Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Literal meaning
-From Greek word historia (inquiry) a learning by inquiry
-To search for true information
-History is the systematic study of the past event in search for the truth
-History is not story telling or bed-time stories
-Criteria of history;
-TRUE / actual events
-CRITICAL / analytical thinking
-EVIDENCE
Meaning in Arabic
-In a arabic, history is called tarikh.
-From the root arkh which means recording the time of an event.
-Literally, tarikh is the time when a particular event took place.
Technical Meaning
-As a field of study, history refers to;
1. The study of what actually happened in the past (the truth). WHEN, WHERE, WHO, WHAT.
2. Interpretation of what happened in the past. HOW, WHY.
HISTORY
-The queen or mother of the social sciences.
-First being taught to man in schools.
-The basis of other social science subjects, economics, art and religion.
NATURE OF HISTORY
1. History is the study of man
2. History is concerned with man in time and space
3. History explains .
4. History is a dialogue between the events of the past and progressively emerging future ends
5. History is the story of the growth of human consciousness, both in its individual and collective aspects
6. Continuity and coherence are the necessary requisites of history
-History deals with interconnected and continuity human events
-No event is an isolated event - born out of vacuum. An event happens following previous events
-History sheds light on the continuity of human progress as it is passed down from generation to
generation.
-History gives mankind a legacy of civilization progress.
DEFINITION OF HISTORY
-Various definitions of history different scholars
-Burckhardt defines, history is the record what one age finds worthy of note in another
-Marc Bloch maintains that history is science of .
-H.G. Wells (Herbert George Wells), human history is in essence history of ideas
-E.H. Carr (Edward Hallett Carr), history is unending dialogue between the present and the past
-Western scholars, a study of living past, i.e. man + time
DEFINITION
A record of the past or at least a part of the past
Too simple definition
-History is the interpretive study of the recorded fact of the bygone human beings and societies, the
purpose of which study is to develop an understanding of human actions, not only in the past but for the
present as well.
DEFINITION OF HISTORY FROM ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE
Muslim Historiography
1. The Arab historians compiled more historical works than in any other language at that time (590 works
during the 1st millennium).
2. These works are of various types (dealing with history of certain tribes, city, province or singular events like
wars).
3. Introduced the practice of date-mark and chronology
4. They tried to use scientific treatment for significant events
5. These events were authenticated by the law of witness (isnad) and are complemented by their classical
poetry too.
Meaning of Tarikh in Islamic Historiography
1. Al-Kafiji, it is a branch of knowledge dealing with the chronology of events.
2. Abd al-Rahman al-Sakhawi, it is an art dealing with anecdotes according to the sequence
of their Chronology.
3. Classical Arab historiographers, it is knowledge pertaining to a country, customs and manners of a
people, remains of the people of yore, as well as an account of the actions of those alive.
4. In contemporary Western scholarship
5. Simple formula: Man + Time + Space = History
6. A study of living past, i.e. study and compilation of mans important works and ideas which leave their
impact on posterity too.
Subject Matter
1. Covers all aspects of human life or human activities.
2. From A Z. E.g. politics, economy, social systems, foreign policy, religion, individuals.
Time Frame
-Time factor is the essence of history
-Deals with a series of events and each event occurs at a particular time
-Time frame in studying history - from the earliest times to recent times
-E.g.: Pre-history, ancient / classical history, modern history
Historical Periodization
-Measuring time and giving names to particular periods
-How past is to be divided up when exactly a period starts and ends controversial and ambiguous
-Largely inherited from earlier generations
The Importance of Periodization
-To classify past events in a coherent and systematic manner
-To organize our thoughts about the past and to after readings and accounts of it
-To make historical research manageable
Yet, periodization tends to mistakenly shape our assumptions and interpretations of the past
E.g. ancient or classical period
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Criteria of Periodization
-Rulers and dynasties (e.g. Ottoman, Victorian, Bourbon period, Maos China, Stalins Russia)
-Dominant groups (e.g. Viking, Saxon, Mongol period)
-Elected leaders (e.g. Churchill era, Thatcher period, Mahathir era)
-Key events; battles, revolutions, wars (e.g. First World War, French Revolution era, the fall of wall in Berlin)
-Time period (e.g. ancient, medieval, early modern, modern, contemporary, eighteenth-century, twentieth
century, sixties, eighties)
-Type of government (e.g. Communist China, Communist Russia / Tsarist Russia)
-Cultural style (e.g. Baroque)
-Other themes (e.g. Age of Anxiety, Age of Revolution, Age of Depression, golden age)
The commonly used historical periodization is primarily applied to Western history
1. Ancient / Classical Period (500 BC 500 CE)
2. Medieval Period / Dark Ages / Middle Ages (500 CE 1500 CE)
3. Modern Period (1500 CE present)
-BC or BCE before Christ / Common Era
-CE or AD - after Christ (the birth of Christ / Isa) or Anno Domini, a Latin word which means
In the Year of the Lord
-Different periodization for different civilizations
-In Islamic history, there is no medieval period
-E.g. pre-Islamic period, Umayyad Caliphate, Abbasid Caliphate, Ottoman Period
-Latin America, e.g. pre-Columbian and post-Columbian history or period
Fields of History
Thematic, period, geographical perspectives
Thematic e.g. political history, social history economic history, etc.
