UNIT III Data Collection

Types of Data: Definition of Data: Its the facts presented to the

researcher from the studys environment. It is characterized by
their abstractness, verifiability, elusiveness, and closeness to the
phenomenon.
1) Qualitative data: is a categorical
measurement expressed not in terms of numbers, but rather by
means of a natural language description. In statistics, it is often
used interchangeably with "categorical" data. For e.g., favorite
color Blue, Height Tall. Although we may have categories,
the categories may have a structure to them. When there is not a
natural ordering of the categories, we call these nominal
categories. Examples might be gender, race, religion, or sport.
When the categories may be ordered, these are called ordinal
variables. Categorical variables that judge size (small, medium,
large, etc.) are ordinal variables. Attitudes (strongly disagree,
disagree, neutral, agree, strongly agree) are also ordinal
variables, however we may not know which value is the best or
worst of these issues. Note that the distance between these
categories is not something we can measure. 2) Quantitative
data: is a numerical measurement expressed not by means of a
natural language description, but rather in terms of numbers.
However, not all numbers are continuous and measurable. For
example, the Aadhaar is a number, but not something that one
can add or subtract. Quantitative data always associate with a
scale measure including ratio-scale.
Primary vs Secondary data: Primary data are sought for their
proximity to the truth and control over error. These cautions
remind us to use care in designing data collection procedures and
generalizing from results. Secondary data have had at least one
level of interpretation inserted between the event and its
recording. primary sources, (2) secondary sources, and (3)
tertiary sources. Primary sources are original works of research
or raw data without interpretation or pronouncements that
represent an official opinion or position. Included among the
primary sources are memos; letters; complete interviews or
speeches (in audio, video, or written transcript formats); laws;
regulations; court decisions or standards; and most government
data, including census, economic, and labor data. Primary
sources are always the most authoritative because the
information has not been altered or interpreted by a second
party. Other internal sources of primary data are inventory
records, personnel records, purchasing requisition forms,
statistical process control charts, and similar data. Secondary
sources are interpretations of primary data. Encyclopedias,
textbooks, handbooks, magazine and newspaper articles, and
most newscasts are considered secondary information sources.
Indeed, nearly all reference materials fall into this category.
Internally, sales analysis summaries and investor annual reports
would be examples of secondary sources, because they are
compiled from a variety of primary sources. To an outsider,
however, the annual report is viewed as a primary source,
because it represents the official position of the corporation.
Methods of primary data collection: Methods of data
collection: 1) Monitoring (Conditions, behaviors, events,
processes): includes studies in which the researcher inspects the
activities of a subject or the nature of some material without
attempting to elicit responses from anyone e.g, Traffic counts at
an intersection. 2) Communication (Attitudes, motivations,
intentions, expectations): the researcher questions the subjects
and collects their responses by personal or impersonal means.
The collected data may result from (i) interview or telephone
conversations, (ii) self-administered or self-reported instruments
sent through the mail, left in convenient locations, or transmitted
electronically or by other means, or (iii) instruments presented
before and/or after a treatment or stimulus condition in an
experiment. Data Collection Design: Steps: 1) Select relevant
variables; 2) Specify levels of treatment; 3) Control the
experimental environment; 4) Choose the experimental design
Screen design, Response surface design, Choice design, Life test
design, Nonlinear design, Space filling design, Full factorial
design, Taguchi design, Mixture design, Evaluate design &
Augment design. Instrument Design: Steps: 1) Identify
screening inquiry; 2) Prepare participation appeal; 3) Identify
source of error; 4) Prepare error reduction plan; 5) Prepare
instrument.
Survey vs Observation: Survey: Very versatile in types of data
collection. This method provides opportunity to the respondents
for seeking clarifications. The the response to the questions can
be sought though Personal interviews, Ordinary Mail or Electronic
communication. Time and cooperation is required from the
respondent. Observation: Data collection is constrained only
what can be observed or heard. Any kind of attitude/feelings
survey is not possible. The observation can be done mechanically
(video tapes) or through human interface. This method is best for
conducting surveys on infants /children who cannot speak. In this
technique no extra effort is needed from the respondent. Not

