ABSTRACT

Most of the Automobile parts are made with heavy materials which
reduce the mechanical efficiency, thermal efficiency, increase fuel consumption
etc. The composite materials are having excellent strength compared to metal
alloys. High specific stiffness and near-zero coefficient of thermal expansion is
being experienced in Metal Matrix Composites (MMCS).
These are a new class of materials that combine two or more separate
components into a form suitable for structural applications.

While each

component retains its identity, the new composite material displays macroscopic
properties superior to its parent constituents, particularly in terms of mechanical
properties and economic value.
Alumina (Al2O3) possesses favourable physical and chemical properties
such as high strength, hardness, elastic modulus and excellent resistance to
thermal and chemical environments.
It has been reported that the incorporation of some amounts of smallsize metal particles into an Al 2O3 matrix, as in the case of Al2O3, Cu (90%-10%),
Cu (80%-20%) and Al2O3, Cu (70%-30%) composites, can significantly improve
both the mechanical and electrical properties.
Using an intense mixture of with different copper compositions (10, 20
or 30 mass %) several Cu- Al2O3 composite materials were made. The hardness,
impact strength and microstructure of the composites were observed. Based the
results, % of Alumina influenced the mechanical properties of Copper. So this
composite material can be used as a high strength and high thermal stability
application in auto mobiles vehicles.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CH. NO.

TITLE

PAGE NO.
ABSTRACT
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
1

1.0 COMPOSITES
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Uses of composites
1.3 Constituent materials
1.4 Mechanics
1.5 Products
2.0 METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Composition
2.3 Matrix
2.4 Reinforcement

3
4

3.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

4.0 PROBLEM FORMULATION
4.1 Properties and applications of matrix Al2O3
4.1.1 Introduction
4.1.2 Properties of copper
4.1.3 Uses of copper
4.1.4 Applications
4.1.5 General properties of coppers
4.1.6 Properties and application of Alumina
4.1.7 Applications
5
6

5.0 CALCULATION FOR MATERIAL REQUIREMENT

6.0 CASTING
6.1 Basic process
6.2 Pit furnace
6.3 Salient features

7.0 TESTING OF COMPOSITE

7.1 Hardness test
2

7.1.1 Rockwell hardness test

7.1.2 Hardness test measurement
7.2 Impact test
7.2.1 Impact strength measurement
7.3 Micro structures
7.3.1 Microstructure Cu- Al 2O3 composites
8

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO.

TITLE
PAGE NO.

7.1

7.2

Hardness of Cu/ Al 2O3 composites

Impact strength for Cu/ Al 2O3

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES

FIG. NO.

TITLE

PAGE NO.
6.2
7.3.1

Pit furnace
Microstructure of sample 3(Cu-Al 2O3 at 90%-

10%)
7.3.2

Microstructure of sample 3(Cu-Al 2O3 at 80%-

20%)
7.3.3

Microstructure of sample 3(Cu-Al 2O3 at 70%-

30%)

CHAPTER 1

1.0 COMPOSITES

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Composite materials are materials made from two or more constituent

materials with significantly different physical or chemical properties which
remain separate and distinct on a macroscopic level within the finished
structure.
In an advanced society Modern materials with high strength and low cost is very
important to design the major Engineering components. Finer glass, developed
in the late 1940s, was the first modern composite and is still the most common.
It makes up about 65 per cent of all the composites produced today and is used
for boat hulls, surfboards, sporting goods, swimming pool linings, buildings
panels and car bodies. Composite materials are formed by combining two or
more materials that have quite different properties. The different materials work
together to give the composite unique properties, but within the composite you
can easily tell the different materials apart they do not dissolve or blend into

each other. Put more technically, it has both good compressive strength and
good tensile strength. Composites exist in nature.

1.2 USES OF COMPOSITES

The greatest advantage of composite materials is strength and stiffness
combined with lightness.

By choosing an appropriate combination of

reinforcement and matrix material, manufacturers can produce properties that

exactly fit the requirements for a particular structure.
Modern aviation, both military and civil, is a prime example. It would be much
less efficient without composites. In fact, the demands made by that industry
for materials that are both light and strong has been the main force driving the
development of composites. It is common now to find wing and tail sections,
propellers and rotor blades made from advanced composites, along with much
of the internal structure and fittings.

The airframes of some smaller aircraft are made entirely from composites, as are
the wing, tail and body panels of large commercial aircraft.
In thinking about planes, it is worth remembering that composites are
less likely than metals (such as aluminum) to break up completely under stress.
A small crack in a piece of metal can spread very rapidly with very serious
consequences (especially in the case of aircraft). The fibers in a composite act
to block the widening of any small crack and to share the stress around.
The right composites also stand up well to heat and corrosion. This makes them
ideal to use in products that are exposed to extreme environments such as
boats, chemical-handling equipment and spacecraft.
materials are very durable.

In general, composite

Another advantage of composite materials is that they provide design

flexibility. Composites can be molded into intricate shapes a great asset when
producing something like a surfboard or a boat hull.
The downside of composite is usually the cost. Although manufacturing
processes are often more efficient when composites are used, the raw materials
are expensive.

