CHAPTER 8: LEADERSHIP

Leadership the process of providing

general direction and influencing
individuals or groups to achieve goals.
Formal leader w/ designation
Informal leader w/o designation
Trait Theory of Leadership
Researchers tried to come up
with a list of traits associated
with leadership but was
criticized.
In recent years, study if these
traits was revived. Now, they
believe that many of these
traits can be learned. To be a
strong leader, one should also
take specific actions because
these traits are not enough.
Important leadership traits:
o Drive
o Leadership motivation
Socialized power
motive
Personalized power
motive
o Integrity
o Self-confidence
o Cognitive Ability
o Knowledge of the
domain
o Openness to
experiences
o Extraversion
Charisma usually defined by
the effect it has on followers.
- not a personality trait; difficult
to define
Behavioral Theories of Leadership
University of Michigan
Studies
o Leadership styles:
Job-centered
Employeecentered

Consideration
strong interpersonal
relationships with
those being led.

Contingency Theories of
Leadership effective leadership is
contingent on the situation.
Fiedlers Contingency Theory
of Leadership Effectiveness
o Leader style
Relationshiporiented more of
interpersonal
relationship needs
Task-oriented
more of task
achievement needs
o Situational characteristics
determines leaders level
of control
Leader-member
relations
Task structure
Position power
o Leadership Effectiveness
Task-oriented
Highly
favorable/highly
unfavorable
Relationshiporiented
intermediate
favorableness
Path-Goal Leadership Theory
emphasizes a leaders effects
on subordinates goals and the
paths used to achieve those
goals.
o Expectancy perceived
probability of goal
attainment
o Valence value or
attractiveness of goal
attainment
o Main types of leader

Unidimensional a
leader cant have both
styles
Ohio State University Studies
o Two-dimensional view of
leadership behavior
Initiating
structure welldefined patterns of
organization and
comm
Particpative
leadership groupdecision making
o Situational Factors
Subordinates
characeristics
Characteristics of
the work
environment

behavior:
Directive
leadership
implementing
guidelines; setting
standards
Supportive
leadership
friendly
Achievementoriented
leadership
challenging goals

Transformational Leadership
Transactional vs.
Transformational
o Transactional
leadership focuses on
extrinsic exchange
between leaders and
followers
Characteristics
Contingent
reward
behavior
clarifying
expectations
and rewards
Active
managementby-exception
behavior
clarifies
minimal
standards
and punishes
those who do
not perform

that they become

self-confident and
desire to improve
their performance.
Laisssez-faire/passive
avoidant leadership opposite
of transformational leadership.
Leaders of this style are not
proactive.
Conclusions on transformational
leadership:
o Leaders can be trained to
be transformational
leaders.
o Leaders can display both
transactional and
transformational
leadership.
o Both transactional and
transformational can be
positive.

Additional Topics of Current

Relevance
Leader-Member Exchange
leaders develop relationships
with different followers.
o In-group those who
have a positive
relationship with the
leader
o Out-group Otherwise
Servant Leadership

up to the
standards
Transformational
leadership involves
charisma, intellectual
stimulation, and individual
consideration.
Charisma leaders
ability to inspire
emotion and
passion in his
followers and to
cause them to
identify with the
leader.
Intellectual
stimulation
ability to increase
the followers focus
on problems and to
develop new ways
of addressing them.
Individual
consideration
supporting and
developing followers
so
Germanic cluster
charismatic and
participative
Southern Asia
cluster
benevolent while
maintaining a strong
position of authority

CHAPTER 9: COMMUNICATION
Communication involves the sharing
of information between two or more
people to achieve a common
understanding about an object or
situation.
Communication Process
Sender the person who wishes
to communicate a message;

emphasizes helping others, both

inside and outside the
organization
Gender Effects on Leadership
o Structure-Cultural
Model due to
stereotypes, women must
behave differently to
become effective leaders.
o Socialization Model
there should be no
differences in the way
male and female leaders
behave
Global Differences in
Leadership
o GLOBE Project
Anglo cluster
charismatic
influence and
inspiration while
encouraging
participation
Arabic cluster
charismatic and
powerful but modest
Centralized
network all
communicatio
ns pass
through a
central point
or points (e.g.
wheel, Y)
Decentralize
d network
no single
member of
the network
dominates
information
exchanges
(e.g. circle,
wellconnected)
o Direction of
Organizational

encodes (translating the

information into a message)
Communication
medium/channel e.g. writing,
texting, face-to-face verbal
exchanges, phone conversations,
e-mail
Receiver decodes (interprets
the messages meaning); gives
feedback (encodes response to
sender)
Two-way communication w/
feedback
One-way communication w/o
feedback

