Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Preface
Preface
Preface
Contents
Preface
1.
Introduction
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1
1
2
3
1.6
1.7
Denition
Brief History of Cold-Formed Steel Usage
The Development of a Design Standard
History of Cold-Formed Standards
Common Section Proles and Applications of
Cold-Formed Steel
Manufacturing Processes
1.6.1 Roll Forming
1.6.2 Brake Forming
General Approach to the Design of Cold-Formed Sections
1.7.1 Special Problems
1.7.2 Local Buckling and Post-Local Buckling of Thin
Plate Elements
1.7.3 Effective Width Concept
1.7.4 Propensity for Twisting
vii
5
13
13
14
16
16
16
17
20
Contents
2.
3.
4.
20
22
23
24
26
27
27
28
28
29
30
33
33
37
41
46
49
52
54
57
3.1
3.2
57
60
60
64
69
71
71
73
74
76
79
4.1
4.2
79
81
Local Buckling
Postbuckling of Plate Elements in Compression
viii
Contents
4.3
5.
100
106
115
124
Flexural Members
127
5.1
5.2
127
129
5.3
5.4
5.5
General
Torsional-Flexural (Lateral) Buckling
5.2.1 Elastic Buckling of Unbraced Simply Supported
Beams
5.2.2 Continuous Beams and Braced Simply Supported
Beams
5.2.3 Bending Strength Design Equations
Basic Behavior of C- and Z-Section Flexural Members
5.3.1 Linear Response of C- and Z-Sections
5.3.1.1 General
5.3.1.2 Sections with Lateral Restraint Only
5.3.1.3 Sections with Lateral and Torsional
Restraint
5.3.2 Stability Considerations
Bracing
Inelastic Reserve Capacity
ix
84
89
89
90
90
90
93
93
95
95
129
134
141
142
142
142
143
145
148
153
155
Contents
6.
7.
8.
155
157
158
163
Webs
167
6.1
6.2
General
Webs in Shear
6.2.1 Shear Buckling
6.2.2 Shear Yielding
6.3 Webs in Bending
6.4 Webs in Combined Bending and Shear
6.5 Web Stiffeners
6.6 Web Crippling
6.6.1 Edge Loading Alone
6.6.2 Combined Bending and Web Crippling
6.7 Webs with Holes
6.8 Example: Combined Bending with Web Crippling
of Hat Section
References
167
168
168
170
172
174
176
176
176
179
182
Compression Members
189
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
General
Elastic Member Buckling
Stub Column Axial Strength
Long Column Axial Strength
Effect of Local Buckling of Singly-Symmetric Sections
Examples
7.6.1 Square Hollow Section Column
7.6.2 Unlipped Channel Column
7.6.3 Lipped Channel Column
References
189
190
194
195
198
202
202
205
210
220
221
8.1
8.2
184
186
221
223
Contents
8.3
227
227
231
231
233
233
238
242
248
Connections
251
9.1
9.2
251
255
255
256
258
260
261
262
268
269
269
272
272
275
276
279
280
283
285
285
291
294
295
Contents
10.
11.
12.
297
10.1 Intoduction
10.2 Specic AISI Design Methods for Purlins
10.2.1 General
10.2.2 R-Factor Design Method for Through-Fastened
Panel Systems and Uplift Loading
10.2.3 The Base Test Method for Standing Seam
Panel Systems
10.3 Continuous Purlin Line Design
10.4 System Anchorage Requirements
10.4.1 Z-Purlin Supported Systems
10.4.2 C-Purlin Supported Systems
10.5 Examples
10.5.1 Computation of R-value from Base Tests
10.5.2 Continuous Lapped Z-Section Purlin
10.5.3 Anchorage Force Calculations
References
297
302
302
353
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Loads
11.3 Methods of Structural Analysis
11.3.1 Upright Frames
11.3.2 Beams
11.3.3 Stability of Truss-Braced Upright Frames
11.4 Effects of Perforations (Slots)
11.4.1 Section Modulus of Net Section
11.4.2 Form Factor (Q)
11.5 Member Design Rules
11.5.1 Flexural Design Curves
11.5.2 Column Design Curves
11.6 Example
References
353
355
358
358
360
361
361
362
363
363
364
364
366
374
375
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Elastic Buckling Solutions
12.3 Strength Design Curves
375
376
378
xii
303
304
310
318
318
328
329
329
332
346
350
Contents
12.3.1 Local Buckling
12.3.2 Flange-Distortional Buckling
12.3.3 Overall Buckling
12.4 Direct Strength Equations
12.5 Examples
12.5.1 Lipped Channel Column (Direct Strength
Method)
12.5.2 Simply Supported C-Section Beam
References
Index
378
381
383
384
386
386
389
391
393
xiii
1
Introduction
1.1 DEFINITION
Cold-formed steel products are just what the name connotes: products that are made by bending a at sheet of
steel at room temperature into a shape that will support
more load than the at sheet itself.
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 1
The rst AISI Specication for the Design of ColdFormed Steel Members was based largely on research work
done under the direction of Professor George Winter at
Cornell University. Research was done between 1939 and
1946 on beams, studs, roof decks, and connections under
the supervision of an AISI Technical Subcommittee, which
prepared the rst edition of the specication and manual.
The specication has been revised and updated as new
research reveals better design methods. A complete chronology of all the editions follows:
First edition: 1946
Second edition: 1956
Third edition: 1960
Fourth edition: 1962
Fifth edition: 1968
Sixth edition: 1980
Seventh edition: 1986
Addendum: 1989
First edition LRFD: 1991
Combined ASD and LRFD and 50th anniversary
edition: 1996
Addendum to the 1996 edition: 1999
Further details on the history can be found in Ref. 1.3.
The 1996 edition of the specication combines allowable stress design (ASD) and load and resistance factor
design (LRFD) into one document. It was the feeling of the
Specication Committee that there should be only one
formula for calculating ultimate strength for various limit
states. For example, the moment causing lateral-torsional
buckling of a beam should not depend on whether one is
using ASD or LRFD. Once the ultimate moment is determined, the user can then divide it by a factor of safety (O)
and compare it to the applied moment, as in ASD, or
multiply it by a resistance (f) factor and compare it to an
applied moment which has been multiplied by appropriate
load factors, as in LRFD.
4
Introduction
Chapter 1
FIGURE 1.1
Purlin sections.
6
Introduction
Chapter 1
FIGURE 1.3
Introduction
FIGURE 1.4 Storage rack sections: (a) plan view of uprights and
bracing; (b) pallet beam sections.
Chapter 1
FIGURE 1.5
Introduction
FIGURE 1.6 Plane truss frames: (a) tubular truss; (b) channel
section truss.
Chapter 1
FIGURE 1.7 Residual construction: (a) wall framing; (b) roof truss.
sections. While the AISI Specication for cold-formed structures does not deal specically with such structures, the
same principles can be applied. A good reference on this
kind of structure is Gaylord and Gaylord (Ref. 1.8).
Cold-formed tubular members: Hollow structural
sections (HSS) may be made by cold-roll-forming to produce
12
Introduction
FIGURE 1.8
FIGURE 1.9
Chapter 1
FIGURE 1.10
Introduction
FIGURE 1.11
press dies.
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 1
torsionalbuckling
shown in
in exure
Introduction
or compression. In the 1996 edition of the AISI Specication, distortional buckling of edge-stiffened elements is
partially accounted for by Section B4.2. Further research
is underway to include specic design rules.
21
Chapter 1
FIGURE 1.14
exure.
Introduction
Chapter 1
1.7.8 Connections
A. Welded Connections
In hot-rolled steel fabrication, the most common welds are
llet welds and partial or complete penetration groove
welds. There is a much wider variety of welds available
in cold-formed construction, such as arc spot welds (sometimes referred to as puddle welds), are bevel groove welds,
resistance welds, etc. In hot-rolled welding, generally the
two pieces being joined are close to the same thickness, so it
is easy for the welder to set the amperage on his welding
machine. In cold-formed steel, there is often a great difference in the thicknesses of the pieces being joined. For
24
Introduction
B. Bolted Connections
Bolted connections in cold-formed construction differ
primarily in the ratio of the bolt diameter to the thickness
of the parts being joined. Thus, most bolted connections are
controlled by bearing on the sheet rather than by bolt
shear. The ``net section fracture'' that is usually checked
in heavy plate material rarely occurs. Provisions for bolted
connections appear in Section E3 and are discussed in
Chapter 9.
C. Screw Connections
Self-drilling screws, self-tapping screws, sheet metal
screws, and blind rivets are all devices for joining sheet to
sheet or sheet to heavier supporting material. Of these, the
self-drilling screw is the most common for structural applications. It is used for securing roof and wall sheets to
purlins and girts and making connections in steel framing
for residential or commercial construction. Sheet metal
25
Chapter 1
screws and rivets are mostly used for non-structural applications such as ashing, trim, and accessories. Pullover
and pullout values for screws may be calculated with the
equations in Section E4 or values may be obtained from the
manufacturer. The design of screw connections is discussed
in Chapter 9.
D. Clinching
A relatively new method for joining sheets is called clinching. No external fastener is used here; a special punch
deforms the two sheets in such a way that they are held
together. At this time, no provisions for determining the
capacity of this type of connection exist in the AISI Specication, so the testing provisions of Section F of the AISI
Specication should be used.
Introduction
Chapter 1
Introduction
FIGURE 1.16
Chapter 1
REFERENCES
1.1 American Institute of Steel Construction, Load and
Resistance Factor Design Specication for Structural
Steel Buildings, 1993.
1.2 American Iron and Steel Institute, Cold-Formed Steel
Design Manual, 1996.
1.3 Yu, W-W, Wolford, D. S., and Johnson, A. L., Golden
Anniversary of the AISI Specication, Center for
Cold-Formed Steel Structures, University of
Missouri-Rolla, 1996.
1.4 Standards Australia=Standards New Zealand, ColdFormed Steel Structures, AS=NZS 4600:1996.
1.5 British Standards Institution, Code of Practice for the
Design of Cold-Formed Sections, BS 5950, Part 5,
1986.
1.6 Canadian Standards Association, Cold-Formed Steel
Structural Members, CAN=CSA S136-94, Rexdale,
Ontario, 1994.
1.7 Comite Europeen de Normalisation, Eurocode 3:
Design of Steel Structures, Part 1.3: General Rules,
European Prestandard ENV 1993-1-3, 1996.
1.8 Gaylord, E. H., Jr, and Gaylord, C. N., Design of Steel
Bins for Storage of Bulk Solids, New York, PrenticeHall, 1984.