Composites will never totally replace traditional materials like

steel, but in many cases they are just what we need and no doubt new uses will
be found as the technology evolves.

1.3 CONSTITUENT MATERIALS

Composites are made up of individual materials referred to as
constituent materials. There are two categories of constituent materials: matrix
and reinforcement. At least one portion of each type is required. The matrix
materials surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by maintaining
their relative positions. The reinforcements impart their special mechanical and
physical properties to enhance the matrix properties.

A synergism produces

material properties unavailable from the individual constituent materials, while

thee wide variety of matrix and strengthening materials allows the designer of
the product or structure to choose an optimum combination.
Composite materials must be formed to shape for engineering applications. The
matrix material can be introduced to the reinforcement before or after the
reinforcement material is placed into the mold cavity or on to the mold surface.
The matrix material experiences a melding event, after which the part shape is
essentially set.
Depending upon the nature of the matrix material, this melding event can occur
in various ways such as chemical polymerization or solidification from the
melted state.

A variety of molding methods can be used according to the end-item design

requirements. The principal factors impacting the methodology are the natures
of the chosen matrix and reinforcement materials. Another important factor is
the gross quantity of material to be produced. Large quantities can be used to
justify high capital expenditures for rapid and automated manufacturing
technology. Small production quantities are accommodated with lower capital
expenditures but higher labour and tooling costs at a correspondingly slower
rate. This process is generally done at ambient temperature and atmospheric
pressure. Two variations of open molding are Hand Lay-up and Spray-up.
Strong enough to take harsh loading conditions such as aerospace components
(tails, wings, fuselages, propellers), boat and scull hulls, bicycle frames and
racing car bodies. Other uses includes finishing rods and storage tanks. The
new Boeing 787 Dream liner structure including the wings and fuselage is
composed of over 50 per cent composites.
Carbon composite is a key material in todays launch vehicles and spacecraft. It
is widely used in solar panel substrates, antenna reflectors and yokes of
spacecraft. It is also used in payload adapters, inter-stage structures and heat
shields of launch vehicles. In 2007 an all-composite military High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV or Hummvee) was introduced by TPI
Composites Inc and Armor Holdings Inc, the first all-composite military vehicle.
By using composites the vehicle is lighter, allowing higher payloads. In 2008
carbon fiber and Du Pont Kevlar (five times stronger than steel) were combined
with enhanced thermo set resins to make military transit cases by ECS
Composites creating 30-per cent lighter cases with high strength.
Also in 2008, an all-composite recreational vehicle RV was introduced
by Pilgrim International Inc.
The shell composed of Cosmo Lite, a thermoplastic fiber-reinforced composite
and the exterior surface Spectra Lite which incorporates DuPont Surlyn, an
8

impact-resistant coating found on golf balls.

In 2006, Microcosm Inc.

successfully completed qualification tests on an all-composite cryogenic LOX

tank.

In testing done for the Scorpius Space Launch Company (SSLC),

microcosm successfully tested a 42-inch diameter all-composite liquid oxygen

(LOX) tank to nearly 4 times its operating pressure of 550 psi.
Testing was done at cryogenic temperatures using liquid nitrogen. The work was
done as part of the technology development program for the Scorpius family of
low-cost, responsive launch vehicles.
1.4 MECHANICS
The physical properties of composite materials are generally not
isotropic (independent of direction of applied force) in nature, but rather are
typically orthotropic (different depending on the direction of the applied force or
load). For instance, the stiffness of a composite panel will often depend upon
the orientation of the applied forces and/or moments.

Panel stiffness is also

dependent on the design of the panel. For instance, the fiber reinforcement and
matrix used the method of panel build, thermo set versus thermoplastic, type of
weave, and orientation of fiber axis to the primary force.
In contrast, isotropic materials (for example, aluminium or steel), in standard
wrought forms, typically have the same stiffness regardless of the directional
orientation of the applied forces and/or moments.
The relationship between forces/moments and strains/curvatures for an isotropic
material can be described with the following material properties: Youngs
modulus, the Shear Modulus and the Poissons ratio, in relatively simple
mathematical relationships.

For the anisotropic material, it requires the

mathematics of a second order tensor and up to 21 material property constants.

1.5 PRODUCTS

Light, strong and corrosion-resistant, composite materials are being

used in an increasing number of products as more manufacturers discover the
benefits of these versatile materials.

Composite materials have gained

popularity (despite their generally high cost) in high aerospace components

(tails, wings, fuselages, and propellers), boat and scull hulls, bicycle frames and
racing car bodies. Other uses include finishing rods and storage tanks. The new
Boeing 787 Dream liner structure including the wings and fuselage is composed
of over 50 per cent composites.
Carbon composite is a key material in todays launch vehicles and spacecraft. It
is widely used in solar panel substrates, antenna reflectors and yokes of
spacecraft. It is also used inn payload adapters, inter-stage structures and heat
shields of launch vehicles. In 2007 an all-composite military High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV or Hummvee) was introduced by TPI
Composites Inc and Armor Holdings Inc, the first all-composite military vehicle.
By using composites the vehicle is lighter, allowing higher payloads. In 2008
carbon fiber and Du Pont Kevlar (five times stronger than steel) were combined
with enhanced thermo set resins to make military transit cases by ECS
Composites creating 30-per cent lighter cases with high strength.
Also in 2008, an all-composite recreational vehicle RV was introduced
by Pilgrim International Inc. The shell composed of Cosmo Lite, a thermoplastic
fiber-reinforced

composite

and

the

exterior

surface

Spectra

Lite

which

incorporates DuPont Surlyn, an impact-resistant coating found on golf balls. In

2006, Microcosm Inc.