Period / chronology e.g. ancient history, modern history, etc.
Geographical e.g. European history, Malaysian history, Indian history, etc.
Major Fields of History
1. Political History: governments, kingdoms, political institutions, political practices, public policies,
politicians and their policies.
2. Diplomatic History: relations between and among states, foreign policies, conflicts between states
3. Economic History: economic theories, economic development of states or of companies, banking,
trade, industries.
4. Social History: demography, social class and structure, social organization and social behavior in the
past, living standard (urban and rural areas), the role of women.
5. Intellectual History: thoughts and ideas of prominent intellectual figures, philosophical and scientific
ideas, religious beliefs and political ideologies.
Minor fields of history e.g. cultural history (art, architecture, music, literature)
Pseudo-History
-Information about the past that appears to be historic, but is outside the mainstream of history
-Blends together facts and myths or legends
-Showed lacked of criticism and reliability
-E.g. Stories of Princess Gunung Ledang, of Hang Tuah, Mahsuri, Trojan War
-The past is not really simple, especially the distant past
-The past should not be taken for granted tend to be influenced by ones perceptions, worldviews,
or interests.
The Importance of History
-To know about past events what actually happened (the truth). (Sunni-Shiite rivalry; Christian-Islam
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clash myths)
-To understand how people and societies behave and function complex social behaviors
-in return, enable to run our own lives
-To know own identity, culture, customs and heritage
-personal identity; genealogy and family history
-group identity; national consciousness or nationalism (national unity and national loyalty)
-History is recognized as a cementing force in building of identity (Jewish identity / American Blacks)
-Provides a fuller picture of matters under study since history touches on various issues; social, political,
cultural, etc.
-a storehouse of information or knowledge
-Helps to shape the future by providing the basis for informed judgments
-provides options, avenues in making decisions so as not to repeat past mistakes
-Good citizenship
-well-informed and responsible citizens (Nazi ex.)
-aware of national values, institutions, systems and problems and adopt responsible
public behavior as member or leader of the society
-Moral lessons
-to test ones moral sense (courage, patriotic, etc.)
-History teaching by example
-History explains the present
-The present evolved out of the past
-History could explain the changes from past to the present (how and why)
-Cannot understand current events without knowledge of the past
Significance of History in Islam
-Why Arabs paid so much attention to history?
1. They were proud of their old-aged customs and glorious achievements of their ancestors. This led to tendency
to recollect and preserve the works of their forefathers by the medium of oral transmission
2. The Quran provided with an impetus to obtain more details regarding the communities long exists, a
reference to whom is found in the Quran
3. The Prophet SAW was an ideal person for all Muslims in every respect. His all actions, sayings and character
was preserved in the seerah books
4. Muslim rulers of early centuries had developed their interest in learning the achievements of other Arab or
non-Arab rulers to understand their strategies and to be the best
-Writing of history had been seen as to obtain the pleasure of Allah
-Islam is a religion essentially history-conscious
Misconceptions of History
-History is a dead subject no lessons and value
-the past is a guide to present and future actions
-History deals with dead people, ancient kingdoms and societies
-history also deals with contemporary events and living people
-History is bedtime stories
-history is neither fictions nor imaginations
-historical events are true events, involves critical thinking and evidences
-History is just memorization of names and dates
-history provides better understanding of past events by looking at various issues rather
than just names and dates
-History repeats itself
-history does not repeat itself. Yet, patterns of history may be repeated
-History is a study of the non-human past
-history is a study of human past
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-Tabari sought to place history in the category of science of naqliyyah (transmitted) and not under the aqliyyah
(rational).
Ibn Khaldun
-Abu Zayd Abdul Rahman b. Muhammad b. Khaldun al-Hadrami (732 808 AH / 1332 1406 CE).
-A historian and historiographer.
-Known as the father of historiography.
-Major work Muqaddimah (1377), the preface of his work on world history Kitab al-Ibar.
-Kitab al-Ibar a universal history of the Arabs and Berbers (7 books).
-Muqaddimah basic principles of historiography and common errors committed by Arab Muslim historians
-Three major parts (4 volumes):
1. An account of historiography; its basic principles together with basic illustrations of typical errors
committed by early Arab Muslim historians.
