providing education or training play a vital role in encouraging the
education-shy to get involved in learning. Despite recent concerns that learning
brokers are an unnecessary intermediary; research by the LSDA shows that they can
offer invaluable services.
Understanding Learning Brokerage, published by the LSDA, provides evidence that
learning brokers can not only increase demand, participation and success among
non-traditional adult learners, but also influence colleges and training organisations
to make what they offer more accessible and engaging.
Individuals or organisations can provide learning brokerage. Brokers include union

learning representatives, community-learning champions or ambassadors (many of
them volunteers), personal advisers and guidance professionals. Learndirect the
national service putting individuals in touch with learning opportunities is an
example of a large-scale, national brokerage organisation.
In the workplace, learning brokers can:
.
motivate people who have never taken part in education or training at work and
workplace learning and encourage greater commitment from employers;
.
improve the confidence and self-esteem of employees; and
.
offer a first step into learning for employees, particularly those who would find it
difficult to negotiate learning opportunities at work.
Brokers can persuade employers to take workforce skills seriously by clearing a way
through the thicket of the education system to the college or training provider that best
suits their clients needs, says the guide. It also shows how initiatives such as the
Employer Training Pilot (ETP), now being rolled out nationally as Train to Gain,
have succeeded in engaging with small, private-sector employers, including many
companies with no previous contact with business-support agencies. ETP brokers
have also reached out to many employees who have never before taken part in learning
at work, significantly the low paid and low skilled.
In the community, learning brokers can:
.
get parents involved in schools helping to support their childrens education;
.
encourage people with little contact with education since leaving school to get
involved; and
.
provide a holistic range of services that support people in different ways.
But although brokerage in the community is widespread, it has no dedicated funding
stream and is largely unrecognised by policy makers.
A key message is the need for impartiality. The guide calls for a strengthening of
advice and guidance services within the workplace and the community. It also stresses
that organisational factors, workplace relations and conflicts of interest can limit the
impact of brokerage. Brokerage in the workplace, for instance, is most successful
where employee relations are good and employees have a sense of ownership over
what they are learning.
Darshan Sachdev, LSDA research manager, said: Learning brokers can help to sell
the benefits of education and training and change the way that it is provided. It is
particularly effective at engaging the hard to reach people with little contact with
education or training since leaving school, both in the community and the workplace.
But to be really effective, brokers must be totally impartial.
Understanding Learning Brokerage, by Martin Yarnit, Darshan Sachdev and Rosie
Zwart, is obtainable from: Information Services, LSDA, Regent Arcade House, 19-25
Argyll Street, London W1F 7LS. Tel: 44 (0)20 7297 9123; E-mail: enquiries@
LSDA.org.uk.
Risks to university science departments need a response
University science departments are not in crisis, but there are risks and opportunities
in the future that need a response, according to the Higher Education Funding Council
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for England (HEFCE), which has investigated the provision of subjects of strategic
national importance, such as science and modern languages.
In a letter to the Education Secretary, Ruth Kelly, HEFCE chairman David Young
said: We have a healthy and vibrant higher-education system in this country. . . The
dynamism of the English HE sector is a great strength, and interventions should, as a
rule, be kept to a minimum.
The report made a series of recommendations aimed at protecting five areas of
strategic importance, including the provision of courses in modern languages
(including Arabic, Japanese and Mandarin) and science, mathematics and engineering.
The recommendations included:
.
encouraging universities and colleges to give early notice to HEFCE where
strategically important courses could be at risk;
.
ensuring that universities take account of the specific needs of employers when
planning courses; and
.
ensuring that one or more centres exist for the study of important and vulnerable
subjects.
Bill Rammell, Higher Education Minister, noted that the latest figures from UCAS for
university acceptances showed an encouraging level of students applying to read key
strategic subjects. Data showed a higher-than-average increase in the number of
students accepted to study mathematics, physics and chemistry last year. Mr Rammell
said: We have considered the proposals carefully and have studied the trends in
applications to universities. I am pleased that the figures show some encouraging
increases in those applying to read mathematics and science. However, we are not
complacent and will keep this under review. The actions HEFCE proposes, alongside
the initiatives we are taking in schools to improve teaching of these key subjects,
should help. Most of our Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
competitors also have concerns about student demand for science and mathematics
courses. I am confident that the work being done throughout our education system will
place us in a strong position. I particularly welcome HEFCEs proposals to support
national centres in key minority subjects such as Japanese, Chinese, Middle Eastern
and south-east Asian studies.
European news
Young people feel they need better training in entrepreneurship
Some 78 per cent of young people see business as cool, but policymakers at all levels
in Europe must improve conditions to encourage people to set up their own businesses
from greater training to more favourable tax incentives. These are among the
findings of a survey of more than 10,000 young people in 25 European countries by
Junior Achievement-Young Enterprise (JA-YE) Europe, a network of organisations
dedicated to entrepreneurship education. The survey shows that:
.
89 per cent of young people would like to become entrepreneurs to develop
personally, while 83 per cent believe it would make them more independent;
.
63 per cent of young people believe that they will, one day, be their own boss;
.
62 per cent are of the opinion that being an entrepreneur does not require an
innate gift;
.
62 per cent believe it is difficult to start ones own business but 49 per cent think
they have the capacity to succeed as an entrepreneur;
.
68 per cent are aware of the risks involved in case of failure;
.
78 per cent of young people think that sustainable economic and social
development comes through education and training; and
.
while most young people think that their schools are aware of the need to offer
management courses, few feel that their institution offers these types of
programmes effectively.
European news
197
Entrepreneurship education does affect the number of young people who choose to set
up their own business later on, said Gert-Jan Koopman, of the European Commission.
We are putting growth and employment at the top of the agenda. Jobs are crucial. An
ageing population will cut growth by 50 per cent.
JA-YE collaborates with schools, teachers and business people to implement
learning-by-doing programmes that help young people to understand the working
world. The aim is to engender more creativity, ensure young people understand the
relevance of what they learn, and keep them motivated and excited about the future
and their role in it. In 2005, JA-YE programmes involved 41 countries, 1.7 million
students, 65,000 teachers, 60,000 business volunteers and 34,000 schools.
Euro-MPs see education as key to improving Europes competitiveness
Investing in education appears to be the best way of safeguarding Europes
competitiveness against economies that can produce goods and services at a lower
cost, say Euro-MPs. They have suggested a number of measures aimed at helping the
EU to meet its Lisbon strategy goal of becoming the most competitive and dynamic
knowledge-based economy in the world by 2010. The measures include:
.
increasing spending on the Education and Training 2010 programme;
.
promoting further the mobility of students, trainees, workers and their families;
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improving the systems under which qualifications gained in one member state
are recognised in all the others;
increasing by around 15 per cent the number of people holding science
qualifications;
making national policies on education and lifelong learning more coherent; and
improving access to employment for young apprentices and the unemployed.
Meanwhile, Euro-MPs have emphasised the importance of language learning as a way