Successfully completed qualification tests on an all-

composite cryogenic LOX tank.

In testing done for the Scorpius Space Launch Company (SSLC), microcosm
successfully tested a 42-inch diameter all-composite liquid oxygen (LOX) tank to
nearly 4 times its operating pressure of 550 psi. Testing was done at cryogenic
temperatures using liquid nitrogen. The work was done as part of the technology

10

development program for the Scorpius family of low-cost, responsive launch

vehicles.

CHAPTER 2

2.0 METAL MATRIX COMPOSITE

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Metal matrix composite (MMC) is composite material with at least two

constituent parts, one being a metal.

The other material may be a different

metal or another material, such as a ceramic or organic compound. MMCs are

nearly always more expensive than the more conventional materials they are
replacing.

As a result, they are found where improved properties and

performance can justify the added cost.

Today these applications are found

most often inn aircraft components, space systems and high-end or boutique
sports equipment.

The scope of applications will certainly increase as

manufacturing costs are reduced.

In comparison with conventional polymer matrix composites, MMCs are resistant
to fire, can operate in wider range of temperatures, do not absorb moisture,
have better electrical and thermal conductivity, are resistant to radiation, and do
not display out gassing. On the other hand, MMCs tend to be more expensive,
the fiber-reinforced materials may be difficult to fabricate, and the available
experience in use is limited.
2.2 COMPOSITION
MMCs are made by dispersing a reinforcing material into a metal
matrix. The reinforcement surface can be coated to prevent a chemical reaction
11

with the matrix. For example, carbon fibers are commonly used in aluminium
matrix to synthesize composites showing low density and high strength.
However, carbon reacts with aluminium to generate a brittle and wate the
surface of the fiber. To prevent this reaction, the carbon fibers are coated with
nickel or titanium boride. Over recent decades many new composites have been
developed, some with very valuable properties.

2.3 MATRIX
The matrix is the monolithic material into which the reinforcement is embedded,
and is completely continuous.

This means that there is a path through the

matrix to any point in the material, unlike two materials sandwiched together.
In structural applications, the matrix is usually a lighter metal such as
aluminium, magnesium, or titanium, and provides a compliant support for the
reinforcement. In high temperature applications, cobalt and cobalt-nickel alloy
matrices are common.
2.4 REINFORCEMENT
The reinforcement material is embedded into the matrix. The reinforcement
does not always serve a purely structural task (reinforcing the compound), but is
also used to change physical properties such as wear resistance, friction coefficient, or thermal conductivity. The reinforcement can be either continuous,
or discontinuous. Discontinuous MMCs can be isotropic, and can be worked with
standard metalworking techniques, such as extrusion, forging or rolling.

In

addition, they may be machined using conventional techniques, but commonly

would need the use of polycrystalline diamond tooling (PCD).
2.5 MMC USED AS AUTOMOTIVE DISC BRAKES

12

Ford offers a Metal Matrix Composite (MMC) drive shaft upgrade. The
MMC driveshaft is made of an aluminum boron carbide matrix, allowing the
critical speed of the driveshaft to be raised by reducing inertia.
Honda has used aluminium metal matrix composite cylinder liners in
some of their engines, including the B21A1, H22A and H23A, F20C and F22C and
the C32B used in the NSX.
Toyota has since used metal matrix composites in the Yamaha designed
2ZZ-GE engine which is used in the later Lotus Elise S2 versions as well as
Toyota car models.

CHAPTER 3

3.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Effect of composition on friction co-efficient of Cu-alumina composites, is
analysed it reveals that with increasing concentration of alumina with Cu, the coefficient of friction and wear rate decreased.

However, in the case of low

voltage and high current density, it is required to employ materials with a very
high specific electrical conductivity, good thermal conductivity and low friction
co-efficient.

Such conditions are fulfilled only by Cu-Alumina composite

materials (1).
Microstructure of Cu&Al2O3 surface composite on a copper substrate, it reveals
that the microstructure and hardness of the surface infiltrated composite
(Cu/Al2O3) layers produced on copper substrates.

High electrical and heat

conductive copper is widely used in optics, electrical contact and heat

13

conducting materials. Their low strength and poor wear resistance are required
to improve with the developing industry (2).
Interfacial design of Cu-based composites prepared by powder metallurgy for
heat sink applications. The use of SIC or diamonds particles as reinforcements
in copper based composites is considered very attractive to meet the increasing
demands for high performance heat sink materials and packages (3).
Wear and mechanical properties of sintered copper-tin composites containing
graphite or molybdenum disulfide.