2. An account ofumran (ilm al umran al bashari or the science of human culture) the basis of historical
understanding.
A study of the nature of society and social change (laws of social change):
Basic social formations (nomadic, sedentary)
The rise and fall of state and kingdom
The laws (sunan) that regulates society
3. An account of Islamic institutions and sciences as they had evolved up to his own days in the 14th
century.
-His basic philosophy of history: it was an endless cycle of flowering and decay, with no evolution or
progress except for that from primitive to civilized society.
-Every human society is subject to a cycle of youth, maturity and old age, frequently compared to the
biological life cycle of living organisms (civilization: rise, decline, fall).
-Man is the product, not of his ancestry but of his social customs, his approach often is defined as secular.
-The final mover of history is not the mysterious ways of God but the laws of human society.
-E.g. the concept of asabiyyah (social cohesion) and the rise and decline of a society or kingdom (cycle of
social change).
-Knowledge of umran or human culture could avoid error in historical reports.
-A particular event must be understood against its social context.
-Cause of events a greater event is likely to have major and many causes.
-In Kitab al-Ibar also on the evolution of Islamic institutions and sciences up till 14th cent. CE.
-Also known as father of economics and sociology. 18th
-General sociology; politics, urban life, economics and knowledge.
DEVELOPMENT in Western Scholarship
Historical Event: Divine Plan
th century: Study of Man
18th
Primary Sources
First hand evidence by eyewitness accounts comes from people who saw or participated in the historical events
that are being analyzed.
Various forms of primary sources.
2 main criteria of primary sources; 1. Authentic/original 2. Contemporary (of the time under study).
Forms of Primary Sources
Physical
Visual
Artifacts:
Images:
such as
such as
tools,
photograp
weapons,
h,
machines,
film,
toys,
video,
uniforms,
paintings,
tombstones
sculpture,
, etc.
cave
drawings,
maps, etc.
Oral and
audio
evidence:
such as live
interviews
and audio
recordings,
songs,
poems, etc.
Statistics:
such as
census data,
figures on
the
economy,
land
surveys,
account
books, etc.
Printed text
documents:
such as
cookbooks,
travelers
reports,
advertisements,
memoirs,
government
publication, etc.
Manuscript
(handwritten)
documents: such
as diaries,
journals, letters,
etc.
Primary Sources
Second-hand evidence, provided by persons not present during the historical time under discussion.
Most of books we read are secondary sources.
Good historians combine a wide range of primary sources with a careful reading of the ideas of other scholars
in secondary sources.
Among secondary sources, we prefer scholarly sources.
Scholarly books and articles use footnotes or endnotes to show where the information comes from.
Reliability of Primary Sources
Does it accurately reflect the historical past?
To determine that we need to apply the tests of reliability.
1. Authenticity of the sources.
Is the evidence what it appears to be or is it possibly a fraud or forgery.
How to determine it?
Depends on the type of evidence.
E.g. written documents scientific proof of the age of the antique documents & the use of language.
i.
Test the age of document scientific test, e.g. radio carbon-dating analysis.
ii.
Analyze the language structure e.g. by linguists.
2. Identity of the author/source.
Is the author or source clearly identified? His/her position? Title?
Historians do not rely on anonymous sources or hearsay.
3. Reliability of the author/source.
Is the source qualified to provide this evidence?
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Sources may be qualified by training/education or by experience with the topic of the evidence. Compare in
Ilm hadith, Ilm Al-Rijal.
4. Bias.
Does the author have a vested interest in the topic of the evidence that might distort the evidence?
5. External consistency.
Is the evidence consistent with outside qualified sources?
Problems in Historical Analysis / Writing History
Historians not being critical or objective.
Influenced by own ideologies, views, beliefs, etc.
Biased information or sources.
Through ages, the truth had often been manipulated or covered especially by past rulers or politicians for their
own interests. Forged evidence.
Difficulty to record on the lives of general masses.
The available accounts are mainly concerned with rulers, aristocrats, kings, politics and systems of government.
Lack of information on common people, peasants, slaves, etc.
What skills does a student of history develop? Page 32.
The ability to assess evidence
Learning how to interpret; to distinguish objective sources; to combine different sources, evidences
The ability to assess conflicting interpretations
Sorting; learning how to identify conflicting interpretations and evaluate them
Experience in assessing past examples of change
Developing some capacity for determining the magnitude and significance of change.
ISLAMIC INTERPRETATIONS OF HISTORY
Meaning of Tarikh
From the root arkh which means recording the time of an event
Tarikh is the time when a particular event took place
Khabar narration
Akhbariyun narrators
Historical consciousness among Muslims
Oral transmission of age-old customs and glorious achievements (battle-day narratives e.g. Ayyam al-Arab
- Arab proud of their heritage the institution of narrators (akhbariyun).