30
Introduction
1.9
31
2
Materials and Cold Work of Forming
Chapter 2
ASTM A588=A588M, High-strength low-alloy structural steel with 50 ksi (345 MPa) minimum yield
point to 4 in. (100 mm) thick
ASTM A606, Steel, sheet and strip, high-strength,
low-alloy, hot-rolled and cold-rolled, with improved
atmospheric corrosion resistance
ASTM A607, Steel, sheet and strip, high-strength,
low-alloy, columbium or vanadium, or both, hotrolled and cold-rolled
ASTM A611 (Grades A, B, C, and D), Structural steel
(SS), sheet, carbon, cold-rolled
ASTM A653=A653M (SS Grades 33, 37, 40, and 50
Class 1 and Class 3; HSLAS types A and B, Grades
50, 60, 70 and 80), steel sheet, zinc-coated (galvanized) or zinc-iron alloy-coated (galvannealed) by
the hot-dip process
ASTM A715 (Grades 50, 60, 70, and 80) Steel sheet
and strip, high-strength, low-alloy, hot-rolled, and
steel sheet, cold rolled, high-strength, low-alloy with
improved formability
ASTM A792=A792M (Grades 33, 37, 40, and 50A),
Steel sheet, 55% aluminum-zinc alloy-coated by
the hot-dip process
ASTM A847 Cold-formed welded and seamless highstrength, low-alloy structural tubing with improved
atmospheric corrosion resistance
ASTM A875=875M (SS Grades 33, 37, 40, and 50
Class 1 and Class 3; HSLAS types A and B,
Grades 50, 60, 70, and 80) steel sheet, zinc-5%
aluminum alloy-coated by the hot-dip process
Tubular sections manufactured according to ASTM A500
have four grades of round tubing (A, B, C, D) and four
grades (A, B, C, D) of shaped tubing. Details of stress
grades are shown in Table 2.1.
Steels manufactured according to ASTM A570 cover
hot-rolled carbon steel sheet and strip of structural quality
34
TABLE 2.1 Minimum Values of Yield Point, Tensile Strength, and Elongation
Grade
Round
tubing
A
B
C
D
33
42
46
36
45
58
62
58
25
23
21
23
1.36
1.38
1.35
1.61
Shaped
tubing
A
B
C
D
39
46
50
36
45
58
62
58
25
23
21
23
1.15
1.26
1.24
1.61
A570=
A570M-96
Sheet
and strip
30
33
36
40
45
50
30
33
36
40
45
50
49
52
53
55
60
65
21
18
17
15
13
11
1.63
1.58
1.47
1.38
1.33
1.30
A607-96
Class 1
45
50
55
60
65
70
Class 1
45
50
55
60
65
70
Class 1
60
65
70
75
80
85
A500-98
Fu
(ksi)
(min=max)
Permanent
elongation in
2 in. (min)
Fu =Fy
(min)
35
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
23,
20,
18,
16,
14,
12,
CR
CR
CR
CR
CR
CR
22
20
18
16
15
14
1.33
1.30
1.27
1.25
1.23
1.21
Product
Fy
(ksi)
(min)
ASTM
designation
Sheet
36
A653=A653M-97
Sheet
(galvanized
or
galvannealed)
A792=A792M-97
Sheet
aluminiumzinc alloycoated
Grade
Fu
(ksi)
(min=max)
Permanent
elongation in
2 in. (min)
Fu =Fy
(min)
Class 2
45
50
55
60
65
70
Class 2
45
50
55
60
65
70
Class 2
55
60
65
70
75
80
HR 23, CR 22
HR 20, CR 20
HR18, CR 18
HR 16, CR 16
HR 14, CR 15
HR 12, CR 14
1.22
1.20
1.18
1.17
1.15
1.14
A
B
C types
1 and 2
D types
1 and 2
25
30
42
45
26
24
1.68
1.50
33
48
22
1.45
40
52
20
1.30
SS
33
37
40
50 (Class 1)
50 (Class 3)
33
37
40
50
50
45
52
55
65
70
20
18
16
12
12
1.36
1.41
1.38
1.30
1.40
33
37
40
50A
33
37
40
50
45
52
55
65
20
18
16
12
1.36
1.41
1.38
1.30
Chapter 2
A611-97
Product
Fy
(ksi)
(min)
Chapter 2
FIGURE 2.2
approximately 36 ksi, and the yield point has been determined from 0.2% proof stress [as specied in AISI Manual
(Ref. 1.2)] to be 65 ksi. The ultimate tensile strength is
76 ksi, and the elongation at fracture on a 2-in. gauge
length is approximately 10%. The value of the elongation
at fracture shown on the graph is lower as a result of the
inability of an extensometer to measure the strain during
local elongation to the point of fracture without damage.
The graph in the falling region has been plotted for a
constant chart speed.
Typical stress-strain curves for a 0.08-in.-thick tube
steel are shown in Figure 2.3. The stress-strain curve in
Figure 2.3a is for a tensile specimen taken from the ats,
and the curve in Figure 2.3b is for a tensile specimen taken
from the corner of the section. The at specimen displays a
yield plateau, probably as a result of strain aging (see
Section 2.4) following manufacture, whereas the corner
39
Chapter 2
FIGURE 2.3 Stress-strain curves of a cold-formed tube: (a) stressstrain curve (at); (b) stress-strain curve (corner).
2.3 DUCTILITY
A large proportion of the steel used for cold-formed steel
structures is of the type shown in Figures 2.2 and 2.3. These
steels are high tensile and often have limited ductility as a
result of the manufacturing processes. The question arises
as to what is an adequate ductility when the steel is used in
a structural member including further cold-working of the
corners, perforations such as bolt holes, and welded connections. Two papers by Dhalla and Winter (Refs. 2.2, 2,3)
attempt to dene adequate ductility in this context.
Ductility is dened as the ability of a material to
undergo sizable plastic deformation without fracture. It
reduces the harmful effects of stress concentrations and
permits cold-forming of a structural member without
impairment of subsequent structural behavior. A conventional measure of ductility, according to ASTM A370, is the
percent permanent elongation after fracture in a 2-in.
gauge length of a standard tension coupon. For conventional hot-rolled and cold-rolled mild steels, this value is
approximately 2030%.
A tensile specimen before and after a simple tension
test is shown in Figures 2.4a and 2.4b, respectively. After
testing, the test length of approximately 3 in. has undergone a uniform elongation as a result of yielding and strain
hardening. The uniform elongation is taken from the yield
point up to the tensile strength as shown in Figure 2.4c.
After the tensile strength has been reached, necking of the
material occurs over a much shorter length (typically 12 in.
approximately) as shown in Figure 2.4b and ends when
fracture of the test piece occurs. Elongation in the necking
region is called local elongation. An alternative estimate of
local ductility can be provided by calculating the ratio of the
reduced area at the point of fracture to the original area.
This measure has the advantage that it does not depend on
a gauge length as does local elongation. However, it is more
difcult to measure.
41
Chapter 2
2:1
1
2 in.
gauge
2:2
2:3
Chapter 2
0:5El Eun
2:0
2:4
2:5
Chapter 2
coated longitudinal specimens have constant uniform elongation for each 0.10-in. gauge with an increase in percent
elongation at the gauge in which fracture occurs as shown
in Figure 2.5a. Transverse G550 specimens show almost no
uniform elongation, but do have limited elongation at the
fracture as shown in Figure 2.5b. The diagonal test specimen results in Figure 2.5c indicate that uniform elongation
is limited outside of a 12 in. zone around the fracture, while
local elongation occurs in the fracture gauge as well as in
the adjoining gauges. These results show that the G550
steel ductility depends on the direction from which the
tensile coupons are obtained. The steel does not meet the
Dhalla and Winter requirements described above except for
uniform elongation in the longitudinal direction.
The study by Rogers and Hancock (Ref. 2.5) also
investigated perforated tensile coupons to determine
whether the net section fracture capacity could be developed at perforated sections. Coupons were taken in the
longitudinal, transverse, and diagonal directions as
described in the preceding paragraph. Circular, square,
and diamond-shaped perforations of varying sizes were
placed in the coupons. It was found that despite the low
values of elongation measured for this steel, as shown in
Figure 2.5, the load carrying capacity of G550 steel as
measured in concentrically loaded perforated tensile
coupons can be adequately predicted by using existing
limit states design procedures based on net section fracture
without the need to limit the tensile strength to 75% of
80 ksi as specied in Section A3.3.2 of the AISI Specication.
Chapter 2
Chapter 2
2:6
where k is the strength coefcient and n is the strainhardening exponent. The effective stress s is dened by
the Von Mises distortion energy yield criterion (Ref. 2.8),
and the effective strain E is similarly dened. In Ref. 2.9, k
and n are derived from tests on steels of the types described
in Section 2.4 to be
k 2:80Fyv 1:55Fuv
!
Fuv
n 0:255
0:120
Fyv
2:7
2:8
where Fyv is the virgin yield point and Fuv is the virgin
ultimate tensile strength.
The equations for the analytical corner models were
derived with the following assumptions:
1. The strain in the longitudinal direction during
cold-forming is negligible, and hence a condition
of plane strain exists.
2. The strain in the circumferential direction is equal
in magnitude and opposite in sign to that in the
radial direction on the basis of the volume
constancy concept for large plastic deformations.
3. The effective stress-effective strain curve given by
Eq. (2.6) can be integrated over the area of a
strained corner.
The resulting equation for the tensile yield strength of the
corner is
Fyc
Bc Fyv
R=tm
2:9
50
where
Bc
kb
Fyv
2:10
b 0:045 1:315n
2:11
m 0:803n
2:12
Chapter 2
Chapter 2
REFERENCES
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
55
3
Buckling Modes of Thin-Walled
Members in Compression and
Bending
Chapter 3
give more accurate values of the local buckling and distortional buckling stresses than is available by simple hand
methods. The AISI Specication does not explicitly allow
the use of nite strip analyses to determine section
strength. However, the Specication Committee is
presently (2000) debating a change called the direct
strength method, explained in Chapter 12. The Australian=New Zealand Standard (Ref. 1.4) permits the use of
more accurate methods such as the nite strip method.
The semianalytical nite strip method used in this
book is the same as that described by Cheung (Ref. 3.1)
for the stress analysis of folded plate systems and subsequently developed by Przmieniecki (Ref. 3.2) for the local
buckling analysis of thin-walled cross sections. Plank and
Wittrick (Ref. 3.3) incorporated membrane buckling displacements in addition to plate exural displacements to
permit the study of a wide range of buckling modes ranging
from local through distortional to exural and torsionalexural. An alternative method called the spline nite strip
method is a development of the semianalytical nite strip
method. It can be used to account for nonsimple end
boundary conditions and was developed for buckling
analyses of thin at-walled structures by Lau and Hancock
(Ref. 3.4). A brief comparison of the two methods when
applied to a channel section of xed length is given in
Section 3.2.3.
The semi-analytical nite strip method* involves
subdividing a thin-walled member, such as the edge-stiffened plate in Figure 3.1a, into longitudinal strips. Each
strip is assumed to be free to deform both in its plane
(membrane displacements) and out of its plane (exural
58
FIGURE 3.1 Finite strip analysis of edge stiffened plate: (a) strip
subdivision; (b) membrane and exural buckling displacements.
Chapter 3
FIGURE 3.2
Chapter 3
FIGURE 3.3 Unlipped channel section buckling load versus halfwavelength for concentric compression.
FIGURE 3.4 Unlipped channel section buckling load versus halfwavelength for eccentric compression.
Chapter 3
Chapter 3
Chapter 3
Chapter 3
FIGURE 3.10
Chapter 3
FIGURE 3.12 Channel section purlin buckling stress versus halfwavelength for major axis bending.
FIGURE 3.13
3.3.2 Z-Section
A similar study to that of the channel section in bending
was performed for the two Z-sections in Figure 3.14. The
rst section contains a lip stiffener perpendicular to the
ange, and the second has a lip stiffener located at an angle
of 45 to the ange. In Figure 3.14, the buckling stresses
have been computed for buckle half-wavelengths up to
40 in., so only the local and distortional buckling modes
have been investigated.
