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FACULTY OF COMPUTING, ENGINEERING and SCIENCE


Assessment Cover Sheet and Feedback Form
2015/16
Module Code: NG4S905

Module Title: Optoelectronic Devices


for Telecommunications
No. of pages in total (inc this page): 4

Lecturer: Dr Kang Li,


and Prof Nigel Copner
Assignment No: 1 of 2
Maximum Word Count:
Clarity and conciseness
will be marked
Assignment Title: Optical Properties of Light Diode for Telecommunications
Tasks : See attached
Results should be included in a lab report detailing the processes and conclusions from the
experiment, along with any other questions discussed in the laboratory itself.

Section A: Record of Submission


Record of Submission and Plagiarism Declaration
I declare that this assignment is my own work and that the sources of information and material I have used
(including the internet) have been fully identified and properly acknowledged as required in the referencing
guidelines provided.

Fit to Sit Policy


The University operates a Fit to Sit policy whereby all students, in submitting or presenting themselves for
any assessment, are declaring that they are fit to sit the assessment. Students cannot subsequently claim
that their performance in that assessment was affected by extenuating circumstances.

Student Number: 15041972


You are required to acknowledge that you have read the above statements by writing your
student number(s) above.
(If this is a group assignment, please provide the student numbers of ALL group members)

Details of Submission

IT IS YOUR RESPONSIBILITY TO KEEP A RECORD OF ALL WORK SUBMITTED.


Work should be submitted as detailed in your student handbook. You are responsible for
checking the method of submission.
Late Submission Work must be submitted by the submission date. If you fail to do this,
you will be allowed a further five working days to submit the work but the work will be
awarded a maximum mark of 40%. If you fail to submit work within five working days of the
submission date, you will be deemed to have failed this assessment which will be given a
mark of 0%. However see extenuating circumstances below.
Extenuating Circumstances: if there are any exceptional circumstances that may have
affected your ability to undertake or submit this assignment, make sure you contact your
Advice Shop and also see either http://cesstudents.southwales.ac.uk/Ext_circs/ (Trefforest) or
http://glyntaffcampus.southwales.ac.uk/advice_shop/Extenuating_Circumstances/ (Glyntaff)

Section B : Marking and Assessment

This assignment will be marked out of 100%

It is estimated that you should


spend approximately

This assignment contributes to 15% of the total module marks.


10-12 hrs on this assignment.
This assignment is bonded / non- bonded. Details :
Date Set:

Submission Date

Proposed Feedback Date:

17/02/2016 (week 32)

16/03/2016 (week 36)

Feedback on lab
performances are given
on a weekly basis.
Final Report feedback:
13/04/2016 (week 40)

Learning Outcomes
This assignment addresses the following learning
outcome(s) of the module:
Assess your ability to:
Know well the operating principle and optical properties of LDs
for the optical fiber communication system
Marks
Available

Marking Scheme
1.
Demonstration and understanding of gratings equations,
diffraction, light source spectrum

20

2.

Demonstration and understanding of Spectrophotometer

20

3.

Results

20

4.
Answers to set questions
5.
Report Quality: includes Presentation, spelling, grammar
and reference

Marks
Awarded

20

20

Assessment Criteria
Performance Level

Criteria

Fail
(< 40%)

No evidence of an understanding of operating


principle and optical properties of LDs for the optical
fiber communication system.
Poor lab report with many grammatical errors.
Inaccurate results and bad presentation of findings.
No evidence of extra research.
Little evidence of an understanding of operating
principle and optical properties of LDs for the optical
fiber communication system.
Low standard lab report with many grammatical
errors.
Some inaccurate results but poor presentation of
findings.
Very little evidence of extra research.

3rd Class / PASS


(40% - 49%)

Lower 2nd Class / PASS


(50% - 59%)

Upper 2nd Class / MERIT


(60% - 69%)

1st Class / DISTINCTION


(70% +)

Some evidence of an understanding of operating


principle and optical properties of LDs for the optical
fiber communication system.
Lab report with some grammatical errors.
Mostly accurate results with reasonable presentation
of findings.
Little evidence of extra research.
Good evidence of an understanding of operating
principle and optical properties of LDs for the optical
fiber communication system.
Good lab report containing all the information.
Accurate results with good presentation of findings.
Evidence of extra research.
Excellent evidence of an understanding of operating
principle and optical properties of LDs for the optical
fiber communication system.
Excellent lab report containing all the information and
extra relevant information.
Accurate results with excellent presentation of
findings.
Extensive evidence of extra research.