Quranic accounts on the communities long extinct.
Prophet Muhammad as a perfect ideal for Muslims in every respect (hadith and sirah).
- Muhaddithun collected and compiled historical data.
Political factions and tribal factions of the Arab society (until the 1st century of Hijra) were linked up with
religious ideas and history.
- Used history as weapons against political rivals and medium of propagation of various political ideologies.
E.g. concept of Ahl-Bayt.
Quranic concept of History
The information contained in the Quran is genuine revelations from Allah to Prophet Muhammad (not
universally accepted method).
The narration of the past of mankind (history) in the Quran.
The range and scope generally covers the whole of mankind from beginning of mans life on earth until
doomsday.
Starting with Prophet Adam a continuous line of prophet hood and human history.
About the rise and fall of society or political authority bygone nations and extinct civilizations.
The revealed information (historical knowledge) as a means to know the history of mankind and as
lessons and moral exhortations to the believers.
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Have they not travelled in the land to see the nature of the consequence for those who disbelieved before
them? They were mightier than these in power and (in the) traces (which they) left behind them in the earth.
Yet, Allah seized them for their sins and they had no protector from Allah (al-Rum 30: 9)
The idea of the Will of Allah does not work blindly or arbitrarily.
There are certain historical reasons leading to every change (Sunna of Allah).
Related to faith and mans behavior, his acceptance or denial of the message sent down by Allah through the
prophets (moral and spiritual).
When a nation disobeys Allah, there would be natural calamities as signs of warning from Allah or
destruction of the people.
E.g. destruction of Bani Ad and Thamud.
If man upholds Allahs will, good conduct, Allah would grant victory, glory and greatness.
The continuous renewal of values through the emergence of prophets and reformers (mujaddids) to remind
man.
Continuous conflicts between good and evil (nafs)
Material prosperity and wealth does not indicate real peace and prosperity.
Social change does not affect values.
Ultimate victory depends on mans faith and sincerity.
Man is created with the purpose of worship.
Modern image of History
First man: primitive creature; intellectual stunted; and culturally and ethically blind (a product of
biological process).
His mind as well as morality grow and develop and his values change.
Aim of historians and archeologists: pure materialistic analysis (for Muslims: to find Divine purpose in the
rise and fall of nations).
Muslim Historians
Their concern with history begins with the advent of Islam.
No interest in the Jahiliyya (pre-Islamic) period of Arab history.
Or the history of neighboring Byzantines and Persians.
History of Muslims began with the first Hijr year.
Early Muslim historians were mainly jurists and muhaddithun.
Mainly interested in the preservation of the original wording of the Quran transmitted by those who
received it directly from the Prophet.
Also to preserve authentic hadith.
Quran and hadith are important sources of Islamic Sharia.
Led to the system of isnad (unbroken chain transmitters) and rawi (transmitter).
Reliable method of collecting historical material.
Resulted in Islamic sciences on methods of criticism; Usul al-Hadith and Asma al-Rijal
(Narrators Whos Who)
Later, Muslim historians gradually adopt universal outlook.
With the expansion of Islam, the concern broadened to include nation (ummah).
Hadith
All doings and sayings of the Prophet Muhammad, as well as those of his Companions.
The most important source of early Islamic society.
Contains the basic teachings of Islam, treaties, judgments, rules regarding the status of non-Muslims, etc.
Every single hadith has undergone a through scrutiny and investigation.
Sirah
Sirah literature biographical details of the Prophet Muhammad, his actions, sayings and practices.
Written in chapters
Authors of Medina School and Iraqi School (Kufa and Basra).
Aban b. Uthman, Urwa b. al-Zubair b. al Awwam, Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri, Ibn Ishaq, Zayyat al-Bakkai.
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Al-Maqrizi
Taqiud-Din Maqrizi (766-845AH; 1364-1442).
His work Kitab al- Mawaiz wal-Iktibar bi Dhikr al-Khitat wal-Athar.
A person should study history and ponder over its exhortations.
..How shameful it would be if a man claims have knowledge and wisdom but on being asked about
those Prophets of Allah, he should simply repeat their names without knowing details of their lives and
personalities.
SCHOOLS OF HISTORY Page 65
Marxist School
Marxist historians.
E.g. Max Weber (1864-1920), German Professor of Economics at Freiburg in the 1890s.
It is the past that is governed by the present and not the other way around.
Stages of history: antique, feudal and modern bourgeois.
Emphasized on economic structure and economic factors in each stage.
E.g. modes of production, exchange of commodities, class struggle.
