You are on page 1of 7

Geomorphology

Rana Faizan Saleem (Roll.No

10)
Structural Geology
Tectonic plates moves and rocks bulge up and different
structures,forms and arrangements produces,the study of these
structures is called Structural Geology.

Orogeny
Due to collision of Plates,plane surface of crust looks like
mountains ,this process is called Orogeny.

Crystal Shortening
Crust plates become short/bulge up due to movement of tectonics
plates.this process is called Crustal Shortening.

Stress and Strain


Stress - defined as force per unit area
Strain - a change in size, shape, or volume relative to initial conditions
Three types of stress
Compression: stresses are directed inward - produces thrust faults, reverse
faults, or folding
Tension: stresses directed outward - produces normal faults
Shearing: stresses are lateral (horizontal) - produce strike-slip faults

Types of deformation
Elastic deformation: materials return to original state after deformation
Brittle deformation: materials are permanently deformed (ruptured) after
reaching their yield points
Plastic deformation: materials are deformed and do not return to original
shape, but have not ruptured

Orientation of the rocks


Strike - horizontal line along the rock.
Dip - angle that the rock is inclined relative to the horizontal.
Using strike and dip we can uniquely define any rock outcrop orientation that we find.
Factors affecting rock deformation
Intensity of applied stress
Lithostatic pressure: pressure due to overlying rock (confining vs.
directed); increased pressure allows for plastic rather then brittle failure
Temperature: higher T allows increased deformation and a more plastic
behavior
Time: stress rate affects strain. If material is subjected to a high stress rate
then it experience brittle failure rather than plastic or elastic failure.

Deformed rocks in the field


Most apparent in sedimentary rocks
Importance of deformation
Determines past plate motions
Determines other past geologic events
Locates specific natural resources
Rock orientation: strike and dip

Folds
Synclines: rocks folded into troughs; youngest rocks in the center.
Anticlines: rocks folded into ridges; oldest rocks in the center.

o Parts of a fold
Limbs - sides of the folds

Axial plane - imaginary plane dividing fold into two symmetrical


halves.
Anticlines and synclines are structures in rocks, not surface
landforms

Types of folds
Symmetrical or open folds - axial plane is vertical; halves are
symmetric
Asymmetrical folds - axial plane is inclined; one limb dips more
steeply than other limb
Recumbent folds - axial plane is close to horizontal
Overturned folds - axial plane has rotated more than 90 degrees
Plunging folds - folds are themselves tilted
Basin - synclinal in cross-section at any orientation
Dome - anticlinal in cross-section at any orientation (also known
as pericline or quaquaversal fold)

Plate tectonics and folding


Faults
Fractures: any crack or break in the rock
Joints: fractures with no relative movement
Faults: fractures with relative movement
Fault blocks: the rocks on either side of a fault
Fault plane: plane on which displacement occurred
Evidence of faults
Visible displacement of rocks
Pulverized rock
Slickensides
Discontinuity of rock sequences
Types of faults

Strike-slip faults
Example: San Andreas Fault
Distinctive landforms (linear valleys, chains of lakes, sag ponds,
topographic saddles)
Dip-slip faults
Hanging wall - block on which a miner would hang
their lamp
Footwall - block on which a miner's foot rests
Normal faults
Graben - downdropped block between two normal
faults that dip in opposite directions
Horst - upthrown block between two normal faults that
dip in opposite directions
Reverse faults - hanging wall moves up; footwall moves down

Thrust faults - a reverse fault which has a very shallow dip (~ < 15)
Bedding Plane-The definition of a bedding plane is the line
separating one layer of compressed rock from the next layer of
compressed rock.

Plate tectonics and faulting


Normal faults: mid-ocean ridges and continental rifts
Reverse and thrust faults: convergent plate boundaries

Exogenetic and Endogenetic Process


Exogenetic:

The process that operate outside the earth surface,called


Exogenetic process.
e.g.Rain,Wind,Snow etc.

Endogenetic:

The process that operate inside the earth surface,called Endogenetic


process.
e.g.Volcanoes,Earthquakes etc.

Weathering
The gradual breakdown of pre-existing rocks due to natural
processes.

Types of Weathering:

(1) Mechanical Weathering:


Mechanical weathering is the process of breaking big rocks into little
ones. This process usually happens near the surface of the planet.

Frost Wedding:
Scientists have observed a process called freeze-thaw. That
process occurs when the water inside of rocks freezes and expands.
That expansion cracks the rocks from the inside and eventually
breaks them apart. The freeze-thaw cycle happens over and over
again and the break finally happens. Another word for it is frost
wedging.

Salt Wedding:
Another type of mechanical weathering is called salt wedging.
When it rains and water flows everywhere, it usually has ions and
salts dissolved inside. Have you seen salt water dry up? Salt crystals
are left over. Those crystals happen in nature, too. The water flows
in a rock and evaporates. Crystals slowly begin to grow. Those
crystals act like a wedge and crack the rocks.

Frost Heaving:

the upthrust and cracking of a ground surface through the freezing and expan
sion of water underneath. Alsocalled: frost heaving.

Onion skin weathering or Exfoliation:


Onion skin weathering is a geological process that occurs when a rock's
outer layer peels off due to extreme variations in temperatures. This type
of rock weathering typically occurs in desert areas where rocks are subjected
to extreme heat during the day, which causes rocks to expand.
When temperatures drop during the night, the rocks contract.

(2) Chemical Weathering


Chemical weathering occurs when rocks are broken down by a chemical
change.
Reactions such as oxidation, hydrolysis, and acidification can
happen when all of the elements are together. Oxidation makes
rocks softer. It is similar to an iron bar rusting. Since there is a lot
of iron in many rocks, oxidation often happens. Hydrolysis usually
causes rocks to expand and then mechanical weathering can begin.
These chemical reactions are happening all of the time. When you
see rocks next to each other that are different colors (often shades
of red) then you know chemical reactions have taken place.

(3) Biological Weathring:


Biological weathering is the weakening and subsequent disintegration of
rock by plants, animals and microbes

Erosion
The process of eroding or being eroded by wind, water, or other natural
agents.
Erosion is the general name for the processes that break down rocks
(weathering) and the processes that carry away the breakdown
products (transportation).

The physical processes of erosion are called corrasion or


mechanical erosion.
The chemical processes are called corrosion or chemical erosion.
But most examples of erosion include some of both corrasion and
corrosion.

Types of Rocks:
Hydrophobic- that repell water.
Hydrophilic- that attract rocks.

You might also like