Section C : Markers Feedback


Lecturers Comments:

Areas to concentrate on next time:

Report structure

Research

Referencing

Presentation

Lecturers signature:

Content

Date:

Team work

Mark awarded:

All marks are subject to confirmation by the Board of Examiners

ASSIGNMENT 1
Optoelectronic Devices for
Telecommunications
Laser diodes plays an important role in communications nowadays.
Its one of the main component of high level data communications.
Due to the coherent light produced by the lasers the light output is
generally high for lasers than LEDs. This report will explain the types
of laser diodes and its properties
LASER DIODES (LDs):
The laser diode is a semiconductor device which contains a p-n
junctions sandwiched between two different types of semiconductor Ptype material and N-type material. Laser diodes produce light
stimulated emission. Stimulated emission is a process of passing a
photon by an excited electron in the higher energy level. When the
photon passes by the excited electron, electron losses energy in the
form of photon which has the same energy, frequency and phase with
the photon used for stimulation and goes to the lower energy level.
The stimulated photon stimulates other photons when reflected back
by the cavity mirrors. This way a highly coherent beam of photons
having the same energy and frequency are created and taken into the
output as a laser light. The process of stimulated emission is explained
with the help of figure below

The laser diode is the most common type of laser produced with a
wide range of uses that include communications, barcode, laser
pointers, CD/DVD/Blu-ray Disc reading and recording, laser
printing, laser scanning and increasingly directional.

There many types of laser diodes some of them are explained in this
report.

1) Edge Emitting Laser Diodes, Distributed Feedback Lasers


(DFB) and Distributed Bragg Reflector Laser (DBR).
Edge emitting lasers also called in plane lasers are those where
the light propagated in a direction along the wafer surface of the
semiconductor chip and is reflected out at the edge. Edge emitting
lasers are the original ones and are still widely used form of
semiconductor lasers. Their resonator length is normally between
hundreds of microns to few millimetres. The figure below shows the
simplest model of an edge emitting laser.

Edge-emitting semiconductor laser

These lasers are good for the fact that they lase when the cavity loss
is fairly high. The efficiency of these lasers are high and high output
power can be generated.
Distributed Feedback Lasers (DFB lasers):
Distributed Feedback lasers is a laser where the active region of
the laser device is periodically structured as diffraction grating which
acts as a distributed reflector in the wavelength range of laser action,
and contains the gain of medium. DFB laser diodes do not use two
discrete mirrors to form the optical cavity. The grating acts as the
wavelength selective element for at least one of the mirrors and
provides the feedback, reflecting light back into the cavity to form the
resonator. The periodic structure is made with a phase shift in the
middle. This structure is essentially the direct interconnection of the
two Bragg gratings with optical gain within the gratings. The device
can work in several modes but typically one of the mode is chosen in
terms of losses. The figures below shows the structure of a DFB laser

Schematic structure of a typical DFB laser using InP-based materials.

Distributed feedback lasers (DFB lasers)

The gratings are constructed in such a way that it reflects only a


narrow band of wavelength and thus produce a single longitudinal
mode. Changing the temperature of the device causes the pitch of the
grating to change because the grating refractive index is dependent
on the temperature. This change is caused due to the dependence of
semiconductors bandgap dependence of temperature. The fact that
the refractive index of the gratings can be changed in this laser device
means that different wavelengths can be selected for the laser. Which
makes it a tunable laser or tunable diode laser (TDL). Altering the
current can also tune the laser because with the change of current
there is a change in temperature. The tuning range is usually 6nm
change for a 50 k change in temperature. A key difference between
LEDs and the two main laser types is the spectrum as shown in Figure
1 below.

The DFB is more pure with typically just one peak with a small number
of adjacent peaks that are at least 20dB down (i.e. they are 1/100 of
the amplitude of the main peak) which are almost negligible.
Integrated DFB lasers are often used in communication applications,
such as DWDM where a tunable laser signal is desired as well as in
sensing where extreme narrow line width is required, or in gas sensing
applications, where the signal of the absorbing gas is detected while
wavelength tuning the DFB laser.
Distributed Bragg reflector Lasers (DBR lasers):
DBR is a type of single frequency diode laser, where the
resonator is made with at least one distributed Bragg reflector outside
the gain medium (cavity or active region). A DBR is a reflection mirror
which is based on Bragg reflection at a periodic structure. One end of
resonant cavity is defined by a highly reflective DBR and low reflective
cleaved exit facet on the other end. The DBR mirror is designed to
reflect only a single longitudinal mode. As a result, the laser operates
on a single spatial and longitudinal mode. The laser emits light from
the exit facet opposite the Distributive Bragg reflector end. The
schematic diagram of the DBR laser is shown below.