Human ideals are products of material economic environments.
The change and development is driven by class struggle in the economic structure of society.
The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggle.
The result of the class struggle is social revolution.
E.g. there was a social revolution when feudalism was replaced by capitalism.
The influence of Marxism on the development of the discipline of history was not great.
However, Marxism made important contributions in drawing attentions to the importance of economic, social
classes, technology, work and workplace.
The possible relationships between art, literature, ideas, politics and economics.
School of Annales
Annales a journal founded in France in 1929.
Marc Bloc, Lucien Febvre and Fernand Braudel.
Promoted the history of society, of all society total society (histoire totale).
To aim of historian to recapture human life in all its variety.
Inter-disciplinary method bringing together history, geography, economics, psychology and anthropology
Also beyond the restrictions of periodization and geographical boundaries.
Rejected the narrative history of states, of politics and of events.
Annales have a strong influence in France received government backing.
Braudels work; The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Phillip (1947).
Nevertheless, it was intensely French interested in French identity and French social history.
Although the Annales is against limitations, it mainly deals with early modern history and to some extent
medieval history.
Very little on the 19th century and nothing on the 20th century.
Also left the history of Germany and United States well alone.
American Schools of History
Progressive School
Dominated professional thought and writing during the first half of the 20th century.
The past as conflict between various groups.
Influenced by the American reform movements of late 19th and early 20th century.
Optimistic about the future.
Consensus School
Emerged after World War .
Sometimes known as neo-conservative.
Disagreed with the progressive school did not see American history as a story of conflict.
Class conflict or other major divisions did not exist.
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Nearly all Americans shared common values and goals, only disagreements in methods to achieve the goals
Shared values and goals because all came from the same liberal and democratic background.
Also believed in the same future.
The areas of agreement in the American past were much more significant than the areas of disagreement.
The New Left School
Emerged in the 1960s.
Study the past with an emphasis on finding conflicts in American history.
They disagreed with the consensus school found struggle/conflict in the American past.
Influenced by turmoil situations in the 1960s; civil rights, women rights, Vietnam War.
Took pessimistic view of the future.
School of Social History
The most recent school of history.
history from the bottom up.
Believed that we have relied too long on studying the actions and ideas of the elite.
So, now it is the time to study about ordinary Americans.
Social historians gave important new information.
Unfortunately, ordinary citizens did not leave abundant records like the elites.
Criticism making obscure people representatives of larger society without convincing evidence.
HEGEL
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831), a German philosopher.
The founder of Hegelianism a new form of thinking and logic.
Every main period in history of social culture represents a unity (political, economic social, moral, religious
and intellectual aspects.
He explained that change happens in history as a result of the clash of opposing ideas (Dialectic theory).
Hegel was also known as a cultural/intellectual historian.
His attempts to explain world history using concepts like mind, spirit, culture and the idea of
freedom.
SPENGLER
Oswald Arnold Gottfried Spengler (1880-1936).
German philosopher and historian.
Culture is the basis of civilization and civilization is an expression of culture.
Every culture has a spirit of its own, yet sometimes there are similarities between the cultures.
The spirit can become weak but cannot die.
His works; The Decline of the West (1918) on a cyclical theory of the rise and decline of civilizations.
Civilizations rise and fall according to a natural and inevitable cycle.
Prussianism and Socialism, Hour of Decision.
Influenced many 20th century writers and scholars, e.g. Samuel Huntington.
TOYNBEE
Arnold Joseph Toynbee (1889-1975).
British historian.
Major work; A Study of History, 1934-1961, a twelve volumes synthesis of world history and analysis of
rise and fall of civilizations.
Historical units are societies.
Societies; primitive societies and civilized societies (civilizations).
21 civilizations.
A civilization contains a number of communities called nations.
Each nation is a part of a civilization.
The history of a nation cannot be understandable if it is cut off from the civilization.
He opposes the idea of taking nations as units or topics for historical study.
Rather, civilizations for historical study.
The history of a civilization is self-explanatory - to explain events and changes.
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Different phases of the life of a civilization its genesis, growth, breakdown and fall.
Presented history of civilizations in terms of challenge and response.
Civilizations arose in response to some set of challenges of extreme difficulty.
Challenges and responses were physical of social.
When a civilization responds to challenges, it grows.
When it fails to respond to a challenge, it declines.
WHAT IS CIVILIZATION
Meaning of Civilization
From Latin words civilize (relating to a citizen or a state.
The idea of civilization was developed by French scholars 18th cent. A.D
To differentiate between civilized & uncivilized society; barbarians, infidels, savages, pagans, primitive
people
The natives lacked modern systems of governments, modern economic system, illiterate, etc. uncivilized.