As for the channel section study described above, the
distortional buckling stresses are signicantly lower than
the local buckling stresses for both Z-sections. For the lip
stiffener turned at 45 to the ange, the distortional buckling
stress is reduced by 19% compared with the value for the lip
73
Chapter 3
FIGURE 3.14 Z-section purlinbuckling stress versus half-wavelength for bending about a horizontal axis.
FIGURE 3.15 Hollow ange beambuckling stress versus halfwavelength for major axis bending.
Chapter 3
REFERENCES
3.1
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
77
4
Stiffened and Unstiffened
Compression Elements
Chapter 4
Compression Elements
FIGURE 4.1
Chapter 4
FIGURE 4.2
Compression Elements
Chapter 4
1 0:22 ol
4:4
w
Fy
Fy
s
s!
b
fol
f
1:19
1 0:298 ol
4:5
w
Fy
Fy
A comparison of test results of cold-formed sections
which had unstiffened elements (Ref. 4.7) with Eqs. (4.4)
and
(4.5) is given in Figure 4.4. For slender plates
p
Fy =fol > 2:0, Eq. (4.5) for unstiffened elements gives
the better approximation to the test results. However, for
stockier plates, Eq. (4.4) provides a more accurate estimate
of the plate strength. Consequently, in the AISI Specication, Eq. (4.4) has been used for both stiffened and unstiffened compression elements. This also has the advantage of
simplicity since one equation can be used for both types of
elements. The resulting equation for effective width
produced by substituting Eq. (4.1) in Eq. (4.4) is
s
s!
b
k
93:5 k
428
1
4:6
t
Fy
w=t Fy
84
Compression Elements
FIGURE 4.4
4:7
4:8
Chapter 4
4:9
w
l
where r is called the reduction factor. The effective width
b equals w when l 0:673, so Eq. (4.9) is only applicable
for l > 0:673. For l 0:673, the plate element is fully
effective.
For strength limit states, where failure occurs by
yielding, b is calculated with f Fy . For strength limit
states where failure occurs by overall buckling rather
than yielding, the effective width is calculated with f
equal to the overall buckling strength, as described in
Chapters 58.
For deection calculations, the effective width is determined by using the effective width formula with f fd , the
stress in the compression anges at the load for which
deections are determined. The resulting equation is given
in Section B2.1 of the AISI Specication.
Two procedures are given in Section B2.1. Procedure I
simply substitutes fd for f in Eq. (4.9) and produces low
estimates of effective widths and, hence, greater deection.
Procedure II is based on a study by Weng and Pekoz (Ref.
4.8) which proposed more accurate effective width equations for calculating deection. These are
r
l
w
b
r ed
w
p
0:41 0:59 Fy =fd 0:22=l
for l lc 4:11
l
where
r
w F
y
4:12
lc 0:256 0:328
E
t
r
86
Compression Elements
FIGURE 4.5 Effective design stress rFy on a stiffened compression element Fy 65 ksi.
Chapter 4
1 0:22=l 0:8dh =w
l
4:13
Compression Elements
Chapter 4
Compression Elements
Chapter 4
FIGURE 4.9 Stress distributions and design criteria for edgestiffened elements.
and Case III applies to sections for which the ange is not
fully effective. Figure 4.9 shows the stress distributions
which occur in the different cases. It can be observed that
the stress distributions depend not only on the case but also
on the adequacy of the stiffener and the length of the lip D
relative to the ange width w. The adequacy of the
stiffener is dened by the ratio of the stiffener second
92
Compression Elements
Chapter 4
Imin
s
w2 0:136E
3:66t4
18:4t4
t
Fy
4:15
Compression Elements
4.6 EXAMPLES
4.6.1 Hat Section in Bending
Problem
Determine the design positive bending moment for bending
about a horizontal axis of the hat section in Figure 4.10.
The yield stress of the material is 50 ksi. Assume the
element lies along its centerline and eliminate thickness
effects. The section numbers refer to the AISI Specication.
D 4:0 in:
Lf 0:75 in:
B 9:0 in:
Bf 3:0 in:
t 0:060 in:
Fy 50 ksi
95
R 0:125 in:
E 29; 500 ksi
Chapter 4
Solution
I.
t
0:155 in:
2
u 1:57r 0:243 in:
c 0:637r 0:099 in:
rR
Length of arc
Distance of centroid from
center of radius
1 0:22=l
0:2984
l
b rw 2:575 in:
Eq: B2:1-3
Compression Elements
Element 1: Lips
Lu Lf R t 0:565 in:
Element 3: Bottom Flanges
bf Bf 2R t 2:63 in:
Calculate second moment of area of effective section
Li is the effective length of all elements of type i, and yi
is the distance from the top ber:
L
2L3
L1 2Lu y1 D R t u I10 u 0:030 in:3
2
12
L2 4u
y2 D R t c
t
L3 2bf y3 D
2
h
2h3
y4 R t
I40
L4 2h
7:972 in:3
2
12
t
L5 b
y5
2
y6 R t c
L6 2u
97
Chapter 4
Element
no.,
i
Effective
length,
Li
(in.)
Distance from
top ber,
yi
(in.)
L i yi
(in.2)
Li y2i
(in.3)
1
2
3
4
5
6
1.130
0.973
5.260
7.260
2.575
0.487
3.532
3.914
3.970
2.000
0.030
0.086
3.992
3.809
20.882
14.520
0.077
0.042
14.101
14.910
82.902
29.040
0.002
0.004
6
P
i1
6
P
i1
6
P
i1
Li 17:685 in:
Li yi 43:323 in:2
Li yi 2 140:959 in:3
i1
6
P
i1
Ix0 t
f
27:87 ksi
ycg
f2
0:603
f1
Eq: B2:3-5
98
Compression Elements
k 4 21 c3 21 c 15:442Eq: B2:3-4
r
1:052 h f1
0:641
Eq: B2:1-4
l p
t
E
k
be b h 3:63 in:
b1
be
1:008 in:
3c
b2
be
1:815 in:
2
Ix
1:049 in:3
ycg
fb 0:95
Md fb Mn 49:834 kip-in:
ASD
Ob 1:67
Md
Mn
34:411 kip-in:
Ob
99
Chapter 4
B 9:0 in:
Bf 3:0 in:
t 0:060 in:
ds 0:30 in:
Fy 50 ksi
E 29;500 ksi
R 0:125 in:
Solution
I.
II.
A.
t
0:155 in:
2
u 1:57r 0:243 in:
c 0:637r 0:099 in:
rR
Compression Elements
Chapter 4
s
E
31:091
S 1:28
f
3S 93:273
Eq: B4-1
128bo =t
285 0:0040 in:4
S
Eq: B4:1-6
Corner radius
rR
Length of arc
Distance of centroid from
center radius
L8 2u
y8 R t c
d
2d3
L9 2ds y9 R t s
I90 s 0:0045 in:3
2
12
L10 2u y10 R t ds c
Element
no.,
i
8
9
10
Effective
length,
Li
(in.)
Distance from
top ber,
yi
(in.)
Li yi
(in.2)
Li y2i
(in.3)
0.487
0.600
0.487
0.086
0.335
0.584
0.042
0.201
0.284
0.0036
0.067
0.166
102
Compression Elements
10
P
i8
10
P
i8
10
P
i8
Li 1:573 in:
Li yi 0:527 in:2
Li y2i 0:237 in:3
P10
ycg Pi8
10
Li yi
0:335 in:
i8 Li
P10
2
i8 Li ycg
0:177 in:3
10
P
2
0
0
Is
Li yi I9 ILy2 0:065 in:3
ILy2
i8
0:0039 in:4
10
P
0
As
Li t 0:094; in:2
Is
Is0 t
i8
Eq: B4:1-8
Eq: B4:1-7
B 2R t 2R 2R t
4:005 in:
2
w
67
t
103
Chapter 4
r
1:052 w f
1:450
l p
E
k t
Eq: B2:1-4
1 0:22=l
0:585
l
b rw 2:343 in:
since l > 0:673
r
Eq: B2:1-3
Element 1: Lip
Lu Lf R t 0:565 in:
Element 3: Flange
bf Bf 2R t 2:63 in:
Li is the effective length of all elements of type i and yi
is the distance from the top ber:
L
2L3
L1 2Lu y1 D R t u I10 u 0:03 in:3
2
12
L2 4u
y2 D R t c
t
L3 2bf y3 D
2
h
2h3
L4 2h
y4 R t
I40
7:972 in:3
2
12
t
L5 2w y5
2
L6 2u
y6 R t c
d
L7 Ls
y7 R t s
I70 Is0
2
Element
no.,
i
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Effective
length,
Li
(in.)
Distance from
top ber,
yi
(in.)
L i yi
(in.2)
Li y2i
(in.3)
1.130
0.973
5.260
7.260
4.686
0.487
1.535
3.533
3.914
3.970
2.000
0.030
0.086
0.335
3.992
3.810
20.882
14.520
0.141
0.042
0.514
14.101
14.910
82.902
29.040
4.218
3.622
0.173
104
Compression Elements
7
P
i1
Li 21:331 in:
7
P
i1
7
P
i1
Li yi 43:9 in:2
ycg Pi1
7
Li yi
i1
ILy2
Ix0
7
P
i1
7
P
i1
Li
2:058 in:
f
45:51 ksi
ycg
f2 h R t ycg
c
f
42:69 ksi
ycg
f2
0:938
f1
Eq: B2:3-5
k 4 21 c3 21 c 22:434
r
1:052 h f1
0:528
l p
t
E
k
be 3:63 in:
b1
Eq: B2:3-4
Eq: B2:1-4
be
0:922 in:
3c
Eq: B2:3-1
105
Chapter 4
b2
be
1:815 in:
2
Ix
1:714 in:3
ycg
Eq: C3:1:1-1
fb 0:95
Md fb Mn 81:41 kip-in:
ASD
Ob 1:67
M
Md n 51:31 kip-in:
Ob
Compression Elements
FIGURE 4.12 Purlin section with elements: (a) cross section; (b)
line element model.
assuming the section is fully stressed f Fy . The following section numbers refer to the AISI Specication.
H 8:0 in:
B 2:75 in:
D 0:625 in: Fy 55 ksi
t 0:060 in:
E 29;500 ksi
R 0:1875 in:
Solution
I.
II.
r R 2t 0:218 in:
u 1:57r 0:341 in:
c 0:637r 0:139 in:
Ic0 0:149r3 0:0015 in:3
Chapter 4
B3.1
Uniformly
compressed
unstiffened
d D R t 0:378 in:
ku 0:43
r
1:052 d
f
l p
0:436
Eq: B2:1-4
E
ku t
since l < 0:673
d0s d 0:378 in:
3
d t
Is
0:269 103 in:4
12
f could be revised to f3 in Figure 4.13, but this is not
necessary in this case.