The lubricant graphite and MoS2 powders

were coated with Cu to reinforce their bonding to the Cu particles in the

composites during sintering. The friction and wear properties of the materials
were improved (4).
Wear resistance of WC particle reinforced copper matrix composites Tungsten,
being a refractory metal, provides some degree of wear and arcing resistance
when used with copper as an electrical contact material. Its wear resistance is
better than that of wear-resisting tool steels. Tungsten carbide undergoes no
phase changes during heating and cooling and retains its stability in definitely
(5).

CHAPTER 4

4.0 PROBLEM FORMULATION

Copper-aluminum alloy or brass is known for their corrosion resistance. Brasses
are stronger and more ductile than red and semi red brasses. They have high
wear resistance and low friction co-efficient against steel.

The room

temperature phase transformation are slow and usually do not occur, therefore
these alloys are single phase alloys. The bronzes are used in bearings, gears,
piston rings, valves and fittings.

Aluminum is added to copper in order to

14

improve machinability and toughness. Aluminium increase the tensile strength

and ductility of the copper, but the composition can be adjusted to balance
machinability and strength requirements.

These alloys have a slow fail

mechanism that temporarily prevents galling and seizing.

In this project we have been added alumina 10%, 20% and 30% which one is the
best mechanical properties for automobile, aircraft component.

In order that

some experimental investigation conducting by us and finally we were

concluded which one is the best mechanical properties in this composition.

4.1 PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS OF MATRIX (Cu)

4.1.1 INTRODUCTION

Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a
ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is
rather soft and malleable and a freshly-exposed surface has a pinkish or peachy
color, which (besides gold and cesium) is unusual for metals, which are usually
15

silvery or grayish. It is used as a thermal conductor, an electrical conductor, a

building material, and a constituent of various metal alloys.

4.1.2 PROPERTIES OF COPPER

Like gold and silver, copper is malleable. That is, it can be bent and
shaped without cracking, when either hot or cold. Copper also is ductile, that is,
it can be drawn out into thin wire. Besides electricity, copper also is an excellent
conductor of heat, making it an important metal in cookware, refrigerators and
radiators.
Copper is easily worked, being both ductile and malleable. The ease
with which it can be drawn into wire makes it useful for electrical work in
addition to its excellent electrical properties. Copper can be machined, although
it is usually necessary to use an alloy for intricate parts, such as threaded
components, to get really good machinability characteristics.

Good thermal

conduction makes it useful for heat sinks and in heat exchangers. Copper has
good corrosion resistance, but not as well as gold. It has excellent brazing and
soldering properties and can also be welded, although best results are obtained
with gas metal arc welding.
Copper is a metal that does not react with water (H 2O), but the oxygen
of the air will react slowly at room temperature to form a layer of brown-black
copper oxide on copper metal.

4.1.3 USES OF COPPER

Copper is an essential trace nutrient to all higher plant and animal life.

In

animals, including humans, it is found widely in tissues, with concentration in

liver, muscle and bone. It functions as a co-factor in various enzymes and in
16

copper-based pigments. Some molluscs have blue-green blood resulting from a

copper compound which they use to transport oxygen, instead of heme.

Copper and copper alloy powders have been used in industrial applications for
many years. Probably the best known is the self-lubricating bearing which was
the first major application and still accounts for about 70% of the granular
copper powder used. This application takes advantage of the ability to produce
a component with controlled interconnected and surface-connected porosity.
The production of metallic filters also takes advantage of this ability.

Pure copper powder is used in the electrical and the electronics industries
because of its excellent electrical and thermal conductivities.

Alloyed with

Tungsten, zinc, nickel and other elements, copper in powder form is used in
structural parts and friction materials. Brasses, bronzes and other copper alloys
produced by powder metallurgy methods have the physical and mechanical
properties of their cast or wrought counterparts.

Copper is used also as an

alloying element in iron powder components to enhance the mechanical

properties and control dimensional changes during sintering, the addition being
made either by mixing or by infiltration.

In addition to the above applications of granular copper powder, a large quantity

of copper and copper alloy powder is used in flake form, i.e., as a powder whose
thickness is small in relation to its other dimensions. Such powders are used, for
example, in antifouling paints, decorative and protective coatings and printing
inks.

17

Copper and copper alloy powders are also used in such non-structural
applications as brazing, cold soldering, and mechanical plating, as well as for
medals and medallions, metal plastic decorative products and a variety of
chemical and medical purposes.

4.1.4 APPLICATIONS

PIPING

1. Including water supply.

2. Used extensively in refrigeration and air conditioning equipment because of

its ease of fabrication and soldering.

ELECTRICAL APPLICATIONS of
1. Copper wire.
2. Oxygen-free copper.
3. Electromagnets.
4. Printed circuit boards.
5. Lead free solder, alloyed with Tungsten.
6. Electrical machines, especially electromagnetic motors, generators and
transformers.
7. Electrical relays, electrical busbars and electrical switches.
8. Vacuum tubes, cathode ray tubes, and the magnetron in microwave ovens.
9. Wave guide for microwave radiation.

18

4.1.5 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF COPPER

Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from Latin: cuprum) and
atomic number 29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical
conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; a freshly exposed surface has a
reddish-orange color. It is used as a conductor of heat and electricity, a building
material, and a constituent of various metal alloys.