Extensively used by 19th cent. A.D. following European overseas expansion to Africa and Asia.
To justify European imperialistic ambitions or subjugation of non-European societies.
Western civilization as a yardstick or a standard to judge the colonized natives (non-European societies).
Orientalism an idea of Western or European superiority over non-European societies.
19th century scholars were influenced by theories of biological and social evolution developed by Charles
Darwin and Herbert Spencer.
In Darwins Origin of Species (1859) - it was only the fittest animals and plants that survived the process
of natural selection.
Darwins theory was also applied on human societies.
In 20th century, scholars described civilization as urbanized, state-level societies.
Recognized the existence of pre-industrial civilizations.
E.g. Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Indus, Chinese, etc.
Different definitions of a civilization not conclusive.
Generally defined as a developed or advanced state of human society.
Civilization refers to the overall way of life of the people that involve values, norms, institutions and mode
of thinking to which successive generations in a society have attached primary importance.
Civilization is the product of a particular process of cultural creativity which is the work of a particular
people.
Ibn Khaldun did not provide a clear definition of a civilization.
Ibn Khalduns concept or idea of umran, mentioned in the Muqaddimah.
Centered on human beings and cooperation, which is a result of social organization.
What Constitutes a Civilization?
Different views.
Ibn Khaldun in order to achieve umran, there should be social organization of the society, just leaders, just
governments and the feeling of assabiyyah among the people as a group.
Robert M. Adams
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Priests used standardized schematic pictures to preserve records of temple property, business transactions.
Later, cuneiform written on clay tablets.
Cuneiform wedged shaped characters (500 characters).
Difficult to learn; multiple meanings.
For 2000 years, cuneiform as the sole writing system in Mesopotamia.
Administrative records, business records and literature.
Invented cylinder seals made of stone or ivory carved with pictures.
Sumerian schools the earliest known schools in human history.
For priests and administrators.
Literature Epic of Gilgamesh.
Sumerian Babylonian poem.
Technology
Metalworking among the first Bronze Age people in the world.
Early on used copper, bronze and gold and later iron.
Glassmaking and textile weaving.
Water control, storage and irrigation construction of dams and aqueducts.
Among the first people to make beer and wine.
Greatest invention wheels.
Wheeled transport; two-wheeled chariots and four-wheeled carts.
Mathematics
Devised a sexagesimal numeral system a number system based on 60.
The basis of the current division of the day into two sets of twelve hours, 60 minute-hour, 60 second- minute,
24 hours-day, and 360 degree-circle.
Used the process of multiplication and division.
Displayed arithmetical and algebraic concepts.
Geometry utilized e.g. for building projects and mapmaking.
Astronomy
Studied the stars and sky, predicted eclipses and solstices related to religion and omens.
Sumerian calendar 7 days a week.
Lunar (moon) calendar based on twelve lunar months.
Nisannu, Ajaru, Simanu, Tamuzu, Abu, Ululu, Tashritu, Arahsamnu, Kissilimu, Tebetu, Shabatu, Addaru.
Useful in determining the planting and harvesting of crops.
Studied the movement of planets led to astrology.
Predictions about floods, famines, fortunes and fate of nations.
Contributed to todays constellations or horoscopes (Leo, Taurus, Scorpios, Gemini, Capricorn, Sagittarius.
Records of astronomical works.
Hammurabi Code
Enacted by King Hammurabi the law maker.
The oldest systematic collection of laws.
282 laws; criminal offence, marriage and family, slavery, land use and irrigation, commercial activity, etc.
Principles an eye for an eye and let the buyer beware to prevent mischief or fight.
Penalties for criminal offenses severe and varied according to the social class of the offenders & victims.
Slaves had no rights and subjected to severe punishments if committed offence. Written on pillars of stone
erected throughout cities.
Stern punishment for burglary.
If a robber is caught stealing, he will be killed.
If a person stole goods belonging to the temples or the state, he was put to death and so was the person
receiving the stolen goods.
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Society
The capital headed by a king, who was also a head priest, military commander and in charge of
the economy.
Warfare very common among Shang cities.
The Chou adopted Shang system of government.
Invented a new system of authority to legitimate their power, tien ming (Mandate of Heaven).
Became an integral aspect of Chinese theories of authority.
Tien ming concept kingship as an intermediary position between heaven and earth.
The king was appointed by heaven to see to the welfare of the people.
If the king failed to carry out his duty, heaven will withdraw its mandate and invest it in another.
During Qin era, the establishment of a central government in China unification of provinces.
Developed emperor system continued by later dynasties.
The emperor a divine position; descendant of gods and goddesses.
Chin Shih, a Qin leader became Emperor Huang Ti.
Society
During early period, a simple class structure:
Ruling class: Aristocrats headed by king.