of integrating immigrants into the European Union (EU). The MEPs have called for
extra support for immigrant children in primary and secondary schools, especially
when the children have not mastered the language of the host country. MEPs believe
that all children in the EU should, from an early age, learn two languages in addition to
their mother tongue. Euro-MPs called on the Commission to step up support for the
specific training of teachers from immigrants countries of origin. The MEPs also
recommended encouraging, through educational and other programmes, the
integration of immigrants who are not of school age.
Erasmus networks cover almost 90 per cent of Europes universities

Some 87 per cent of Europes 4,000-plus universities, in 31 countries, now take part in
the Erasmus University co-operation scheme, the European Commission has reported.
Erasmus promotes student and teaching-staff exchanges, and supports international
co-operation between universities, improving the transparency and full academic
recognition of studies and qualifications throughout the EU. The success of the
inter-university co-operation partnerships supported confirms the power of the
Erasmus scheme to integrate and network Europes higher-education institutions,
helping to equip them for the challenges of the globalised, knowledge-intensive world
of the future, the European Commission said in a press release. The student-mobility
element of the scheme has helped more than 1.4 million students since it began almost
20 years ago. In 2003-2004, more than 150,000 EU citizens benefited from the
programme.
The schemes less well-known action to promote university co-operation has also
grown significantly. More than e17 million was available last year to support around
260 projects and networks. For example, curriculum-development projects bring
together universities from different countries in order to adapt existing study
programmes or to establish new and jointly devised study programmes. Intensive
programme projects are short programmes of study that bring together students and
teaching staff from universities of different countries. Additionally, there are projects
that are conceived specifically for the dissemination of the results and outcomes of
curriculum-development projects that have completed their development phase.
Erasmus also supports so-called thematic network projects, of which 19 were
selected last year. These involve networks of universities working together to analyse
and compare existing teaching methods, to define and experiment with new teaching
methods, and to place teaching material at the disposal of the members of the network
with the aid of databases.
Minerva: 27 projects to get the best out of the new educational technologies
The European Commission has earmarked e6 million to support 27 new European
co-operation projects under the EU Minerva scheme, which aims to promote European
co-operation in the use of information and communication technologies in education.
Named after the Roman goddess of wisdom, Minerva is part of the EUs Socrates
education programme. The projects will run between two and three years and will help
to ensure that new teaching technologies are exploited more effectively in a wide range
of subjects, including languages, business studies and mathematics.
The 27 projects, involving 28 countries, have been selected from among more than
250 applications from all over Europe. Each project typically involves between five and
eight partners from at least three European countries, and will receive an average grant
of around e225,000. Altogether, the Commission will devote more than e6,000,000 to
funding these projects. The project partners come from all kinds of educational
institutions, although universities account for the majority. Many of the projects
involve co-operation between different types of institutions for instance, a Spanish
university might work with a Polish school, a French non-governmental organisation
and a Greek medium-size firm.
The themes covered by the new projects are also varied. Using information
communication technology (ICT) to teach foreign languages and scientific and
technological subjects has been especially popular, respectively accounting for six and
five of the selected projects, but there are also projects aiming at using ICT to teach
arts, business studies and law. Among the new technologies that will be deployed in
the new projects are online video and mobile technologies. Also featuring prominently
are projects that use blended learning, where there is a mixture of online, traditional
and game-based learning.
Commission selects 50 projects to share e100 million under Comenius
The European Commission has approved the use of e100 million to support more than
50 new European projects and networks designed to improve quality and strengthen
co-operation in school education under the EU Comenius programme. Comenius is the
part of the Socrates education programme that targets schools. Almost 500
organisations across the 31 countries now participating in the EUs Socrates
education programme will implement the new Comenius initiatives. Through its
support for school partnerships, teacher training and school-education networks, it
reached more than three-quarters of a million pupils and over 100,000 teachers last
year, involving over 11,000 schools across Europe.
Some e10 million has been earmarked for the 46 new European co-operation