Element 3: Flange Flat
w B 2R t 2:255 in:
w
37:583
this value must not exceed 60
t
Clause B1:1a1
Section B4.2 Uniformly compressed elements with an
edge stiffener (see Figure 4.13)
s
E
29:644
Eq: B4-1
S 1:28
f
108
Compression Elements
FIGURE 4.13
S
4
Eq: B4:2-4
n2 0:5
Case III w=t S Flange not fully effective
w=t
4
Ia3 t 115
5 0:001954 in:4
S
Eq: B4:2-11
n3 0:333
Since w=t S, then
Ia Ia3 0:001954 in:4
n n3 0:333
109
Chapter 4
Is
0:138 < 1:0
Ia
Eq: B4:2-5
C1 2 C2 1:862
k
ds
C2n ka
c2 d0s
Eq: B4:2-6
ku ku 2:204
Eq: B4:2-7
0:052 in:
Eq: B4:2-9
2
h
R t
2
t
D
2
D R t c
d
D R t
2
L1 ds
y1 R t
L2 2u
y2
L3 bf
y3
L4 h
y4
L5 w
y5
L6 2u
y6
L7 d
y7
110
d3s
1:169 105 in:3
12
I20 2Ic0 3:066 103 in:3
I10
I30 0 in:3
I40
h3
35:227 in:3
12
I50 0 in:2
I60 2Ic0 3:066 103 in:3
d3
I70
4:483 103 in:3
12
Compression Elements
Element
no.,
i
Effective
length,
Li
(in.)
Distance from
top ber,
yi
(in.)
Li yi
(in.2)
Li y2i
(in.3)
0.052
0.683
1.586
7.505
2.255
0.683
0.378
0.274
0.109
0.030
4.000
7.970
7.891
7.564
0.0142
0.0744
0.0476
30.0200
17.9723
5.3892
2.8553
0.004
0.008
0.001
120.080
143.240
42.526
21.597
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
7
P
i1
7
P
i1
7
P
Li 13:141 in:
i1
Li yi 56:373 in:2
ycg Pi1
7
Ix0
7
P
i1
Li yi
i1 Li
Li y2i
4:29 in:
7
P
i1
ILy2
7
P
i1
Sex
Ix
1:691 in:3
ycg
f
51:827 ksi
ycg
f2 h R t ycg
c
f
44:396 ksi
ycg
f2
0:857
f1
Eq: B2:3-5
111
Chapter 4
k 4 21 c3 21 c 20:513
r
1:052 h f1
1:218
l p
t
E
k
r
1 0:22=l
0:673
l
be rh 5:05 in:
be
1:309 in:
3c
b2
be
2:525 in:
2
Eq: B2:1-4
Eq: B2:1-3
b1
Eq: B2:3-4
Eq: B2:1-2
Eq: B2:3-1
Eq: B2:3-2
f
51:871 ksi
ycg
f2 h R t ycg
c
f
43:02 ksi
ycg
f2
0:829
f1
Eq: B2:3-5
k 4 21 c3 21 c 19:903
r
1:052 h f1
l p
1:237
t
E
k
112
Eq: B2:3-4
Eq: B2:1-4
Compression Elements
1 0:22=l
0:665
l
be rh 4:989 in:
since l > 0:673
r
b1
be
1:303 in:
3c
b2
be
2:494 in:
2
Eq: B2:1-3
Eq: B2:1-2
Eq: B2:3-1
Eq: B2:3-2
L4 b1
y4 R t
L8 b2
y8 ycg
L9 H ycg
y9 H R t
b2
2
R t
L9
2
Element
no.,
i
Effective
length,
Li
(in.)
Distance from
top ber,
yi
(in.)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0.052
0.683
1.586
1.303
2.255
0.683
0.378
2.494
3.403
0.274
0.109
0.030
0.899
7.970
7.891
7.564
3.103
6.051
113
b31
0:184 in:3
12
b3
I80 2 1:293 in:3
12
L3
I90 9 3:283 in:3
12
I40
Li yi
(in.2)
Li y2i
(in.3)
0.014
0.074
0.048
1.171
17.972
5.389
2.855
7.740
20.589
0.003
0.008
0.001
1.053
143.240
42.526
21.597
24.014
124.591
Chapter 4
9
P
i1
9
P
i1
9
P
Li 12:836 in:
i1
Li yi 55:853 in:2
9
P
i1
9
P
Li y2i
i1
Ix0 t
9
P
i1
7:126 in:4
Ix
1:638 in:3
ycg
fb 0:95
Md fb Mn 86:54 kip-in:
ASD
Od 1:67
M
Md n 53:95 kip-in:
Ob
114
Compression Elements
Chapter 4
yd 50
D 0:60 in:
Solution
I.
t
0:23 in:
2
u 1:57r 0:361 in:
c 0:637r 0:147 in:
rR
Length of arc
Distance of centroid
from center of radius
Ic0 0:149r3 1:813103 in:3
I 0 of corner about its
own centroid xis
II.
Length of arc
Distance of centroid
from center of radius
I 0 of corner about its own
centroid axis
y 0:873 rad
u1 ry 0:201 in:
sin y
r 0:202 in:
c1
y
!
2
y
sin
y
cos
y
sin
y
Ic0 1
r3
2
y
1:227 104 in:3
Compression Elements
d0 d 0:479 in:
Is
Section B3:1a
Eq: B2:1-4
d3 t
sin2 y 3:22 104 in:4
12
Chapter 4
Ia2 399 t
w=t
r!3
ku
7:708 103 in:4
4
Eq: B4:2-4
Is
0:143 < 1:0
Ia
Eq: B4:2-5
C1 2 C2 1:857
Eq: B4:2-6
k C2n ka ku ku 2:296
ds Cd d0s 0:068 in:
Eq: B4:2-7
Eq: B4:2-9
118
Compression Elements
1 0:22=l
0:636
l
b rw 1:665 in:
Eq: B2:1-3
since l > 0:673
Eq: B2:1-2
ds
t
sin y
2
2
1:554105 in:3
0
I20 Ic1
1:227104 in:3
L2 u
y2 R t c1
L3 b
y3
L4 u
y4 R t c
L5 h
y5 R t
L6 u
y6 H R t c
L7 w
y7 H
L8 u1
y8 H R t c1
Rt
y9 H
2
L9 d
t
2
I30 0 in:3
I40 Ic0 1:813103 in:3
h
2
I50
t
2
1 cos y
h3
34:876 in:3
12
d
t
sin y
2
2
119
0
I80 Ic1
1:227104 in:3
I90
d3
t
sin2 y
2
12
5:366103 in:3
Chapter 4
Element
no.,
i
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
9
P
i1
9
P
i1
9
P
i1
Effective
length,
Li
(in.)
Distance from
top ber,
yi
(in.)
L i yi
(in.2)
Li y2i
(in.3)
0.068
0.201
1.665
0.361
7.48
0.361
2.619
0.201
0.479
0.138
0.058
0.030
0.113
4.00
7.887
7.97
7.942
7.704
0.009
0.012
0.050
0.041
29.92
2.848
20.872
1.594
3.689
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.005
119.68
22.459
166.346
12.660
28.419
Li 13:434 in:
Li yi 59:034 in:2
Li y2i 349:572 in:3
9
P
i1
Ix0
Ix
Sex
9
P
i1
Ix0 t
Li y2i
9
P
i1
7:503 in:4
Ix
1:707 in:3
ycg
120
Compression Elements
f2
0:809
f1
Eq: B2:3-5
k 4 21 c3 21 c 19:464
r
1:052 h f1
l p
1:245
t
E
k
1 0:22=l
r
0:661
l
since l > 0:673
be rh 4:946 in:
be
b1
1:298 in:
3c
b
b2 e 2:473 in:
since c < 0:236
2
bc ycg R t 4:134 in:
Eq: B2:3-4
Eq: B2:1-4
Eq: B2:1-3
Eq: B2:1-2
Eq: B2:3-1
Eq: B2:3-2
Eq: B2:3-5
Chapter 4
k 4 21 c3 21 c 18:509
Eq: B2:3-4
r
1:052 h f1
l p
1:278
Eq: B2:1-4
t
E
k
1 0:22=l
0:648
Eq: B2:1-3
r
l
since l > 0:673
Eq: B2:1-2
be rh 4:846 in:
be
b1
1:287 in:
Eq: B2:3-2
3c
b
since c < 0:236 Eq: B2:3-2
b2 e 2:423 in:
2
Break into three elements as shown in Figure 4.14.
Elements 5 and 10 are the top and bottom effective portions
of the compression zone, and Element 11 is the web tension
zone which is fully effective
b
b3
L5 b 1
y5 R t 1 I50 1
2
12
0:178 in:3
0
I10
y10 ycg
L11 H ycg
y11 H R t
R t
Element
no.,
i
1
2
3
b32
12
1:186 in:3
b2
2
L10 b2
0
I11
L11
2
L11 3
12
2:834 in:3
Effective
length,
Li
(in.)
Distance from
top ber,
yi
(in.)
Li yi
(in.2)
Li y2i
(in.3)
0.68
0.201
1.665
0.138
0.058
0.030
0.009
0.012
0.050
0.001
0.001
0.001
(continued)
122
Compression Elements
Element
no.,
i
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
11
P
i1
11
P
i1
11
P
i1
Effective
length,
Li
(in.)
Distance from
top ber,
yi
(in.)
L i yi
(in.2)
Li y2i
(in.3)
0.361
1.287
0.361
2.619
0.201
0.479
2.423
3.240
0.113
0.904
7.887
7.97
7.942
7.704
3.288
6.120
0.041
1.164
2.848
20.872
1.594
3.689
7.968
19.829
0.005
1.052
22.459
166.346
12.660
28.419
26.203
121.352
Li 12:905 in:
Li yi 58:075 in:2
Li y2i 378:499 in:3
11
P
i1
11
P
i1
11
P
i1
Ix0 t
11
P
i1
7:282 in:4
123
Chapter 4
Ix
1:618 in:3
ycg
fb 0:95
Md fb Mn 84:54 kip-in:
ASD
Ob 1:67
M
Md n 53:929 kip-in:
Ob
REFERENCES
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
Compression Elements
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
125
5
Flexural Members
5.1 GENERAL
The design of exural members for strength is usually
governed by one of the following limit states:
(a) Yielding of the most heavily loaded cross section
in bending including local and postlocal buckling
of the thin plates forming the cross section, or
(b) Elastic or inelastic buckling of the whole beam in a
torsional-exural (commonly called lateral) mode,
or
(c) Yielding and=or buckling of the web subjected to
shear, or combined shear and bending, or
(d) Yielding and=or buckling of the web subjected to
bearing (web crippling) or combined bearing and
bending
The design for (a) determines the nominal section strength
Mn given by Eq. (5.1).
5:1
Mn Se Fy
127
Chapter 5
5:2
where
Fc
Mc
Sf
5:3
Flexural Members
5:4
Me
L
2
2
GJL2
where
bx
d
L
r
EIy
GJ
5:5
129
Chapter 5
FIGURE 5.1 Lateral buckling modes and axes: (a) I and T-sections
bent about x-axis; (b) hat and inverted hat sections bent about y
axis.
x2 y y3 dA
A
2y0
5:6
bx
Ix
In the case of doubly symmetric beams, bx is zero and Eq.
(5.4) simplies to
p r
p EIy GJ
p2 ECw
5:7
1
Me
GJL2
L
In the case of simply supported beams subjected to nonuniform moment, Eq. (5.7) can be modied by multiplying by
130
Flexural Members
Chapter 5
r
EIx
GJ
5:13
Hence, Eq. [C3.1.2(7)] in Section C3.1.2 of the AISI Specication is a more general version of Eqs. (5.4) and (5.5) with
the x- and y-axes interchanged.