Organizational Communication
Interpersonal communication
among individuals
Organizational
communication patterns and
types of communication that
occur in the organizational and
unit levels
o Communication
Networks
Accdg. to density:
Sparse
networks
few
connections
among
members
(e.g. wheel,
Y, circle
networks)
Dense
networks
many
connections
Accdg. to
centralization:
o Communication
technology
Issues:
Information

Communication
Downward
superior to
subordinate
Upward
subordinate to
superior
Horizontal peer
to peer
Interpersonal Communication
o Formal communication
slow; follows the formal
structure of the org
o Informal
communication
spontaneous; outside the
formal structure of the org
Rumors entail
unsubstantiated info
of universal interest
Gossip info that is
presumed to be
factual and is
communicated in
private or intimate
settings
o Communication Media
(in terms of richness):
Face-to-face
communication
Telephone
Electronic
messaging
Personal written
text
Formal written
text
Formal numerical
text

Lack of cultural
fluency, which
refers to the
ability to identify,
understand, and
apply cultural
differences that

overload
Its easier to
leak
information
o

Nonverbal
Communication
Body language use of hands, arms,
legs; posture; facial
expressions
Paralanguage
tone and pitch of
voice, silence
Gestures signs
Nonverbal comm
constitutes 6090% of
interpersonal
communication

Barriers to Effective
Communication
Organizational Barriers
o Information overload
due to increasing
complexity in tasks,
technology development,
and uncertainty in the
environment
Forwarding
frenzies
Spamming
o Information Distortion
o Specialty Area Jargon
o Time Pressures
o Cross-Cultural Barriers
Lack of language
fluency

influences comm

o Network Breakdowns
Individual Barriers
o Differing Perceptions
o Semantic differences
o Status differences
o Consideration of Selfinterest
o Personal space
o Poor listening skills

Overcoming Communication
Barriers
Conduct communication
audits
o Examines and orgs
internal and external
communication
Improve communication
climates
o Communication climate
corresponds to
associates perceptions of
the quality of
communication w/in the
org
Encourage individual actions
o Know your audience
o Select an appropriate
comm medium
o Regulate information
flow and timing
o Encourage feedback
related to
understanding
o Listen actively
CHAPTER 10: DECISION MAKING
Decisions choices of actions from
among multiple feasible alternatives.
Basic

steps in decision making

Define the problem
Identify criteria
Gather and evaluate

Effective decision one that is timely,

acceptable and satisfactory
Satisficing decisions satisfactory
rather than optimal
Inability to collect all
information
Tendency to choose the first
alternative discovered
Individual Decision Making
Decision Making Styles
o Perceiving of info
(Perceptual Styles)
Sensing style
relies on facts
gathered by the 5
senses; practical
and realistic
Intuition style
impatient with
routine details;
imaginative
o Judging of alternatives
(Judgment Styles)
Thinking style
impersonal, rational
approach to arrive at
their judgments
Feeling style rely
on their emotions and
personal subjective
judgments
Risk Propensity willingness to
take chances
Reference point minimum
acceptable level of performance
Cognitive biases represent
mental shortcuts

information
List and evaluate alternatives
Select best alternative
Implement and follow up
emphasize past investments
of time and money when
deciding whether to continue
w/ a chosen course of action
Moods affective states that
correspond to general feelings
disconnected from any particular
event or stimulus in the
workplace
Emotions more specific
feelings that are often tied to
particular events, people, or
other stimuli
o Regret aversive emotion
involving self-blame that
comes from unwanted
outcomes.
Avoiding in the
future a choice that
has led to a poor
outcome.
Self-management
o Anger

Group Decision Making

Pitfalls
o Groupthink members
maintain or seek
consensus at the expense
of identifying and debating
honest disagreements
Symptoms:
Selfcensorship
Pressure
Unanimity
Rationalizati
on
Invulnerabili
ty
Mindguards

Confirmation bias leads

decision makers to seek info
that confirms beliefs and
ideas formed early in the
decision process
o Ease-of-recall bias a
decision maker gathers info
from his own memory and
relies on info that he can
easily recall
o Anchoring bias decision
makers place too much
emphasis on the first piece
of info they encounter
o Sunk-cost bias decision
makers
Techniques:
o Brainstorming a large
number of ideas are
generated while
evaluation is suspended.
Issue: Criticism is
not eliminated,
only unspoken.
Solution: brainwriting/electronic
brainstorming
o Nominal Group
Technique discussion is
structured and the final
solution is decided by final
vote.
o Delphi technique
members dont meet face
to face; members are
surveyed regarding their
opinions
o Dialectical Inquiry two
different subgroups
develop very different
assumptions and
recommendations then
they debate
o Devils advocacy an
individual or subgroup
argues against the
recommendation by other
o