affected by the presence of the interviewer. Types of

Observations: 1) Natural vs Contrived observation; 2) Disguised
vs Non-disguised; 3) Human vs Mechanical; 4) Web-based
observation.
Experiments: Read Unit II cheatsheet
Construction of questionnaire and instrument: Question
construction involves three critical decision areas. They are (a)
question content, (b) question wording, and (c) response
strategy. Question content should pass the following tests:
Should the question be asked? Is it of proper scope? Can and will
the participant answer adequately? Question wording difficulties
exceed most other sources of distortion in surveys. Each
response strategy generates a specific level of data, with
available statistical procedures for each scale type influencing
the desired response strategy. Participant factors include level of
information about the topic, degree to which the topic has been
thought through, ease of communication, and motivation to share
information.
Instruments obtain three general classes of information. Target
questions address the investigative questions and are the most
important.
Classification
questions
concern
participant
characteristics and allow participants answers to be grouped for
analysis. Administrative questions identify the participant,
interviewer, and interview location and conditions.
Validation of questionnaire:
Retention of a question should be confirmed by answering
these questions: Is the question stated in terms of a shared
vocabulary? Does the vocabulary have a single meaning? Does
the question contain misleading assumptions? Is the wording
biased? Is it correctly personalized? Are adequate alternatives
presented?
Definitions: Idea of Sampling: is that by selecting some of the
elements in a population, we may draw conclusions about the
entire population. A population element is the individual
participant or object on which the measurement is taken. It is the
unit of study. A population is the total collection of elements
about which we wish to make some inferences. A census is a
count of all the elements in a population. We call the listing of all
population elements from which the sample will be drawn as the
sample frame. Sample Types: 1) Nonprobability sampling
is arbitrary and subjective; when we choose subjectively, we
usually do so with a pattern or scheme in mind (e.g., only talking
with young people or only talking with women). Each member of
the population does not have a known chance of being included.
2) Probability sampling is based on the concept of random
selectiona controlled procedure that assures that each
population element is given a known nonzero chance of selection. This procedure is never haphazard. Only probability
samples provide estimates of precision.
Sample plan:
Sampling Design Steps: 1. What is the target population? 2.
What are the parameters of interest? 3. What is the sampling
frame? 4. What is the appropriate sampling method? 5. What size
sample is needed?
Sample size:
The sample size is an important feature of any empirical study in
which the goal is to make inferences about a population from a
sample.
Determinants of optimal sample size:
1) Type of analysis to be employed; 2) The level of precision
needed; 3) Population homogeneity/heterogeneity; 4) Available
resources; 5) Sampling technique used
Sampling techniques:
Types: Unrestricted: 1) Simple Random (Probability), 2)
Convenience (Non-probability). Restricted: 1) Complex Random
(Probability) Systematic, Cluster, Stratified, Double. 2)
Purposive (Nonprobability) Judgement, Quota, Snowball. Exhibit
14-8.
Probability vs non-probability sampling methods:
Probability Sampling: You have a complete sampling frame.
You have contact information for the entire population. You can
select a random sample from your population. Since all persons
(or units) have an equal chance of being selected for your
survey, you can randomly select participants without missing
entire portions of your audience. You can generalize your
results from a random sample. With this data collection method
and a decent response rate, you can extrapolate your results to
the entire population. Can be more expensive and timeconsuming than convenience or purposive sampling.
Nonprobability Sampling: Used when there isnt an
exhaustive population list available. Some units are unable to be
selected, therefore you have no way of knowing the size and
effect of sampling error (missed persons, unequal representation,
etc.). Not random. Can be effective when trying to generate
ideas and getting feedback, but you cannot generalize your
results to an entire population with a high level of confidence.

Quota samples (males and females, etc.) are an example. More

convenient and less costly, but doesnt hold up to expectations of
probability theory.
Stratified Sampling: 1. We divide the population into a few
subgroups: Each subgroup has many elements in it; Subgroups
are selected according to some criterion that is related to the
variables under study. 2. We try to secure homogeneity within
subgroups. 3. We try to secure heterogeneity between subgroups.
4. We randomly choose elements from within each subgroup.
Cluster Sampling: 1. We divide the population into many
subgroups: Each subgroup has few elements in it; Subgroups

are selected according to some criterion of ease or availability in

data collection. 2. We try to secure heterogeneity within
subgroups. 3. We try to secure homogeneity between subgroups.
4. We randomly choose several subgroups that we then typically
study in depth.