The metal and its alloys have been used for thousands of years. In the Roman
era, copper was principally mined on Cyprus, hence the origin of the name of the
metal as cyprium (metal of Cyprus), later shortened to cuprum. Its compounds
are commonly encountered as copper (II) salts, which often impart blue or green
colors to minerals such as turquoise and have been widely used historically as
pigments.

Copper and copper alloy powders are also used in such non-structural
applications as brazing, cold soldering and mechanical plating, as well as for
medals and medallions, metal-plastic decorative products and a variety of
chemical and medical purposes.

Copper has a significant presence in decorative art. It can also be used as an

anti-germ surface that can add to the anti-bacterial and antimicrobial features of
buildings such as hospitals.

Pure copper powder is used in the electrical and the electronics industries
because of its excellent electrical and thermal conductivities.
19

Alloyed with

Tungsten, zinc, nickel and other elements, copper in powder form is used in
structural parts and friction materials. Brasses, bronzes and other copper alloys
produced by powder metallurgy methods have the physical and mechanical
properties of their cast or wrought counterparts.

Copper is used also as an

alloying element in iron powder components to enhance the mechanical

properties and control dimensional changes during sintering, the addition being
made either by mixing or by infiltration.

In addition to the above applications of granular copper powder, a large quantity

of copper and copper alloy powder is used in flake form, i.e., as a powder whose
thickness is small in relation to its other dimensions. Such powders are used, for
example, in antifouling paints, decorative and protective coatings and printing
inks.

4.1.6 PROPERTIES AND APPLICATION OF (Al2O3)

INTRODUCTION

Alumina is one of the most cost effective and widely used material in the family
of engineering ceramics. The raw materials from which this high performance
technical grade ceramic is made are readily available and reasonably priced,
resulting in good value for the cost in fabricated alumina shapes.

With an

excellent combination of properties and an attractive price, it is no surprise that

sine grain technical grade alumina has a very wide range of applications.

PROPERTIES

20

Hard, wear-resistant
Excellent dielectric properties from DC to GHz frequencies
Resists strong acid and alkali attack at elevated temperatures
Good thermal conductivity
Excellent size and shape capability
High strength and stiffness
Available in purity ranges from 94%, an easily metallizable composition,
to 99.8% for the most demanding high temperature applications.

Aluminum oxide, commonly referred to as alumina, possesses strong ionic

interatomic bonding giving rise to its desirable material characteristics. It can
exist in several crystalline phases which all revert to the most stable hexagonal
alpha phase at elevated temperatures. This is the phase of particular interest
for structural applications and the material available from Accuratus.

Alpha phase alumina is the strongest and stiffest of the oxide ceramics. Its high
hardness, excellent dielectric properties, refractoriness and good thermal
properties make it the material of choice for a wide range of applications.

High purity alumina is usable in both oxidizing and reducing atmospheres to

1925oc.

Weight loss in vacuum ranges from 10 -7 to 10-6 g/cm2 .sec over a

temperature range of 1700oc to 2000oc. It resists attack by all gases except wet
fluorine and is resistant to all common reagents except hydrofluoric acid and
phosphoric acid. Elevated temperature attack occurs in the presence of alkali
metal vapors particularly at lower purity levels.

21

The composition of the ceramic body can be changed to enhance particular

desirable material characteristics.

An example would be additions of chrome

oxide or manganese oxide to improve hardness and change color.

Other

additions can be made to improve the ease and consistency of metal Aluminum
oxide bears chemical and physical characteristics similar to a compound known
as natural corundum. It is a very hard material that resists any type of wear. It
is also among the hardest compounds in existence, which makes possible its use
as an abrasive material.

Aluminum oxide conducts electricity easily.

It also

resists reacting with acids and bases at high temperature. It is a good thermal
conductor due to its high boiling point.

a. Bonded abrasive products.

b. Coated abrasive products such as sand paper, sand cloth, roll, sand belt,
flap wheel, etc.
c. Vitrified bonded grinding wheels and resin bonded grinding wheels.
d. Pressure blasting, surface finish, sandblasting.
e. Various polishing application such as glass carving, rust removing, jean
cloth grinding.
f. Wear-resistant and fire-proof product.

Aluminum oxide for chromatography is being used in the laboratory and in

industrial production.

For preparative column chromatographic separations,

isolation & purifications of antibiotics.

On industrial scale for the removal of

small amounts of undesired components, e.g. Side reaction products from other
liquors, water from non-polar solvents, etc. In the separation and purification of
dyes, dye intermediates alkaloids, steroids, liquids, amino acids, hormones,
aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, vitamins for purification of natural
products & herbals like reserpine, capsaicin & some oleoresins Storage
Conditions: Store in a dry room. Prevention against water, acid and alkalis.

22

4.1.7 APPLICATIONS

HIGH TEMPERATURE AND AGGRESSIVE ENVIRONMENTS

Its high free energy of formation makes alumina chemically stable and
refractory, and hence it finds uses in containment of aggressive and high
temperature environments.