DBR Laser

DBR laser diodes are usually single-frequency lasers with diffractionlimited output, and often they are wavelength-tunable or tunable
laser. Tuning within the free spectral range of the laser resonator may
be accomplished with a separate phase section, which can e.g. be

electrically heated, or simply by varying the temperature of the gain


region via the drive current. The DBR is continuously tunable over
approximately a 2 nm range by changing either current or
temperature. The temperature coefficient is approximately 0.07 nm/K,
and the current coefficient is approximately .003 nm/mA.
DBR lasers are different from DFB lasers. Both exhibit a narrow line
width and stable single frequency operation. However, the location of
the feedback element (the grating) causes the DBR and the DFB to
have distinct operational characteristics. Because the DBR laser has a
passive grating region, its tuning characteristic is different from that of
the gain region tuning in DFB laser.

Applications of DBR laser diodes include optical fiber


communications, free-space optical communications, laser
cooling, optical metrology and sensors, and highresolution spectroscopy. DBR lasers actually compete with externalcavity diode lasers (ECDLs), which also offer wavelength-tunable
single-frequency output, with potentially better performance e.g. in
terms of noise, but also requiring a significantly more complex setup.
Chips containing DBR laser arrays can serve as very compact sources
for use in wavelength division multiplexing systems.

Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers (VCSELs):


Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers is a type of
semiconductor lasers diode which produce a laser beam of emitting
light perpendicular from the top surface to the conventional edge
emitting semiconductor lasers which normally emits from the surface.
VCSELs can have a good beam quality only for fairly small mode areas
(diameters of a few microns) and are thus limited in terms of output
power. The schematic diagram of the VCSELs is shown below

Diagram of a simple VCSEL structure

The resonator is realized with two semiconductor Bragg mirrors.


Between those, there is an active region with typically
several quantum wells and a total thickness of only a few
micrometres. Typically each layer has a thickness of a quarter of the
laser wavelength in the material, yielding intensity and reflectivitys
usually more than 99%. High reflectivity mirrors are required in
VCSELs to balance the short axial length of the gain region. In most
cases, the active region is electrically pumped with a few tens of milli
watts and generates an output power in the range from 0.55 mW, or
higher powers for multimode devices. The current is often applied
through a ring electrode, through which the output beam can be
extracted, and the current is confined to the region of the resonator
mode using electrically conductive (doped) mirror layers with isolating
material around them. For larger mode areas, the excitation of higher
order transverse modes cannot be avoided and this is a consequence
of the extremely small cavity length of only a few microns, and the
difficulty in simultaneously pumping a larger active region with a ring
electrode. The short resonator, however, also makes it easy to
achieve single-frequency operation, even combined with
some wavelength tunability. Also, VECSELs can be modulated with
high frequencies, making them useful e.g. for optical fiber
communications.

A realistic VCSEL device structure. This is a bottom-emittingmultiple-quantumwell VCSEL.

In common VCSELs the upper and lower mirrors are doped as p-type
and n-type materials, which forms a diode junction. In more complex
structures, the p-type and n-type regions may be formed between the
mirrors, requiring a more complex semiconductor process to make
electrical contact to the active region.
Beam divergence is an important aspect in lasing, VCSELs provides a
low beam divergence than the DBR and DFB lasers which makes it
easy to collimate the output.

The most common emission wavelengths of VCSELs are in the range


of 750980 nm (often around 850 nm), as obtained with the
GaAs/AlGaAs material system. However, longer wavelengths of e.g.
1.3um, 1.55um or even beyond 2 m (as required for, e.g., gas
sensing) can be obtained with dilute nitrides (GaInNAs quantum wells
on GaAs) and from devices based on indium phosphide (InAlGaAsP on
InP).
Properties:
Narrower spectral linewidth for VCSELs:
Growth technology has improved such that VCSEL 3 wafers are
produced with less than a 2nm standard deviation for the cavity
wavelength. This allows for the fabrication of VCSEL 2-D arrays with
little wavelength variation between the elements of the array (<1nm
full-width half maximum spectral width). By contrast, edge-emitter
bar-stacks suffer from significant wavelength variations from bar to
bar since there is no intrinsic mechanism to stabilize the wavelength,
resulting in a wide spectral width (3~5nm FWHM).