For a beam subjected to a clockwise moment M1 at
the left-hand end and a clockwise moment M2 at the righthand end, as shown in Figure 5.2a, a simple approximation
for CTF , as given in Refs. 5.1 and 8.1, is
M1
5:14
CTF 0:6 0:4
M2
In Section C3.1.2 of the AISI Specication, a specic
equation [C3.1.2(16)] for the elastic buckling moment of a
point-symmetric Z-section is
Me
p2 ECb dIyc
2L2
5:15
132
Flexural Members
Chapter 5
Flexural Members
FIGURE 5.3 Element displacements and actions: (a) nodal displacements producing out-of-plane deformation; (b) element actions in
the plane of the structure.
use with Eqs. (5.8) and (5.9). The loading was located at the
tension ange, shear center axis, and compression ange.
Three different bracing congurations were used, ranging
from no intermediate bracing through central bracing to
135
Chapter 5
Flexural Members
TABLE 5.1 C b Factors for Simply Supported Beams Uniformly Loaded
Within the Span
Loading
position
Tension ange
Shear center
Compression ange
No
bracing
aL
One
central
brace
a 0:5L
Third point
bracing
a 0:33L
1.92
1.22
0.77
1.59
1.37
1.19
1.47
1.37
1.28
Chapter 5
FIGURE 5.5 Sheathing stiffness: (a) plan of sheathing; (b) sheathing shear stiffness (kry ); (c) sheathing exural stiffness (krs ).
can provide torsional restraint to the purlin. These stiffnesses can be incorporated in the nite element analysis
described above to simulate the effect of sheathing.
A nite element analysis has been performed for the
four-span continuous lapped purlin shown in Figure 5.6a
138
Flexural Members
FIGURE 5.6 BMD and buckling modes for half-beam: (a) element
subdivision; (b) BMD; (c) buckling modes.
Chapter 5
ling modes for both inward and outward loading are shown
in Figure 5.6c. In the case of outward loading, buckling
occurs mainly in the end span as a result of its unrestrained compression ange. However, for inward loading,
buckling occurs mainly at the rst interior support where
there is a large negative moment and an unrestrained
compression ange. The buckling loads for both inward
and outward loading are approximately the same.
To analyze problems of this type in practice without
recourse to a nite element analysis, the Cb factor has been
Flexural Members
12:5Mmax
2:5Mmax 3MA 4MB 3MC
5:16
5:17
5:18
5:19
Chapter 5
FIGURE 5.8
Flexural Members
Chapter 5
144
Flexural Members
Chapter 5
5:20
mt
2
2
2
pbf rbw qbf
qds
mt
5:21
2
2
2
The pbf =2 term is the torque resulting from the prying
force. The rbw =2 term is the torque resulting from the
eccentricity of the restraining force from the shear center.
The qbf =2 term is the torque resulting from the eccentricity
of the line of the screw fastener, presumed at the center of
the ange, from the web centerline. The term qds in Eq.
(5.21) is the torque resulting from the eccentricity of the
shear center of the C-section from the web centerline. Since
the forces in Figure 5.11d act through the shear center of
each section, the value of mt must be zero if the section does
not twist. Hence, the different components of Eqs. (5.20)
and (5.21) must produce a zero net result for mt for
untwisted sections.
For the Z-section, the value of r in Eq. (5.20) is given
by Eq. (5.22) for a section which is untwisted and braced
laterally:
Ixy q
r
5:22
Ix
Using Eqs. (5.20) and (5.22) and assuming that the value of
Ixy =Ix is equal to bf =bw , where the x- and y-axes are as
shown in Figure 5.11b, so that the sign of Ixy is negative, then
the second and third terms in Eq. (5.20) add to zero. Hence,
the rst term in Eq. (5.20) (prying force term) is zero if mt is
zero. Consequently, since it can be shown that the second and
third terms in Eq. (5.20) cancel approximately for conventional Z-sections with the screw fastener in the center of the
ange, the prying force will be small for Z-sections before
structural instability of the unrestrained ange occurs.
146
Flexural Members
Chapter 5
By comparison, the value of r in Eq. (5.21) for a Csection is zero if the section remains untwisted. Hence, for
mt to be zero, the rst term in Eq. (5.21) (prying force term)
must balance with the third and fourth terms in Eq. (5.21).
That is, the torque from the prying forces is required to
counterbalance the torque from the eccentricity of the uplift
force in the center of the ange from the shear center.
Consequently, the prying forces are much greater for Csections, than they are for Z-sections before structural
instability of the unrestrained ange occurs.
Flexural Members
Chapter 5
FIGURE 5.14
(b) models.
150
Flexural Members
Chapter 5
The ange element is assumed to be subjected to a distributed lateral load wz per unit length and a distributed
axial force pz per unit length as shown in Figure 5.16a. It
deects u in its own plane as shown in Figure 5.16b. The
torsional rotation, and hence the torsional stiffness GJf ,
of the ange element is ignored.
The spring stiffness K depends upon the
(a) Flexibility of the web
(b) Flexibility of the connection between the tension
ange and the sheathing
(c) Flexibility of the sheathing
A test of a short length of purlin through-fastened to
sheathing as shown in Figure 5.15 is required to assess
this total exibility and, hence, K .
The ange element is then analyzed as a beam-column
as shown in Figure 5.16. In Ref. 5.15, the deected shape
u of the beam-column is assumed to be a sine curve, and
an energy analysis of the system is performed, including
152
Flexural Members
5.4 BRACING
As described in Section 1.7.4, bracing of beams can be used
to increase the torsional-exural buckling load. In addition,
non-doubly-symmetric sections, such as C- and Z-sections,
twist or deect laterally under load as a consequence of the
loading which is not located through the shear center for Csections or not in a principal plane for Z-sections. Consequently, bracing can be used to minimize lateral and
torsional deformations and to transmit forces and torques
to supporting members.
For C- and Z-sections used as beams, two basic situations exist as specied in Section D.3.2 of the AISI Specication.
(a) When the top ange is connected to deck or
sheathing in such a way that the sheathing effectively restrains lateral deection of the connected
ange as described in Section D3.2.1
(b) When neither ange is so connected and bracing
members are used to support the member as
described in Section D3.2.2
A full discussion of bracing requirements for metal roof and
wall systems is given in Section 10.4.
The formulae for the design of braces specied in
Section D3.2.2 are based on an analysis of the torques
153
Chapter 5
FIGURE 5.17 Theoretical bracing forces at a point of concentrated load: (a) C-section forces; (b) Z-section forces.
154
Flexural Members
Chapter 5
with stiffened
compression anges with slenderness less
p
than 1:11= Fy =E , a maximum value of compression ange
strain equal to three times the yield strain Cy 3:0 is
allowed. For sections with stiffened compression anges
156
Flexural Members
p
with slenderness greater than 1:28= Fy =E, the maximum
compression ange strain is the yield strain Cy 1:0. For
intermediate slenderness values, linear interpolation
should be used.
From these values of Cy , the stress and strain distributions in Figures 5.18b and 5.18c can be determined. The
stress distributions assume an ideally elastic-plastic material. The ultimate moment Mu causing a maximum
compression strain of Cy ey can then be calculated from
the stress distributions. Section C3.1.1(b) of the AISI
Specication limits the nominal exural strength Mn to
1:25Se Fy . This limit requires that conditions (1)(5) of
Section C3.1.1(b) be satised. These limits ensure that
other modes of failure such as torsional-exural buckling
or web failure do not occur before the ultimate moment is
reached. For sections with unstiffened compression anges
and multiple stiffened segments, Section C3.1.1(b) of the
AISI Specication requires that Cy 1.
Chapter 5
FIGURE 5.19
E 29500 ksi
H 8 in:
D 0:625 in:
158
G 11300 ksi
B 2:75 in:
t 0:060 in:
Flexural Members
Solution
I.
159
Chapter 5
t
0:2175 in:
2
h H 2r t 7:505 in:
w B 2r t 2:255 in:
t
dD r
0:378 in:
2
pr
u
0:342 in:
2
A th 2w 4u 2d 0:848 in:2
"
2
2
h
h
3
Ix 2t 0:0417h w
r 2u
0:637r
2
2
#
d
2
3
3
20:149r 0:0833d h d
4
rR
8:198 in:4
2t h w
w
r u0:363r
x
A
2
i
uw 1:637r dw 2r
0:703 in:
h w
2 w3
Iy 2t w
r
0:356r3 dw 2r2
2
12
i
uw 1:637r2 0:149r3
Ax 2
0:793 in:4
t3
h 2w 2d 4u 0:00102 in:4
3
Warping Constant and Shear Center Position for
Section with Square Corners (see Figure 5.20b)
a H t 7:94 in:
J
II.
b B t 2:69 in:
t
c D 0:595 in:
2
160
Flexural Members
1:151 in:
a 2 b2 t
12
8
9
2a3 b
3a2 b2 48c4 112bc3 8ac3 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
<
2
2 2
2
3 =
48abc
12a c
12a bc 6a c
>
>
6a2 b a 2c3 24ac2
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
:
;
Cw
10:362 in:6
xo x m 1:854 in:
III. Design Load on Braced Beam
Section C3.1.2 Lateral buckling strength
A. Effective Lengths for Central Brace
Ly
B.
L
150 in:
2
Lt
L
150 in:
2
Buckling Stresses
r
Iy
0:967 in:
ry
A
sey
p2 E
12:10 ksi
Eq: C3:1:2-9
Ly =ry 2
r
Ix Iy
ro
Eq: C3:1:2-13
x2o 3:747 in:
A
GJ
p2 ECw
st 2 1
12:23 ksi Eq: C3:1:2-10
GJL2t
Ar0
161
Chapter 5
C.
12:5Mmax
1:299
2:5Mmax 3MA 4MB 3MC
Eq: C3:1:2-11
p
Me Cb Aro sey st 50:202 kip-in: Eq: C3:1:2-6
C.
Critical Moment (M c
Ix
2:049 in:3
H=2
My Sf Fy 112:72 kip-in:
Sf
Mc Me 50:20 kip-in:
Eq: C3:1:2-5
since Me < 0:56 My
Eq: C3:1:2-4
Fc
Mc
24:50 ksi
Sf
D.
fb 0:90
qD
ASD
8fb Mn
3:819 lb=in:
L2
Ob 1:67
qD
8Mn
2:541 lb=in:
Ob L2
162
Flexural Members
REFERENCES
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
Chapter 5
5.11
5.12
5.13
5.14
5.15
5.16
5.17
5.18
5.19
Flexural Members
5.20 Sherman, D. R., Inelastic exural buckling of cylinders, in Steel StructuresRecent Research Advances
and Their Applications to Design (M.N. Pavlovic, ed.),
London, Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, 1986,
pp. 339357.
165
6
Webs
6.1 GENERAL
The design of webs for strength is usually governed by
(a) The web subjected to shear force and undergoing
shear buckling, or yielding in shear or a combination of the two, or
(b) The web subjected to in-plane bending and undergoing local buckling in the compression zone, or
(c) The web subjected to a concentrated transverse
force (edge load) at a load or reaction point and
undergoing web crippling
In all three cases, the buckling modes may interact with
each other to produce a lower strength if the shear and
bending or the bending moment and concentrated load
occur simultaneously.