WEAR AND CORROSION RESISTANCE

The high hardness of alumina imparts wear and abrasion resistance and hence it
is used in diverse applications such as wear resistant linings for pipes and
vessels, pump and faucet seals, thread and wire guides etc.

BIOMEDICAL
High purity alumina are also used as orthopaedics implants particularly in hip
replacement surgery.

METAL CUTTING TOOLS

The high hot hardness of alumina have led to applications as tool tips for
metal cutting (though in this instance alumina matrix composites with even
higher properties are more common) and abrasives.

MILLING MEDIA
Alumina is used as milling media in a wide range of particle size reduction
processes.

23

MICROWAVE COMPONENTS
The high dielectric constant coupled with low dielectric loss particularly at high
frequencies leads to a number of microwave applications including windows for
high power devices and wave guides.

ELECTRICAL INSULATION
The high volume resistivity and dielectric strength make alumina an excellent
electrical insulator which leads to applications in electronics as substrates and
connectors, and in lower duty applications such as insulators for automotive
spark plugs.

CHAPTER 5

5.0 CALCULATIONS FOR MATERIAL REQUIREMENT

Size of the sample.

Length = 100 mm, Breadth = 100 mm, Thickness = 18 mm
Sample is a rectangular object
Volume = l x b x t
Volume = 10 x 10 x 1.8 = 180 cm3

SAMPLE 1
24

Mixing ratio = 90% Cu & 10% Al2O3

Volume of copper = 180 x 0.90 = 162 cm3

Volume of Al2O3 = 180 x 0.10 = 18 cm3
Density of copper = 8.9 g/cc
Mass of copper = volume x density
Mass of copper = volume of copper x density of copper
Mass of copper = 162 x 8.9 = 1441.8 g =1.441 kg
Density of Al2O3 = 2.7 g/cc
Mass of Al2O3 = 36 x 2.7 = 48.6 g

30% for excess (Runner & riser, slag)

Total mass of mixture
30% of mass of copper = 30/100 x 1441.8 = 432 g
Total amount of copper = 1441.8 g + 432 g = 1837.8 g
Total amount of Al2O3 = 48.6 + 15 = 63.6 g

SAMPLES 2

Mixing ratio = 80% Cu & 20% Al2O3

Volume of copper = 180 x 0.80 = 144 cm3
Volume of Al2O3 = 180 x 0.20 = 36 cm3
Density of copper = 8.9 g/cc
Mass of copper = volume x density
Mass of copper = volume of copper x density of copper
Mass of copper = 144 x 8.9 = 1281.6 g = 1.281 kg
Density of = 2.7 g/cc
25

Mass of Al2O3 = 18 x 2.7 = 48.6 g

30% for excess (Runner & riser, slag)

Total mass of mixture
30% of mass of copper = 30/100 x 1281.6 = 384 g
Total amount of copper = 1281.6 g + 384 g = 1665.6 g
Total amount of Al2O3 = 97.2 + 30 = 127.2 g

SAMPLES 3
Mixing ratio = 70% Cu & 30% Al2O3

Volume of copper = 180 x 0.70 = 126 cm3

Volume of Al2O3 = 180 x 0.30 = 54 cm3
Density of copper = 8.9 g/cc
Mass of copper = volume x density
Mass of copper = volume of copper x density of copper
Mass of copper = 126 x 8.9 = 1121.4 g =1.121 kg
Density of Al2O3 = 2.7 g/cc
Mass of Al2O3 = 54 x 2.7 = 145.8 g

30% for excess (Runner & riser, slag)

Total mass of mixture
30% of mass of copper = 30/100 x 1121.4 = 336 g
Total amount of copper = 1121.4 g + 336 g = 1457.4 g
26

Total amount of Al2O3 = 145.2 + 45 = 190 g

CHAPTER 6

6.0 PREPARATION OF Cu/ Al2O3 COMPOSITES

For preparing Cu/ Al2O3 composites sand mold casting is used Sand casting,
also known as sand molded casting, is a metal casting process characterized
by using sand as the mold material.

It is relatively cheap and sufficiently refractory even for steel foundry use. A
suitable bonding agent (usually clay) is mixed or occurs with the sand.

The

mixture is moistened with water to develop strength and plasticity of the clay
and to make the aggregate suitable for molding. The term sand casting can
also refer to a casting produced via the sand casting process. Sand castings are

27

produced in specialized factories called foundries.

Over 70% of all metal

castings are produced via a sand casting process.

6.1 BASIC PROCESS

The following steps are used in this process:

1. Pattern was placed in a bottom board in appropriate place.

2. Facing sand is spreaded to over a pattern.
3. Moulding box is (drag) is placed over on a bottom board.
4. Moulding sand is filled in a moulding box.
5. Ramming is done now the moulding box is reversed.
6. Another moulding box (cope) is placed on a drag and moulding sand is filled
after placing a runner and raiser.
7. After ramming the pattern is removed.
8. The mould cavity is produced.
9. The molten metal (composition of sample 1) is poure mould cavity.
10.
After solidification the moulds are broken.
11.
Casting is taken and remove the runner and raiser.
12.
Allow the metal to cool.
13.
Break away the sand mold and remove the casting.