narrower spectral linewidth of VCSELs (Applications -VCSELs characterization,


2011)

Single frequency and multi-frequency for VCSELs laser:


Vertical Cavity surface Emitting Lasers (VCSELs) are single
longitudinal-mode, multi transverse-mode devices. VCSEL is A is a
great technology to implement low cost integrated laser. However,
VCSEL are subject to multimode wide spectral shape, high-speed
mode hopping, strong sensitivity to the operating point (current,
voltage, temperature), temporal instability prompting a contrast the
middle of instantaneous shape of the optical spectrum and the time
average shape of the spectrum, also inhomogeneity from batch to
batch, wafer with wafer, die to die. Toward the same time, requesting
applications for example optical link and in the field of instrument
demand durable spectral specification and while high production
yield accomplishment will be targeted, early screening also control of
the performances driftage would be demanded.

single frequency and multiple frequency for VCSELs (Applications -VCSELs


characterization, 2011)

Tunable VCSELs:
The fundamental principle of operation of the tunable VCSE could
make best comprehended by looking at the simplest image of a
tunable micro mechanical Fabry-Perot (FP) cavity, as indicated on
figure. A Fabry Perot cavity is shaped between two AlGaAs dispersed
Bragg reflector (DBR) mirrors with the upper DBR mirror freely
suspended 1. 23 um over the bottom DBR by a cantilever. The
cantilever will be framed by selective-etching of a sacrificial layer,
which in this state is GaAs.

Tunable VCSELs (Cheng and Dutta, 2000)

The mirrors form a Fabry Perot filter such that the wavelength of tuned
emission is proportional to the distance which is separating them.
With the application of voltage, an electrostatic MEMS actuator drag
the highest mirror down, thereby decreasing the cavity length and
tuning a shorter emission wavelength. The VCSEL laser is enabled to
generate true single-mode and mode-hop free tuning.

Beam quality and Beam shaping for VCSELs


VCSELs could have a great beam quality just for fairly little mode
region (diameters of a few microns) and may be therefor constrained
As far as output energy. For larger mode areas, the excitation of
higher-order transverse modes might not be avoided; this is an
outcome of the greatly little resonator length of only a few microns,
and the challenge in homogeneously pumping a larger energetic area
with a ring cathode. The short resonator, however, makes it simple to
accomplish single-frequency operation as well, indeed joined with
some wavelength tunability. Also, VECSELs might be adjusted with
high frequencies, making them useful for optical fibre
communications. Furthermore of the high bar beam quality for lowpower VCSELs, a significant aspect may be the low beam divergence,
compared for that of edge-emitting laser diodes, and the symmetrical
beam profile. This makes it not difficult with collimate the output
beam for a basic lens, which does not have a very high numerical
aperture.
VCSELs has a longer life time than the conventional lasers and there is
no element which can be damaged by high optical intensities.
Because VCSELs emit from the top surface of the chip, they can be
tested on wafer, before they are cleaved into individual devices. This
reduces the fabrication cost of the devices.

Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifiers (EFDAs):


An optical amplifier is used to boost optical signals to higher
power, often used both at launch and within a signal network to
maintain a high signal power. Optical amplifiers boosts the optical
signal directly without converting it to the electrical signal.
Erbium-doped fibre amplifiers are the most significant fibre amplifiers
in the case of long-range optical fibre telecommunications, where they
can magnify light in the wavelength region (1.5-m), while the
minimum loss of it is given by telecom fibres. EDFA is an optical
repeater device which is used to amplify optical signal without the
conversion to opto-electronic and electro-optical transformation.
A setup for an EDFA is shown below in the figure A. The core is an
erbium doped optical fiber which is usually a single mode fiber. The
active light is pumped with light from two laser diodes bidirectional
pumping is done. The pump light, which most often has a wavelength
around 980nm and sometimes 1450nm, excites the erbium ions into
the fiber, from where they can amplify light in the 1.5um wavelength
region through stimulated emission back to the ground state 4I15/2.

Erbium ions Er3+ are excited into 4I13/2 state in the case of 980-nm
pumping via 4I11/2. This is shown in the energy level diagram below

Fig: Energy level structure of the trivalent erbium ion, and some common optical
transitions.

are shown

Fig: Principles of spontaneous emission of erbium; only the two lowest levels

Figure A: Schematic setup of a simple erbium-doped fiber amplifier. Two laser


diodes (LDs) provide the pump power for the erbium-doped fiber.