In the AISI Specication, the design of webs in shear is
governed by Section C3.2. The interaction between shear
167
Chapter 6
6:1
a=b2
Webs
Chapter 6
0:905Ekv
h=t2
ht
0:905Ekv t3
h
6:2
5:34
6:3
a=h2
6:4
p
The value of 0.60, which is higher than 1= 3, is consistent
with a reduced factor of safety normally assumed for shear
yielding in allowable stress design standards such as the
170
Webs
Chapter 6
Webs
6:7
Chapter 6
FIGURE 6.4
Figure 6.4, where they are compared with the elastic local
buckling stress for a web in bending. The limiting stress
Fbw has been used in the purlin design model of Rousch and
Hancock (Ref. 5.18), described in Section 5.3.2.
Webs
FIGURE 6.5 Combined bending and shear in webs: (a) unstiffened webs; (b) webs with transverse stiffeners.
Chapter 6
Webs
FIGURE 6.6
Chapter 6
(c)
Webs
Chapter 6
LRFD
1:07
fw Pn
fb Mnxo
Ow P
O M
6:8b
b 1:5
ASD
1:2
Pn
Mnxo
180
Webs
FIGURE 6.9 Interaction of bending and bearing for webs of Ibeams (LRFD formulation).
Pu
Mu
1:32
fw Pn fb Mnxo
Ow P
O M
b 1:5
1:1
Pn
Mnxo
0:82
6:9a
6:9b
Chapter 6
Mu Pu
1:68f
Mno Pn
M
P
1:67
Mno Pn
O
6:10a
6:10b
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
182
Webs
FIGURE 6.10
Holes in webs.
Chapter 6
2:08 < 6
t
0:060
Table C3:4-1
Shapes having single webs and stiffened anges:
single load or reaction point c > 1:5h
h
Pn t kC1 C2 C9 Cy 538 0:74
t
2
184
N
1 0:007
t
Eq: C3:4-4
Webs
where
894Fy
1:515
E
C1 1:22 0:22k 0:887
R
C2 1:06 0:06 0:935
t
C9 1:0 for U:S: customary units; kips and in:
N
2:0
33:33
t
0:060
h 4:0 20:125 0:060
62:5
t
0:060
2
y
Cy 0:7 0:3
90
k
1:0
for y 90
Pu
Mu
1:42
1:07
fw Pn
fb Mnxo
Eq: C3:5:2-1
For
Pu
0:5;
fw Pn
Mu
1:42 1:07 0:5 0:885
fb Mnxo
185
Chapter 6
Hence,
Mu 0:885fb Mnxo 0:885 49:834 kip-in: Example 4:6:1
44:10 kip-in:
The bending moment is reduced by 11.5% as a result of a
vertical load equal to half of the interior web crippling
strength.
Section C3.5.1 ASD method
Shapes having single unreinforced webs:
Ow P
Ob M
1:5
Eq: C:3:5:1-1
1:2
Pn
Mnxo
For
Ow P
O M
0:5; b 1:5 1:20:5 0:90
Pn
Mnxo
Hence,
Mnxo
0:90 34:411
Ob
30:97 kip-in:
M 0:90
Example 4:6:1
6.9 REFERENCES
6.1
Stein, M., Analytical results for post-buckling behaviour of plates in compression and shear, in Aspects of
the Analysis of Plate Structures (Dawe, D. J., Horsington, R. W., Kamtekar, A. G., and Little, G. H., eds.,
Oxford University Press, 1985, Chap. 12.
6.2 Popov, E. P., Introduction to Mechanics of Solids,
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1968.
6.3 Basler, K., Strength of plate girders in shear, Journal
of the Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 87, No. ST7,
Oct. 1961, pp. 151180.
186
Webs
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
6.12
Chapter 6
6.13
6.14
6.15
6.16
188
7
Compression Members
7.1 GENERAL
The design of cold-formed members in compression is
generally more complex than conventional hot-rolled steel
members. This is a result of the additional modes of buckling deformation which commonly occur in thin-walled
structural members. These are
(a) Local buckling and postlocal buckling of stiffened and unstiffened compression elements, as
described in Chapter 4
(b) Flexural, torsional, and torsional-exural modes
of buckling of the whole compression member as
shown in Figure 1.13b.
The design for (a) determines the nominal stub column
axial strength (Pno ) described in Section 7.3. The design for
(b) gives the nominal axial strength (Pn ) given in Section
7.4. The nominal axial strength is dened in Section C4,
Concentrically Loaded Compression Members, of the AISI
Specication. The elastic buckling stress for exural,
189
Chapter 7
7:1
Pex Pe A2 Pe x0 A3 0
7:2
Pe y0 A1 Pe x0 A2
r20 Pt
Pe A3 0
7:3
where
EIx
L2
EIy
Pey p2 2
L
GJ
p2 ECw
Pt 2 1
GJL2
r0
Ix Iy
r20
x20 y20
A
Pex p2
7:4
7:5
7:6
7:7
190
Compression Members
Chapter 7
sex , sey , and st corresponding to Pex , Pey , and Pt , respectively, are simply derived from Eqs. (7.4), (7.5) and (7.6) by
dividing by the gross area.
Two solutions to Eqs. (7.1)(7.3) exist. Either the
column does not buckle and A1 A2 A3 0, or the
column buckles and the determinant of the matrix of
coefcients of A1 , A2 , and A3 in Eqs. (7.1)(7.3) is zero. In
this case the resulting cubic equation to be solved for the
critical load (Pe ) is
Pe3 r20 x20 y20 Pe2 Pex Pey Pt r20 Pey x20 Pex y20
Pe r20 Pex Pey Pey Pt Pt Pex
Pex Pey Pt r20 0
7:8
7:9
Pe 2;3 Pext
q
Pex Pt Pex Pt 2 4Pex Pt 1 x0 =r0 2
21 x0 =r0 2
7:10
Compression Members
7:11
Pe 2 Pey
7:12
Pe 3 Pt
7:13
Chapter 7
Compression Members
FIGURE 7.2
Fn 0:658lc Fy
0:877
Fy
Fn
l2c
for lc 4 1:5
for lc > 1:5
195
7:15
7:16
Chapter 7
where
s
Fy
lc
Fe
7:17
FIGURE 7.3
7:18
Compression Members
Chapter 7
Compression Members
centroid of the effective section. Hence, an initially concentrically loaded pin-ended singly symmetric column must be
designed as a member subjected to combined compression
and bending as described in Chapter 8.
For xed-ended columns it has been demonstrated
(Ref. 7.5) that the line of action of the applied force moves
with the internal line of action of the force which is at the
effective centroid and so bending is not induced. Since most
columns have some degree of end xity, design based on
loading which is eccentric from the effective centroid may
be very conservative.
To investigate the effect of the moving centroid in more
detail, both pin-ended and xed-ended tests were performed on plain (unlipped) channel columns by Young
and Rasmussen (Refs. 7.6, 7.7). For the more slender
sections tested (P48 with 2-in.-wide anges), the test
results for the xed-ended tests and for the pin-ended
tests are compared with the AISI Specication in Figure
7.5. The xed-ended tests underwent local and exural
buckling at shorter lengths and torsional-exural buckling
at longer lengths, as shown in Figure 7.5a. The nominal
axial strength (Pn ) given by Section C4 of the AISI Specication compares closely with the test results. There is no
need to include load eccentricity in the design of xedended singly symmetric sections. The pin-ended tests
underwent local and exural buckling at shorter lengths
and exural buckling at longer lengths, as shown in Figure
7.5b. The test results are considerably lower than the
nominal axial strength (Pu ) given by Section C4 of the
AISI Specication. Hence, the effect of loading eccentricity
must be included for the pin-ended tests. However, the
design curves based on combined compression and bending
(as discussed in Chapter 8) are considerably lower than the
test results and are thus very conservative.
A similar investigation was performed by Young and
Rasmussen (Ref. 7.8) for lipped channel columns. For the
more slender sections tested (L48 with 2-in.-wide anges),
199
Chapter 7
Compression Members
201
Chapter 7
7.6 EXAMPLES
7.6.1 Square Hollow Section Column
Problem
Determine the design axial strength for the cold-formed
square hollow section column shown in Figure 7.7. Assume
that the effective length (KL) is 120 in. The nominal yield
strength of the material is 50 ksi. The following section and
equation numbers refer to the AISI Specication.
202
Compression Members
FIGURE 7.7
Solution
A.
R 0:125 in:
t 0:075 in:
t
r R 0:1625 in:
2
u 1:57r 0:255 in:
Distance of centroid
c 0:637r 0:104 in:
from center of radius
w B 2R t 2:60 in:
A 4tw u 0:8565 in:2
"
2 #
w3
Bt
w
Ix 2t
2
12
2
w
c
4t u
2
1:205 in:4 Iy
r
Iy
1:186 in: rx
ry
A
KL Kx Lx Ky Ly
101:2
r
rx
ry
203
Chapter 7
B.
Critical Stress (F n )
Section C4.1
Fe sex sey
29500
101:22
28:4 ksi
p2 E
KL=r2
Eq: C4:1-1
p2
Section C4
s r
Fy
50
lc
1:33
28:4
Fe
Eq: C4-4
Eq: B2:1-4
0:518
Since
l < 0:673;
then b w
204
Eq: B2:1-1
Compression Members
Hence
Ae A 0:8565 in:2
D.
fc 0:85
Pd fc Pn 17:3 kips
Eq: C4-1
Oc 1:80
P
Pd n 11:3 kips
Oc
FIGURE 7.8
Chapter 7
Ky Ly 60 in:
B 2 in:
A.
Kt Lt 60 in:
D 6 in:
Fy 36 ksi
t
0:188 in:
2
u 1:57r 0:294 in:
rR
Distance of centroid
c 0:637r 0:119 in:
from center of radius
w B R t 1:75 in:
h D 2R t 5:5 in:
A t2w h 2u 1:199 in:2
"
2
2 #
h
D t
h3
Ix 2t u
c w
t
2
2 2
12
6:114 in:4
t
w t
h 2ut R c 2w B
xc
2
2 A
0:455 in:
"
#
2
2
t
w
Iy
h 2ut R c2 2w B
t
2
2
2t
J
w3
Ax2c 0:422 in:4
12
At2
6:243 103 in:4
3
206
Compression Members
a D t 5:875 in:
bB
t
1:938 in:
2
3a2 b2
0:644 in:
a3 6a2 b
t
x0 ms
xc 1:036 in:
2
ms
2a3 b 3a2 b2
2:624 in:6
12a3 6a2 b
r
r
Iy
Ix
0:593 in:
rx
ry
2:259 in:
A
A
q
r0 r2x r2y x20 2:554 in:
I w a 2 b2 t
Eq: C3:1:2-13
B.
sex
sey
p2 E
Kx Lx =rx 2
p2 E
Ky Ly =ry 2
412:6 ksi
Eq: C3:1:2-8
28:46 ksi
Eq: C3:1:2-9
Chapter 7
Section C4.2
Fe1 sey 28:46 ksi
q
sex st sex st 2 41 x0 =r0 2 sex st
Fe2
21 x0 =r0 2
35:60 ksi
Eq: C4:2-1
Fe lesser of Fe1 and Fe2 28:46 ksi
s
Fy
lc
1:125
Fe
Eq: C4-4
Since
lc < 1:5;
C.
f Fn
r
1:052 h
f
0:62
l p
t
E
k
Eq: B2:1-4
Since
l < 0:673;
Eq: B2:1-1
r
1:052 w f
0:602
l p
E
k t
Eq: B2:1-4
Since
l < 0:673;
Eq: B2:1-1
Compression Members
D.