Government, officials, nobles (warriors and military)
Owned slaves and land.
Common people
Performed various economic activities.
Peasants, artisans, merchants.
Dependent on nobles.
Slaves.
During later period, especially from Han era, Confucian class system.
Based on Confucianism, which was adopted as state / official policy by the Han government.
Ruling class and scholars:
Emperor and family.
Aristocrats, nobles, learned man.
Language and Writing
Language various Chinese dialects.
Yet shared the same writing system.
The Chinese writing system developed later than Sumerian and Indian, but highly developed and
more sophisticated.
Shang invented thousands of symbols written on bronze and oracle bones.
Deeply rooted in Shang religion.
Originally pictographic (words and characters were represented by pictures).
Later developed into a more complex ideographic writing.
During Qin period unified the writing system.
Difficulty to master Chinese writing only for learned elites (received scholarship, government posts
and respect).
The unified writing system important for the rise and continuity of Chinese civilization.
Important for political, social and cultural stability.
Used by ruling governments for record-keeping, effective administration, centralization & communication.
Spread to Korea and Japan.
Religion
At the beginning, the Shang worshipped Shang Ti (Supreme God).
Shang Ti ruled over lesser gods, e.g. god of the sun, the moon, the wind, the rain and of other natural forces
and places.
Shang Ti also regulated human affairs as well as ruling over the universe.
Ancestor worship developed during the Shang era.
The Shang believed that their ancestors dwelled in heaven after their deaths and continued to show
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Other inventions; porcelain, printing, paper, paper money, gunpowder, fireworks, hot air balloons and
parachutes.
GREEK CIVILIZATIONS (1000 BC 323 BC)
Origin
Refers to areas of Hellenic culture that were settled by ancient Greeks; Greek peninsula, Cyprus, Aegean
coast of Turkey (Ionia), Sicily and southern Italy (Magna Graecia.
Started in 1000 BC and ended in 323 BC (the death of Alexander the Great).
Succeeded by Hellenistic Greece / culture / period the integration of ancient Greek into Roman Empire.
Ancient Greek culture and civilization influenced the later Roman civilization and was the foundation of
Western civilization (language, politics, philosophy, art and architecture).
The ancient Greeks an Indo-European race.
Migrated southward from the region of lower Danube River after 2000 BC to Greek peninsula, which was
called Hellas.
The settled Greek people called Hellenes.
By 8th century BC the emergence of self-governing communities or city states.
Later, the expansion of Greek colonies; Aegean, coast of Asia Minor, Cyprus, Balkans, Sicily, Southern Italy,
south coast of France, northeastern Spain, Egypt and Libya.
Government
The city polis the basic unit of Greek government.
Acropolis from akros (top) and polis (city) means a big city.
By 6th century BC dominant Greek cities; Athens, Sparta, Corinth and Thebes.
The most famous, Acropolis of Athens.
Each had a control over the surrounding rural areas and smaller towns.
Athens and Corinth major maritime and mercantile powers.
Athens naval power and practiced political democracy.
The dominance of Athens after the Persian Wars (late 5th century BC).
By mid-5th century BC the establishment of an Athenian Empire.
Athenian culture flourished, especially during the Golden Age of Athens under the rule of Pericles the Age
of Pericles (460 430 BC).
Following the reform of laws (by Solon, Cleisthenes) the establishment of an assembly of adult male
citizens; vote of majority.
Adopted by many other Greek cities.
The Laws of Athens spelled out state laws and rights of citizens.
Athens versus Sparta.
Sparta military power; the best army in ancient Greece.
Military regime under a dual monarchy checked each others influence.
The rise of Sparta after the Peloponnesian War Athens versus Sparta and its allies.
Ended the Athenian Empire Sparta became the new dominant Greek power.
Later, the dominance of Thebes.
Followed by the invasion of Greek cities by Macedonia; King Philip II and his son, Alexander.
Driven by the desire to free Greek cities from Persian influence.
Alexanders empire Persia, Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and Pakistan.
The establishment of Greek speaking kingdoms in Egypt, Syria and Persia practiced Hellenistic culture.
Society
Two striking features in ancient Greek society: Free men and slaves.
Only free men could be citizens of a city-state and entitled to full protection of the law.
In Athens, the free men were divided into four social classes based on wealth.
Could change classes if made more money.
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Astronomy
One of the earliest sciences that attracted the Muslims attention.
Discovered the suns apogee (the points farthest form the earth in the orbit of the moon).
Drew catalogues maps of visible stars (gave the Arabic names).
Corrected the sun and moon table.
Fixed the length of the year.
The first to use pendulum to measure time.
The first to build observatories.
Fakhr Al-Din Al-Razi (13th century) a theory of the movement of stars.