The setup also consists up two fiber coupled optical isolators which at
the input prevents light originating from amplified spontaneous
emission from disturbing any previous stages. Whereas that at the
output suppresses lasing or possibly even destruction if output light is

reflected back to the amplifier. Without isolators fiber amplifiers can


be sensitive to back reflections.
Apart from the isolators, various other components can be contained
in an optical fiber amplifier e.g. fiber coupler, photodetector, laser
diodes and gain flattening filters.
Working principle:
The basic configuration for incorporating the EDFA in an optical link is
indicated on the figure above. The input and output signals and pump
are integrated via a WDM coupler and set into an erbium-doped fibre
(EDF). The amplified output signs could be transmitted through 60100km before more amplification will be needed. Erbium-doped fibre
is considered as the fundamental technology of EDFA, which is a
customary silica fibre doped for erbium ions as the gain medium.
Erbium ions (Er3+) are hosting the optical fluorescent properties that
are suited for the optical amplification. When an optical signal such as
1550nm wavelength signal enters the EDFA from input, the signal is
joined together with a 980nm or 1480nm pump laser through a
wavelength division multiplexer device. The input signal and pump
laser signal pass through erbium-doped fibre. Here the 1550nm signal
is amplified through interaction with doped erbium ions. This could be
well understood by the energy level graph of Er3+ ions provided for in
the figure below

The basic configuration for incorporating the EDFAs

Gain spectrum:

The maximum gain typically occurs in the wavelength region


around 15301560 nm, with the 1530-nm peak being most
pronounced for high excitation levels, whereas low excitation levels
lead to gain maxima at longer wavelengths. The local excitation level
depends on the emission and absorption cross sections and on the
pump and signal intensity (apart from that of ASE light). The average
excitation level over the whole fiber length, as is relevant for the net
gain spectrum, depends on the pump and signal powers, but also on
the fiber length and the erbium concentration.
The shape of the erbium gain spectrum depends on the absorption
and emission cross sections, which depend on the host glass. The gain
spectrum is shown below in the figure.

Gain and absorption (negative gain) of erbium (Er


excitation levels from 0 to 100% in steps of 20%

3+

) ions in a phosphate glass for

Types of pumping for EDFAs:


Light in EDFAs can be pumped in several ways few of them are
explained below.
Forward pumping:
In forward pumping as shown in figure below, the input signal
and the pump signal transmit into the same direction inside the
fibre. The input signal and pump are joined using a pump
combiner or wavelength selective coupler. Inside the fibre the
pump energy is transferred to the input signal and the signal is
amplified at the output of the amplifier. Isolators are used in the
scheme to make sure that the signal will travel only in one
direction and no feedback of signal will occur.

Forward pumped EDFA structure


Backward pumping:
In backward pumping as indicated on figure below, the input signal
and the pump signal propagate in the reverse direction to each other
inside the fibre

Backward pumped EDFA structure

Bidirectional pumping:
In Bidirectional pumping as shown in the figure below, the input signal
travels in one direction. But the there are two pump signals that travel
inside the fibre. One pump signal travels in the same direction as the
input signal and the other pump signal travels in the opposite
direction to that of the input signal.

Bidirectional pumped EDFA structure

Advantages of EDFAs:
A high power transfer efficiency from pump to signal (> 50%).
Directly and simultaneously amplify a wide wavelength region
(in the region of 1550 nm) at an output power as high as +37
dBm, with a relatively flat gain (> 20 dB), which is suitable to
WDM systems.
Saturation output is greater than 1 mW (10-25 dBm).

Gain time constant is long (> 100 ms) to overcome patterning


effects and intermodulation distortions (low noise).
Large dynamic range (> 80 nm).
Low noise figure.
They are transparent to optical modulation format.
Polarization independent (thus reducing coupling loss to
transmission fiber).
Suitable for long-haul applications.

Disadvantages of EFDAs:
EDFAs are not small devices and cannot be integrated with other
semiconductor devices.
EDFAs exhibit amplified spontaneous light emission. That is,
even if no incoming signal is present, there is always some
output signal as a result of some excited ions in the fiber; this
output is termed spontaneous noise.
There is a possibility cross-talk.
There is gain saturation

Beam quality and Beam shaping:


The beam quality of a laser beam can be defined in different ways,
but is normally understood as a measure of how tightly a laser
beam can be focused under certain conditions (e.g. with a
limited beam divergence). The most common ways to quantify the
beam quality are

The beam parameter product which is the product of


radius of the beam with far field beam divergence angle.
M^2 factor which is defined as the beam parameter product
divided by then corresponding product for a diffraction limited
Gaussian beam with the same wavelength.
The inverse of M^2 Factor which high for high quality
beams.