Eq: C4-1
xcea
bf
t
t
bw 2ut R c 2bf t R
2
Ae
2
0:455 in:
E.
f Fy
r
1:052 h
f
0:808
l p
t
E
k
1 0:22=l
0:90
r
l
Eq: B2:1-4
Eq: B2:1-3
Since
l > 0:673;
Eq: B2:1-2
r
1:052 w f
l p
0:785
E
k t
1 0:22=l
r
0:917
l
Eq: B2:1-4
Eq: B2:1-3
Since
l > 0:673;
Eq: B2:1-2
Chapter 7
F.
Eq: C4-1
fc 0:85
Pd fc Pn 21:60 kips
ASD
Oc 1:80
P
Pd n 14:34 kips
Oc
Ky Ly 40 in:
B 3 in:
Kt Lt 40 in:
H 4 in:
Fy 45 ksi
t 0:060 in:
210
Compression Members
FIGURE 7.9 Lipped channel section: (a) actual section; (b) idealised section; (c) line element model; (d) effective widths.
A.
t
0:155 in:
2
u 1:57
r 0:243 in:
c 0:637
r 0:099 in:
rR
211
Chapter 7
w B 2R t 2:63 in:
h H 2R t 3:63 in:
d D R t 0:44 in:
A t2w h 4u 2d 0:645 in:2
"
2
2
h
H t
c w
Ix 2t 2u
2
2 2
2 #
H
d
h3
d
t
R t
1:812 in:4
2
2
12
t
h 2ut R c 2uB R t c
xc
2
B
t
t
2w
1:124 in:
2d B
2
2 A
"
2
t
h 2ut R c2
Iy
2
2
2 #
B
t
2d B
2uB R t c2 2w
t
2
2
2t
J
w3
Ax2c 0:792 in:4
12
At2
0:774 103 in:4
3
Compression Members
8
9
>
>
3
2
2
4
3
3
<2a b 3a b 48c 112bc 8ac
=
2
2
2
2
3
2 2
48abc 12a c 12a bc 6a c>
a b t>
:
;
Cw
12
6a2 b a 2c3 24ac2
B.
2:951 in:6
r
r
Iy
Ix
1:677 in:
1:109 in:
rx
ry
A
A
r
Ix Iy
r0
Eq: C3:1:2-13
x20 3:28 in:
A
Critical Stress (F n ) According to Section C4
Use Section C3.1.2 to compute sex , sey , and st :
sex
sey
st
p2 E
Kx Lx =rx 2
p2 E
Ky Ly =ry 2
127:9 ksi
Eq: C3:1:2-8
223:6 ksi
Eq: C3:1:2-9
Section C4.2
Fe1 sey 223:6 ksi
q
sex st sex st 2 41 x0 =r0 2 sex st
Fe2
21 x0 =r0 2
54:13 ksi
Eq: C4:2-1
Fe lesser of Fe1 and Fe2 54:13 ksi
s
Fy
lc
0:912
Fe
Eq: C4-4
Eq: C4-2
Chapter 7
C.
f Fn
r
1:052 h
f
1:044
l p
t
E
k
1 0:22
r
0:756
l
Eq: B2:1-4
Eq: B2:1-3
Eq: B2:1-2
Eq: B2:1-4
Eq: B2:1-1
d t
0:426 103 in:4
12
Element 3 Flange at
w 2:63 in:
w
43:83
t
Compression Members
w=t
r!3
ku
2:608 103 in:4 Eq: B4:2-4
4
n2 0:5
Case III (w=t 5 S) Flange not fully effective
w=t
4
Ia3 t 115
5 1:740 103 in:4 Eq: B4:2-11
S
n3 0:333
Since
w
5 S;
then Ia Ia3 1:740 103 in:4
t
n n3 0:333
Calculate buckling coefcient (k) and stiffener reduced
effective width (ds ).
D
ka 5:25 5
4:21 > 4:0
Eq: B4:2-8
w
Hence
ka 4:0
I
C2 s 0:245 < 1:0
Ia
C1 2 C2 1:755
k
ds
Eq: B4:2-5
Eq: B4:2-6
C2n ka ku ku
C2 d 0s 0:108 in:
2:664
215
Eq: B4:2-7
Chapter 7
Eq: B2:1-4
Eq: B2:1-3
Eq: B2:1-2
Eq: C4-1
t
b 2ut R c 2uB R t c
2 w
1:542 in:2
bf
bf
x2 2C1
R t C1
2
4
bf
bf
t
2ds B
2C2
R t w C2
2
4
2
xcea
6:368 in:2
t
x1 x2
0:958 in:
Ae
216
Compression Members
E.
f Fy
r
1:052 h
f
1:243
l p
t
E
k
1 0:22=l
0:662
r
l
Eq: B2:1-4
Eq: B2:1-3
Eq: B2:1-2
Eq: B2:1-4
Eq: B2:1-1
d t
0:426 103 in:4
12
Element 3 Flange at
w 2:63 in:
w
43:83
t
Chapter 7
Eq: B4-1
w S
> :
t
3
w=t
r!3
ku
5:322 103 in:4 Eq: B4:2-4
4
n2 0:5
Case III (w=t 5 S) Flange not fully effective
w=t
Ia3 t4 115
5 2:058 103 in:4 Eq: B4:2-11
S
n3 0:333
Since
w
> S; then
t
Compression Members
Hence,
ka 4:0
I
C2 s 0:207 < 1:0
Ia
C1 2 C2 1:793
k
ds
Eq: B4:2-5
Eq: B4:2-6
C2n ka ku ku
C2 d 0s 0:091 in:
2:543
Eq: B4:2-7
Eq: B4:2-9
l > 0:673;
F.
Eq: B2:1-2
fc 0:85
Pd fc Pn 13:39 kips
ASD
Oc 1:80
P
Pd n 8:75 kips
Oc
219
Eq: C4-1
Chapter 7
REFERENCES
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
Hancock, G. J. and Roos, O., Flexural-Torsional Buckling of Storage Rack Columns, Eighth International
Specialty Conference on Cold-Formed Steel Structures, St Louis, MO, November 1986.
Rack Manufacturers Institute, Specication for the
Design, Testing and Utilization of Industrial Steel
Storage Racks, Part I, June 1997 edition, Charlotte,
NC.
Pekoz, T. B. and Sumer, O., Design Provision for ColdFormed Steel Columns and Beam-Columns, Final
report submitted to AISI, Cornell University, September 1992.
Popovic, D., Hancock, G. J., and Rasmussen, K. J. R.,
Axial compression tests of DuraGal angles, Journal of
Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 125, No. 5, 1999,
pp. 515523.
Rasmussen, K. J. R. and Hancock, G. J., The exural
behaviour of xed-ended channel section columns,
Thin-walled Structures, Vol. 17, No. 1, 1993, pp. 45
63.
Young, B. and Rasmussen, K. J. R., Compression
Tests of Fixed-ended and Pin-ended Cold-formed
Plain Channels, Research Report R714, School of
Civil and Mining Engineering, University of Sydney,
September 1995.
Young, B. and Rasmussen, K. J. R., Tests of xedended plain channel columns, Journal of Structural
Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 124, No. 2, 1998, pp. 131
139.
Young, B. and Rasmussen, K. J. R., Design of lipped
channel columns, Journal of Structural Engineering,
ASCE, Vol. 124, No. 2, 1998, pp. 140148.
220
8
Members in Combined Axial Load
and Bending
Eccentric axial load of the type usually encountered in columns where the line of action of the
axial force is eccentric from the centroid. A
typical application is the columns of industrial
steel storage racks where the beams apply an
eccentric load to the columns as a consequence of
the nature of the connections. In the studs in
steel-framed housing, particular end connections
221
Chapter 8
(ii)
(iii)
In the AISI Specication, Section C5 species the acceptable combinations of action effects (force, moment) for
members subject to combined bending and compression.
Section C5 uses the design capacity for beams given in
Section C3 as well as those for columns given in Section C4.
The resistance factors (fb ; fc ) and safety factors (Ob ; Oc ) for
bending and compression remain the same as when the
bending or compression is considered alone.
222
Chapter 8
4 1:0
Pno
Mnx
Mny
8:1
4 1:0
Pn
Mnx ax
Mny ay
Oc P Ob Mx Ob My
b
4 1:0
Pno
Mnx
Mny
8:2
8:3
4 1:0
fc Pn fb Mnx fb Mny
224
8:4
Cmy Muy
Pu
C M
mx ux
4 1:0
fc Pn fb Mnx ax fb Mny ay
8:5
Muy
Pu
Mux
4 1:0
fc Pno fb Mnx fb Mny
8:6
Chapter 8
FIGURE 8.2
by
Oc P
PEx
8:7
ay 1
Oc P
PEy
8:8
where
PEx
p2 EIx
8:9
Kx Lx 2
226
and
PEy
p2 EIy
8:10
Ky Ly 2
Pu
PEx
8:11
ay 1
Pu
PEy
8:12
Chapter 8
The type of failure depends upon the shape and dimensions of the cross section, the column length (see Figure
3.4), or the load eccentricity (see Figures 3.3 and 3.4). As
demonstrated in Figure 8.3, the mode described in (a) may
occur for large negative eccentricities, and the mode
described in (b) may occur for large positive eccentricities,
even though the column section and length remain unaltered.
The types of failure described in (a) and (b) are both
accurately accounted for by using the rst and third terms
of the linear interaction equations (when the x-axis is the
axis of symmetry) or the rst and second terms (when the yaxis is the axis of symmetry). The determination of the
torsional-exural buckling moment (Me ) for a section
symmetric about the x-axis and bent in the plane of
symmetry, as in Figure 8.3, can be calculated by using
Eq. (5.11).
A series of tests by S. Wang on cold-formed hat sections
with the lips turned outward has been reported by Jang
and Chen (Ref. 8.3). The test results of the columns are set
out in Figure 8.4 in the same format as Ref. 8.3. The
columns were tested between simple supports (distance L
apart) with the ends prevented from warping. Consequently the effective lengths (Kx Lx , Ky Ly , and Kt Lt ) used
in the calculations have been taken as L, L, and L=2,
respectively, since the warping restraint effectively halves
the torsional effective length. The values of Fe computed
using Section C4.2 agree closely with the test results when
elastic buckling occurs. The shape of the design curves
produced by Section C5.2 of the AISI Specication for
eccentric loading with positive eccentricity accurately
reects the test results. For negative eccentricity, the
design curves are accurate for the shorter columns
(Kx Lx =rx 35) where exural yielding predominates over
torsional-exural buckling. However, for slender columns
loaded with negative eccentricity, the design curves are
conservative since the simple linear interaction formula
229
Chapter 8
FIGURE 8.4
section.
230
likely to be important.
Chapter 8
rst time to the most recent edition of the AISI Specication. They are included in Section C5.1. The design rules
consist of two checks. These are a lateral buckling check,
given by Eqs. (8.12) and (8.14), and a section capacity in
tension check, given by Eqs. (8.11) and (8.13).