projects selected, each of which has a lifespan of between two and three years and a
grant averaging e220,000. The projects are for the professional development of
teachers, producing curricular materials and new methods for in-service and initial
training of teachers, and developing in-service training courses for teachers, or
exchanging initial teacher trainees. They involve an average of eight partners from at
least three of the participating countries. They cover a wide range of key issues for
schools and teacher education across Europe, including quality assurance in schools,
improving the accessibility of school education, promoting language learning and
enhancing intercultural awareness. The projects were selected from among more than
170 applications.
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Around e2 million has been awarded to six new three-year Comenius networks,
which will be concerned with such themes as how to involve parents more effectively
in school education, improving career guidance in schools, promoting active
citizenship, furthering intercultural education, and improving the educational use of
computers in the classroom and the training of teachers. The average Comenius
network includes 27 formal partners and many associated members. Each network will
receive a grant averaging e370,000.
ICT training needs fundamental revision
Education and vocational training need to be fundamentally changed to build greater
skills in information and communication technology, European Commissioner Viviane
Reding told the UN World Summit on the Information Society, held in Tunis. In an
address by video link, she told an e-skills capacity-building symposium that an e-skills
society was the most certain guarantee against social exclusion. Symposium
participants discussed how partnerships between governments, the private sector and
non-governmental organisations would better help to meet the challenge of rapid
technological development. In the Tunis e-skills declaration, symposium participants
called for public-sector education systems to endorse industry-based and informal
training and certification, fiscal incentives for companies and individuals to encourage
investment in e-skills training, and public support for innovative multi-stakeholder
projects.

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et cover (i).

Volume 48 Number 2/3 2006

Learning styles in education and training

Access this journal online _________________________

Editorial advisory board __________________________

Managerial intuition across cultures: beyond a

Students questions: building a bridge between

Internationally-educated health professionals:

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Using concept maps to reveal conceptual typologies

Constructing and maintaining an effective

Course experience, approaches to learning and

Learning style and student self-assessment skill

Unraveling learning, learning styles,

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Professor Tom Bourner

Learning styles in education and

cut through the swathe of sometimes confusing terminology;

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Managerial intuition across

These variations in conceptualizations of intuition in some cases resulted in

impossible. Psychology, especially psychometric trend, was of a greater use in this

Western logic and style theory

rather than demonstrating an explanation (Czarniawska, 2004). By the means of such

2005). Therefore, it may be more important to make managers, working as members of

Teo, T. and Febbraro, A. (2003), Ethnocentrism as a form of intuition in psychology, Theory

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Students questions: building a

Department of Didactics and Education Technology, University of Aveiro,

Jose Joaquim Teixeira-Dias

development the individuals dedication to learning and creativity requires integration

Chemistry, although following different degree programmes: Environmental

Students in the specialisation stage, ask principally specialisation questions. Drawn

Approaches to learning and students questions

Questions associated with a deep approach tended to reflect some re-structuring or

Thus, establishing a link between approaches to learning and students questions, we

4. Discussion and implications

Pedrosa de Jesus, M.H. (1991), An investigation of pupils questions in science teaching,

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competency standards enforced through legislation have been developed in response to

Web-based course features

E-mail, chat, peer dialogue

Expectation to communicate may impose burdens on

Lectures, information presentation

Resource sharing and prescribed content

Social networks and relationships

4. Components of a multiple cultures model for professional distance

acceptance of ambiguities, to develop cultural sensitivity and to understand the value

approach recognizes and envisions international students learning in a bi-cultural

activity. Formal systematic and sustained design support is necessary to the

international health professions bridging education, the challenge is to provide locally

Lipman, M. (1991), Thinking in Education, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

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Using concept maps to reveal

2. Concept mapping and cognitive structure

In networks many different concepts can be reached through a variety of routes of