A high beam quality implies smooth wave fronts, such that focusing
the beam with
Lens allows one to obtain a focus where the wave fronts are plane.
Scrambled wave
fronts make beam focusing more difficult as shown in the figure , i.e.,
the beam
divergence for a given spot size is increased.

Figure: A laser beam with poor beam quality. The wave fronts are somewhat scrambled,
which makes it more difficult to tightly focus the beam.

The best beam quality is achieved for a diffraction limited Gaussian


beam having
M2=1. Typically good quality and highly coherent laser approaches this value.

Factors for achieving high beam quality:


Factors for obtaining a high beam quality from a solid-state bulk laser are:

Resonator design with suitable mode area and low sensitivity to


thermal lensing.
Resonators alignment plays an important role in the quality of
beam.
Minimization of thermal effects can improve the beam quality.
High quality of optical components.

Beam shaping is the process of redistributing the irradiance and


phase of a beam of optical radiation. The beam shape is defined by
the irradiance distribution and the phase of the shaped beam is a
major factor in determining the propagation properties of the beam
profile. Applications of beam shaping include laser/material
processing, laser/material interaction studies, laser weapons, optical
data image processing, lithography, printing, and laser art patterns.
Beam shaping is focusing on the ways how to convert input Gaussian
beam into more uniform output beam. There are several methods to
shaping laser beam profiles
Some of them are

Reflective method.
Refractive method.
Diffractive method.
Field Mappers method.
Beam integration.

References
Bretschneider, E. (2016). Efficacy Limits for Solid-State White Light Sources. [online]
Photonics.com. Available at: http://www.photonics.com/Article.aspx?AID=28677
[Accessed 8 Mar. 2016].
Fibercore. (2016). Fibercore - Fibercore Fiberpeadia - Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier
(EDFA). [online] Available at: http://fibercore.com/fiberpaedia/erbium-doped-fiberamplifier-edfa [Accessed 10 Mar. 2016].
Laserfocusworld.com. (2016). SOLID-STATE ILLUMINATION: Four-color laser source
produces high-quality white light. [online] Available at:
http://www.laserfocusworld.com/articles/print/volume-47/issue-8/world-

news/solid-state-illumination-four-color-laser-source-produces-high-quality-whitelight.html [Accessed 9 Mar. 2016].


Paschotta, D. (2016). Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology - beam quality,
laser beam, M2 factor, ISO Standard 11146, divergence, nonlinear frequency
conversion. [online] Rp-photonics.com. Available at: https://www.rpphotonics.com/beam_quality.html [Accessed 12 Mar. 2016].
Paschotta, D. (2016). Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology - erbium-doped
fiber amplifiers, EDFA, optical fiber communications. [online] Rp-photonics.com.
Available at: https://www.rp-photonics.com/erbium_doped_fiber_amplifiers.html
[Accessed 4 Mar. 2016].
Paschotta, D. (2016). Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology - erbium-doped
gain media, glasses, Erbium-ytterbium-doped fibers, Er:YAG laser. [online] Rpphotonics.com. Available at: https://www.rpphotonics.com/erbium_doped_gain_media.html [Accessed 14 Mar. 2016].
Repositorio.unican.es. (2016). [online] Available at:
http://repositorio.unican.es/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10902/1483/349738.pdf?
sequence=1 [Accessed 9 Mar. 2016].
Bioopticsworld.com. (2016). OPTICAL COHERENCE TOMOGRAPHY/LIGHT
SOURCES: Improved OCT imaging with VCSEL technology. [online] Available at:
http://www.bioopticsworld.com/articles/print/volume-6/issue-4/features/opticalcoherence-tomography-light-sources-improved-oct-imaging-with-vcseltechnology.html [Accessed 16 Mar. 2016].
BROESSEL Corporate Communication, P. (2016). Laser Diodes Home | Sacher
Lasertechnik Group. [online] Sacher-laser.com. Available at: https://www.sacherlaser.com/home/laser-diodes/...laser/.../dbr_laser.html [Accessed 16 Mar. 2016].
Ldselection.com. (2014). DBR Laser Diode | Laser Diode Selection. [online] Available
at: http://ldselection.com/tutorial/tag/dbr-laser-diode/ [Accessed 16 Mar. 2016].

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