Morality
Stereotypes
o Common Information
Bias unconsciously
neglect information held
by a minority while
focusing on more
commonly held info
o Diversity-based
Infighting members
engage in unproductive,
negative conflict over
differing views
o Risky shift members
collectively make a more
risky choice than one
would have working alone.
Teams group of individuals working
toward specific goals or outcomes.
Formal Groups members are
assigned (e.g. teams)
Informal Groups members are
formed because they share interests,
values, or identities.
Identity Groups based on social
identities of the members.
Virtual team members are separated
by time, distance, or organizational
structure
Fewer opportunities for informal
discussions, build-up of trust is
slow
Less rich comm channels
Tendency of members to be free
riders
Functional teams
Self-Managing teams have a great
deal of autonomy and control over what
they do.

members
Associate Involvement in
Managerial Decisions
Vroom-Yetton Method - the
manager diagnose the problem
first then he/she determines how
much involvement from the
associates
Group vs. Individual Decision
Making
Factors to consider:
o Time groups take more
time to make a decision
o Cost - group decision
making is more costly
o Nature of the problem
complex problems for
groups
o Personal growth
CHAPTER 11: GROUPS AND TEAMS
Groups two or more interdependent
individuals who influence one another
through social interaction.
Demographic
diversity
Belief
diversity
Personality
Conscientiou
s-ness
Emotional
stability
Agreeablenes
s
Team Orientation
members enjoy
being in a team
Size
Rel. bet.
Performance
and size is
shaped like
an inverted

Team Effectiveness:
Knowledge criteria degree to
w/c the team continually
increases its performance
capabilities.
o Mental model teams
shared knowledge
o Team learning teams
ability to learn new skills
over time.
Affective criteria whether
team members have a fulfilling
and satisfying experience.
Outcome criteria quantity
and quality of groups output.
o Team viability ability to
remain functioning as long
as needed.
Is a team needed?
o Does the project require
collective work?
o Mutual accountability
Factors:
o Team Composition
Diversity
Sdsad
Conflict
Personal
Substantive
Procedural
Social Facilitation
teamwork can
lead to increased
performance
because others are
present
Social loafing
Solution:
make
individual
contributions
visible; foster
team
cohesiveness
Communication

U.
But other
studies show
a linear
positive rel.
between the
two.
Team structure means
of coordinating formal
team efforts
Team member
roles
Norms informal
rule or standards
that regulate the
teams behavior
Task structure
Whether
tasks can be
divided into
subcompone
nts
Whether
tasks have
quantity or
quality goals
How
individual
outputs are
combined to
achieve the
teams
product
Team Processes
Team cohesion
members
attraction to the
team.
Interperson
al
Task
Leadership
Liaison
Direction setting
Operational
coordinator
Training

Tuckmans Group Development

Model
Forming stage members
come to teams w/o established
relationships but with
expectations
Storming stage presence of
conflicts
Norming stage members
cooperate w/ each other and
become more cohesive; norms,
rules, procedures are established
Performing stage presence of
commitment; members focus on
task performance
Adjourning termination of the
team
Punctuated Equilibrium Model
(PEM)
First stage: team members get to
know each other and proceed to
norming activities; devt of
socio-emotional roles
Punctuation point where a
dramatic change occurs as the
deadline draws near
After that point, the team
refocuses on the tasks, hence,
task roles
Managing for Effective Teams
Top management support
Support Systems
o Technology
o Information systems
o Selection of team
members
o Rewards

PRESENTATIONS
Philam Life
Problem: Ineffective
communication and lack of
employee creativity
Recommendation: LIFE
MERALCO
Problem: How to promote
synergy? (1) younger and
older generation (2)
MERALCO and MPIC
employees Equity Theory
(3) MERALCOs work w/
MPICs projects
Recommendation: POWER
Union Bank
Problem: Compensation and
incentive systems, slow
promotion process, gap
between branch level and
senior management, highly
centralized
Office of the Presidential
Adviser on the Peace Process
Problem: Exit plan (OPAPP is
a temp. govt agency)
Recommendation: PEACE
Zuellig Pharma
Problem: Hiring,
Remuneration, Talent devt,
Sustainability
Recommendation:
(4)Succession Planning
PNB
Problem: Org change caused
by erger bet. PNB and Allied
Bank
Solution: Integration team,
Frequent Communication,
Info Dissemination, Culture
Compatibility, Shuttle
Service