Ibn Younus (11th century) invented the sun dial (predicts sun spots, eclipses and appearance of comets.
Chemistry
Jabir (8th century) discovered Nitric Acid and described the operations of distillation, sublimation, filtration,
coagulation and crystallization.
Abu Bakar Al-Razi (Rhases) (9th century) the first to describe the properties of Sulphuric Acid.
Abu-Musa Al-Kufi (8th century) his works translated into Latin and French, some as late as the 17th cent.
English terms in chemistry originated from Arabic terms; champor, alcohol, elixir, syrup.
Mathematics
While the numerals are believed to have originated in India, it was popularized by Muslims.
Muhammad bin Musa Al-Khawarizmi (9th century) introduced system of symbols representing nine
numbers and invented the concept of zero (sifr) 300 years before it was known in Europe (13th century).
Also the founder of Algebra (from Arabic word Al-Jabr).
Muslims combined and re-organized numbers into Arabic numerals.
The first to develop trigonometry in its post-Greek modern form.
Introduced the use of the Sine and Co-sine.
Invented the symbol to express any unknown quantity ( ).
Physics
Al-Hassan Ibn Al-Haytham (Alhazen) (11th century) greatest Muslim physicist (optics), wrote AlManazir The science of optics and the inventions of microscopes, telescopes and cameras are indebted to
him.
Muslims invention of compass for navigation.
Abdul-Rahman Al-Khozaini (9th century) in Mizan ul-Hikmah investigated on hydrostatics and
improvements in the use of water wheels (e.g. gravities of liquids and solids).
Medicine
Fakh-Al-Deen Al-Razi (Rhases) (9th century) wrote an immense medical reference in Europe for 600 years
gynecology, obstetrics and surgery.
Ibn Sina or Abu Ali al-Husayn ibn Sina (Avicenna) (11th century).
A physician, poet and philosopher from Bukhara.
Produced over 200 works on medicine, philosophy, geometry, astronomy, theology, philology, art.
Wrote 5 volume work, Canon (or Precepts) of Medicine physiology, hygiene, pathology, therapeutics, etc
Kitab al-Shifa (Book of Healing).
Translated into Latin and became the text-book for medical education in Europe (from 12th 17th cent. CE)
Abul Qasim (late 11th and early 12th century) and Ibn Rushd works on surgery.
Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) works on bronchotomy, dislocations, fractures and treatment of skin diseases.
Mobile and permanent hospitals.
Hospitalization was free and universally available.
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History
Al-Tabari (9th century), Al-Masoodi (10th century), Ibn Al-Atheer (13th century), Ibn Khaldun (14th century).
Al-Muqaddima.
Geography
Al-Idrisi (12th century) the theory of earth is round.
Caliph al-Mamun (9th century) ordered the drawing of a large map of the world.
The work of Ibn Rushd (Aventuez) partly led to the discovery of the Americas by Christopher Columbus.
Al-Masoodi (10th century) wrote an encyclopedia arranged by geographical order.
Political Science
Al-Farabi (10th century) wrote about a model city.
Al-Mawardi (late 10th and early 11th century) wrote Al-Ahkam Al-Sultaniyyah (Book of the Rules of Power).
Art and Architecture
Diverse due to the fusion of various cultures which came under Muslim rule. Yet, there are some elements of
unity based on Islamic teachings.
The influence of Muslim calligraphy, Islamic-style mosaic.
Alhambra and the Cordova Mosque in Spain.
Agriculture
Al-Awwam (12th century) described 585 plants and explained the cultivation of several fruits.
Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati studied plants.
Improved the methods of irrigation, used organic fertilizers and improved the breeds of cattle.
Introduced peaches, apricots, cotton, rice, banana, sugarcane to the West.
Industry
Advancements in the manufacturing of fabrics (silk, cotton, wood), leather, glass, steel.
Applied chemistry in making drugs and perfumes.
WESTERN CIVILIZATION
Origin
Began in Europe based on the Greco-Roman civilization.
One of the existing world civilizations.
Started either in 8th century AD / 16th century AD; after end of European Middle Ages (5th 16th cent AD).
Overlapping terms; West or Western, Modern and European.
Different definitions based on different criteria.
Regions (Europe, America)
European descendants
Caucasian race
Western ideologies
Western culture
Christianity
Advanced / Industrialized European states Periods (ancient Greco-Roman / Modern)
Generally, Western civilization is defined as having these criteria:
European descendants
Western ideologies
Developed / Industrialized state
Christianity
In consistent with the general perception of what people view of the West today.
Religion was not the driving force behind the Western civilization.
In fact, religion was viewed as an obstacle towards progress.
Separation of church and state.
The rise of Western civilization followed a series of events in Europe.
European History
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