6.2 PIT FURNACE

FURNACE
Pit furnace are those furnace that are applied for heating various metals or
alloys of metals. They are available in various sizes and are either gas fired or
fuel fired. They can operate at various temperatures and are designed in such a
way that the heat loss is minimum.
Safe operation, is an important aspect of this furnace because the fan and
heating elements are separate from the load chamber. Due to this damage from
accidental contact is eliminated. Metal lining is used in the entire work chamber
which gives the furnace maximum durability.

28

6.3 SALIENT FEATURES:

FOLLOWING ARE THE FEATURES OF PIT FURNACE:

They can withstand continuous operation.

Some of the pit furnace have plug in type of door/retort cover.
Temperature is distributed uniformly.
For longer element life heating elements operate on low surface load.
The furnace is well insulated by using high quality bricks/ceramic fiber for
energy conservation.
Latest pit furnace uses automatic temperature control by digital controller
with safety back-up non-indicating controller.

ADVANTAGES

The pit furnace are highly productive.

Temperature is distributed uniformly.
The operation is very simple.
The maintenance is easy and cost effective.

6.4 TYPES
THERE ARE DIFFERENT TYPES OF PIT FURNACE THAT ARE USED:

Element Pit Furnace

Electric Pit Furnace
Gas-Fired Pit Furnace
Electric Retort Pit Furnace
Gas-Fired Retort Pit Furnace
Nitriding Pit Furnace
Tempering Pit Furnace

29

CHAPTER 7

7.0 TESTING OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

7.1 HARDNESS TEST

There are three types of tests used with accuracy by the metals industry; they
are the Brinell hardness test, the Rockwell hardness test, and the Vickers
hardness test.

Since the definitions of metallurgic ultimate strength and

hardness are rather similar, it can generally be assumed that a strong metal is
also a hard metal. The way the three of these hardness tests measure a metals
hardness is to determine the metals resistance to the penetration of a nondeformable ball or cone. The tests determine the depth which such a ball or
cone will sink into the metal, under a given load, within a specific period of time.
The followings are the most common hardness test methods used in todays
technology.

7.1.1 ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST:

BACKGROUND INFORMATION:

1. Rockwell Hardness systems uses a direct readout machine determining the

hardness number based upon the depth of penetration of either a diamond
30

point or a steel ball. Deep penetration indicated a material having a low

Rockwell Hardness number.
2. However, a low penetration indicates a material having a high Rockwell
Hardness number. The Rockwell Hardness number is based upon the
difference in the depth to which a penetrator is driven by a definite light or
minor load and a definite heavy or major load.
3. The ball penetrators are chucks that are made to hold 1/16 or 1/8
diameter hardened steel balls.

Also available are and ball

penetrators for the testing of softer materials.

4. There are two types of anvils that are used on the Rockwell hardness
testers. The flat faceplate models are used for flat specimens. The V type
anvils hold round specimens firmly.
5. Test blocks or calibration blocks are flat steel or brass blocks, which have
been test and marked with the scale and Rockwell number. They should be
used to check the accuracy and calibration of the tester frequently.

7.1.2 HARDNESS TEST MEASUREMENT

TYPES: Rockwell Hardness

Major Load Applied: 100 kg Types if Indenter used: 1/16

Using the B Scale:

a. Use for copper alloys, soft steels, aluminum alloys, and malleable iron
b. 1/16 diameter steel ball penetrator
c. Major load: 100 kg, Minor load: 10 kg

31

Table 7.1 Hardness of Cu/ Al2O3 composites

Sample Compositi Trial 1

Trial 2

Trial 3

Trial 4

Trial 5

Mean

No.

HRB

HRB

HRB

HRB

HRB

on

of HRB

composit
es
Cu 90%
1

Al2O3

35

39

33

32

39

35.6

39

41

48

40

40

41.6

54

58

60

69

68

61.8

10%
Cu 80%
2
Al2O3
20%
Cu 70%
3

Al2O3
30%

7.2 IMPACT TEST

Izod impact strength testing is an ASTM standard method of determining impact

strength. A notched sample is generally used to determine impact strength.
32

The test is named after the English engineer Edwin Gilbert Izod (1876-1946),
who described it in his 1903 address to the British Association, subsequently
published in Engineering.

Impact is a very important phenomenon in governing the life of a structure. In

the case of aircraft, impact can take place by the bird hitting the plane while it is
cruising, during take-off and landing there is impact by the debris present on the
runway.

An arm held at a specific height (constant potential energy) is released. The

arm hits the sample and breaks it. From the energy absorbed by the sample, its
impact strength is determined.

The North American standard for Izod Impact testing is ASTM D256. The results
are expressed in energy lost per unit of thickness (such as ft-lb/in or J/cm) at the
notch. Alternatively, the results may be reported as energy lost per unit crosssectional area at the notch (J/m2 or ft-lb/in2).
In Europe, ISO 180 methods are used and results are based only on the crosssectional area at the notch (J/m2).

The dimensions of a standard specimen for ASTM D256 are 4 x 12.7 x 3.2 mm
(2.5 x 0.5 x 1/8). The most common specimen thickness is 3.2 mm (0.125),
but the width can vary between 3.0 and 12.7 mm (0.500).

33

The Izod impact test differs from the Charpy impact test in that the sample is
held in a cantilevered beam configuration as opposed to a three point bending
configuration.

This test can also be used to determine the notch sensitivity.

7.2.1 IMPACT STRENGTH MEASUREMENT

In our Project Impact Strength determined through impact testing machine

by Izod method.

Specification of the Machine:

Energy Range = 0 168 J

Least Count (1 Division) = 2 J

DETAILS OF SPECIMEN FOR IZOD TEST

LENGTH = 75 mm

SIZE

= 10 Sq mm

NOTCH

= V NOTCH (45 Included Angle)

FALL ANGLE = 90
SPECIMEN SUPPORTING = Cantilever Beam setup

NOTCH DEPTH = 2 mm

34

AREA =

a2

= (10 2)2
= 64 mm2
I = K/A J/m2
I = Impact Strength
K = Energy Observed

A = Area

TABLE 7.2 IMPACT STRENGTH FOR Cu/ Al2O3

SAMPLE

COMPOSITIONS ENERGY

No.

OF

OBSERVED

COMPOSITES
90%Cu

IN JOULE)

1
2
3

(E mm2

IN IMPACT
STRENGTH
I = K/A J/mm2

10%Al2O3
80%Cu

20%Al2O3
70%Cu

30%Al2O3

AREA

64

64

0.9687

66

64

1.031

74

64

1.15

7.3 MICROSTRUCTURE

INTRODUCTION

35

Microstructure is the characteristic appearance and physical arrangement of a

metal as observed with a microscope. The microstructure of a material (of which
we can broadly classify into metallic, polymeric, ceramic and composite) can
strongly influence physical properties such as strength, toughness, ductility,
hardness,

corrosion

resistance,

high

low

temperature

behavior,

wear

resistance, and so on, which in turn govern the application of these materials in
industrial practice.

Micro-examination involves the study of the structures of metals and their alloys,
also composites under a microscope at magnifications from X20 to X2000. The
aim of micro-examination is,

1. To determine the size and shape of the crystallites which constitute

composites.
2. To reveal structures characteristic of certain types of mechanical working
operations.
3. To discover micro-defects (non-metallic inclusions, microcracks, etc.
4. To indicate quality of heat treatment, mechanical properties, etc.
5. To determine the chemical content of composites.

7.3.1 MICROSTRUCTURE Cu-Al2O3 COMPOSITES

The microstructures of the Cu-Al 2O3 composites are shown in Figs.

It is

observed that on increasing percentage of aluminium may increase the porosity

and coring. It is observed that the percentage of the aluminium increases the
hardness of the specimen also increases.

MICROSTRUCTURE OF SAMPLE 1 (Cu-Al2O3 at 90%-10%)

36

The matrix shows completely fine transformed beta as the matrix.

Some equi-axed alpha also present in the matrix of beta.

Fig No. 7.3.1

MICROSTRUCTURE OF SAMPLE 2 (Cu-Al2O3 at 80%-20%)

Fig No. 7.3.2

The matrix large grains of alpha in a matrix of beta solid solution. The matrix
also shows the intergranular voids. This may also due to shrinkage defect taken
place during casting.

MICROSTRUCTURE OF SAMPLE 3 (Cu-Al2O3 at 70%-30%)

Fig No. 7.3.3

The matrix shows cast fine inter-dendrites grains of alpha and beta. The matrix
is beta and the presence of alpha solid solution is about 20% in a matrix of beta
solid solution. Void shows the material is cast and due to shrinkage defect.

37

CHAPTER 8

CONCLUSION

Composite materials especially Cu-Al2O3 composites having good

mechanical properties compared with the conventional materials. It is
used in various industrial application these materials having light
weight along with high hardness. It with stand high load compare with
the existing materials are most applicable in the engineering products
instead of existing materials.
Composite materials Cu-Al2O3 was prepared by varying the percentage
of reinforcement materials such 10%, 20% and 30%.
The samples were conducted the investigation on hardness, impact
strength and microstructures.

38

 The properties of hardness and impact strength have been increased

by the influence of Al2O3 over the copper matrix phase.

Finally I conclude that the percentage of Al 2O3 influenced the high hardness and
impact strength of copper. So this composite material can be used as a high
strength and high thermal stability application in auto mobiles vehicles.

CHAPTER 9

REFERENCES

1)H.E. Boyer, T.M. Gall, Metals Handbook, Desk Ed., American Society
for Metals, Metals Park, OH, 1991, pp. 20.16- 20.21.
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3)J.L. Johnson, R.M. German, Int. J. Powder Metall. 30(1) (1994) 91102.
4)W.F. Wang, Powder Metall. 40 (4) (1997) 295-300.
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pp. 284-288.
7)V.N. Eremenko, R.V. Minakova, M.M. Churakov, Sov. Powder Metall.
Met. Ceram. 15 (1976) 283.

39

8)K. Byoong, Mechano-chemical process for production of high

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5842108 (1998).
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S.E. Allen, E. Streicher, Proceedings of the 44 th IEEE Holm
Conference; on Electrical Contacts, 1998, pp. 276-28 pm.

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41