For ASD
Ob Mx Ob My Ot T
4 1:0
Tn
Mnxt
Mnyt
8:11
Ob Mx Ob My Ot T
4 1:0
Tn
Mnx
Mny
8:12
For LRFD
Muy
Tu
Mux
4 1:0
ft Tn fb Mnxt fb Mnyt
8:13
Muy
Mux
T
u 4 1:0
fb Mnx fb Mny ft Tn
8:14
where Mnx ; Mny nominal exural strength about the xand y-axis, respectively, of the effective
section as given in Section C3.1
Mnxt ; Mnyt nominal exural strength of the full
section about the x- and y-axis, respectively, and equal to the section modulus
of the full section (Sft ) for the extreme
tension ber multiplied by the yield
stress (Fy )
The nominal tensile strength of a member (Tn ) is
specied in Section C2 of the AISI Specication as the
lesser of:
Tn Ag Fy
8:15
Tn An Fu
8:16
and
232
8.5 EXAMPLES
8.5.1 Unlipped Channel Section BeamColumn Bent in Plane of Symmetry
Problem
Calculate the design axial compressive load in the channel
shown in Figure 7.8, assuming that the channel is loaded
with an axial force on the line of the x-axis at a point in line
with the ange tips. The following section numbers refer to
the AISI Specication.
233
Chapter 8
FIGURE 8.5
Solution
A.
b 1:938 in:
t 0:125 in:
b2
x
0:385 in:
a 2b
3b2
1:029 in:
xos x
a 6b
2
2b3 t
b
Iys
2bt x atx 2 0:425 in:4
12
2
Note that the distances (x0 and x ) and the value of Iy have
all been computed for the square corner model in Figure
8.5.
txa3
tx3 a 0:855 in:5
12
bf 12 tb x 4 x 4 14 a2 tb x 2 x 2 2:801 in:5
bw bf
j
xos 3:316 in:
2Iys
bw
234
B.
CTF 1:0
uniform moment
Iy
0:273 in:3
Sf
B xc
q
Cs Asex j Cs j2 r20 st =sex
Fe
154:2 ksi
CTF Sf
Eq:C3:1:2:1-6
Since Fe 5 2:78Fy , then
Fc Fy 36 ksi
C.
Eq: C3:1:2:1-2
f Fc
r
1:052 w f
0:785
l p
E
k t
1 0:22=l
r
0:917
l
235
Eq: B2:1-4
Eq: B2:1-3
Chapter 8
FIGURE 8.6
Eq: C3:1:2:1-1
Ob 1:67
Try
P 2:40 kips
My PB xcea 3:71 kip-in:
A 1:199 in:2
Example 7:6:2
1:00
Pn
25:41
8:476 0:873
Mny ay
Eq: C5:2:1-1
O
M
Oc P
1:80 2:4 1:67 3:71
b y
0:84
Pno
39:38
8:476
Mny
Eq: C5:2:1-2
Hence, the nominal axial compressive load applied eccentrically at the ange tips is
P 2:40 kips
Section C5.5.2 LRFD method
fc 0:85
fb 0:90
237
Chapter 8
Try
Pu 3:65 kips
Muy Pu B xcea 5:641 kip-in:
PEy Asey 34:11 kips
Py
0:893
ay 1
PEy
Eq: C5:2:2-5
Cmy Muy
Pu
3:65
1 5:641
Eq: C3:1:2:1-5
Eq: C3:1:2:1-3
B.
f Fc
r
1:052 w f
0:736
l p
E
k t
1 0:22=l
0:953
r
l
FIGURE 8.7
Eq: B2:1-4
Eq: B2:1-3
Chapter 8
Eq:B2:1-2
Oc 1:80
Ob 1:67
P 6:6 kips
PD
Mx
19:8 kip-in:
2
A 1:199 in:2
Example 7:6:2
Eq: C5:2:1-4
1:00
Mnx ax
Pn
25:41
63:05 0:976
Eq: C5:2:1-1
Oc P Ob Mx 1:80 6:6 1:67 19:8
0:83
Pno
39:38
63:05
Mnx
Eq: C5:2:1-2
Hence, the nominal axial compressive load applied eccentrically on one ange is
P 6:6 kips
Section C5.2.2 LRFD method
fc 0:85
fb 0:90
Try
Pu 9:9 kips
D
29:7 kip-in:
2
Asex 494:5 kips
Mux Pu
PEx
ax 1
Pu
0:980
PEx
Eq: C5:2:2-5
Pu
C M
9:9
1 29:7
mx ux
Eq: C5:2:2-1
Pu
Mux
9:9
29:7
Eq: C5:2:2-2
Chapter 8
b 2:94 in:
c 0:595 in:
t 0:60 in:
b3a2 b c6a2 8c2
1:493 in:
a3 6a2 b c8c2 12ac 6a2
bb 2c
x
1:103 in:
a 2b 2c
xos ms x 2:596 in:
2
2b3 t
b
Iys
2bt x atx 2 2ctb x 2 0:83 in:4
12
2
Note that the distances xos and x and the value of Iys have all
been computed for the square corner model in Figure 7.9b.
ms
txa3
tx3 a 0:654 in:5
12
1
1
bf tb x 4 x 4 a2 tb x 2 x 2 0:80 in:5
2
4
a3 a
3
2
3
b1 2ctb x tb x
c
3
2
2
bw
0:814 in:5
bw bf b1
j
xos 3:174 in:
2Iys
242
B.
CTF 1:0
uniform moment
Iy
Sf 0:705 in:2
xc
qi
h
Cs Asex j Cs j2 r20 st =sex
Fe
849 ksi
CTF Sf
Since Fe 5 2:78Fy , then
Fc Fy 45 ksi
C.
Eq: C3:1:2:1-2
f Fc
r
1:052 w f
1:243
l p
E
k t
1 0:22=l
r
0:662
l
243
Eq: B2:1-4
Eq: B2:1-3
Chapter 8
Eq:B2:1-2
2
w3
Ae x2ce 0:693 in:4
12
Iye
0:548 in:3
xce
Eq: C3:1:2-1
Eq: B2:1-4
1 0:22=l
0:764
l
Eq: B2:1-3
245
Chapter 8
Eq: B2:1-2
2
w3
Ae x2ce 0:725 in:4
12
Iye
0:407 in:3
B xce
Sey Fy 18:32 kip-in:
Sey
Mno
Eq: C3:1:1-1
D.
Ob 1:67
Try
P 4:8 kips
My Pxcea 4:60 kip-in:
A 0:645 in:2
Example 7:6:3
Eq: C5:2:1-5
1:0
Pn
15:75
18:32 0:940
Mny ay
Eq: C5:2:1-1
Oc P Ob My 1:80 4:8 1:67 4:60
0:857
Pno
19:74
18:32
Mny
Eq: C5:2:1-2
Hence, the nominal axial compressive load applied eccentrically at web is
P 4:8 kips
Section C5.2.2 LRFD method
fc 0:85
fb 0:90
247
Chapter 8
Try
Pu 7:35 kips
Muy Pu xcea 7:04 kip-in:
PEy Asey 144:1 kips
P
ay 1 u 0:949
PEy
Eq: C5:2:2-5
Cmy Muy
Pu
7:35
7:04
Eq: C5:2:2-1
Muy
Pu
7:35
7:04
REFERENCES
8.1
8.4
249
9
Connections
Chapter 9
Connections
FIGURE 9.1 Fusion weld types: (a) groove weld in butt joint;
(b) arc spot weld (puddle weld); (c) arc seam welds; (d) llet welds;
(e) are-bevel groove weld.
253
Chapter 9
FIGURE 9.2 Transverse llet welds: (a) single lap joint (TNO
tests); (b) double lap joint (Cornell test).
Connections
9:1
where L is the length of the full size of the weld and te is the
effective throat dimension of the groove weld. A resistance
255
Chapter 9
9:2
9:3
9:4
Connections
257
Chapter 9
9:5
Hence, for the single lap joint, the ratio L=b appears to be
important.
The results for galvanized sheet were found to not be
signicantly lower than those for uncoated sheet except
that the deviation was found to be higher as a result of the
difculty encountered in making a sound weld.
Connections
Chapter 9
joints tested were double lap joints with llet welds on each
side of each sheet.
Resistance factors of 0.60 and 0.55 are specied for
LRFD for Eqs. (9.6) and (9.7), respectively. For ASD, a
factor of safety of 2.5 is used. In Section E2.4 of the AISI
Specication, the lesser of t1 and t2 is used to check both
sheets connected by a llet weld, where t1 is for Sheet 1 and
t2 is for Sheet 2.
A series of tests was performed more recently at Institute TNO (Ref. 9.2) to determine the effect of single lap joint
geometry and welding process on the strength of llet weld
connections subject to longitudinal loading. The types of
joints tested are shown in Figure 9.4a and were manufactured by the TIG process for uncoated sheet and by covered
electrodes for galvanized sheet. The failure modes observed
were tearing at the contour of the weld and weld shear
accompanied by out-of-plane distortion and weld peeling for
short-length welds. For longer welds, plate tearing occurred. The mean test strengths (Pm ) were found to be a
function of the weld length (L) and sheet width (b):
L
9:8
Pm 2tL 0:95 0:45 Fu
b
Pm 0:95tbFu
9:9
The lesser of the values of Eq. (9.8) for weld failure and Eq.
(9.9) for plate failure should be used. As for the transverse
llet welds, there was no signicant difference between the
values for the uncoated and galvanized sheets.
Connections
mation capacity of the individual welds allowed full cooperation so that the strengths of the transverse and longitudinal welds can be simply added. In fact, the combined
welds were better than the sum of the two, but the additional benets have not been quantied.
Chapter 9
9:11
If tw 5 2t and h 5 L, then
Pu 1:5tLFu
9:12
Connections
9:13
p!
5:59 E=Fu
Pn 0:280 1
tda Fu
da =t
in the transition region 9:17
263
Chapter 9
FIGURE 9.6 Arc spot and arc seam weld geometry: (a) single
thickness of sheet; (b) double thickness of sheet; (c) minimum
edge distance (arc spot welds); (d) geometry and minimum edge
distance (arc seam welds).
Connections
Pu
fFu t
for LRFD
265
9:18
Chapter 9
FIGURE 9.8 Arc spot and arc seam weld tests (Cornell): (a) arc
spot welds; (b) arc seam welds.
266
Connections
PO
Fu t
for ASD
9:19
9:20
for Fu 5 0:00187E
9:21
9:22
Chapter 9
9:23
pd2e
Lde 0:75Fxx
Pn
4
9:24
Connections
Chapter 9
Connections
271
Chapter 9
this gure, the bolts may be located in line with the line of
action of the force (Figure 9.9b) or perpendicular to the line
of action of the force (Figure 9.9c) or both simultaneously.
The connections may be in double shear with a cover plate
on each side, as in Figure 9.9d, or in single shear, as in
Figure 9.9e. In addition, each bolt may contain washers
under the head and nut, under the nut alone, or under
neither.
The symbols e for edge distance or distance to an
adjacent bolt hole, s for bolt spacing perpendicular to the
line of stress, and d for bolt diameter are shown for the
various bolted connection geometries in Figures 9.9ac. In
Table E3, the AISI Specication denes the diameter of a
1
in. larger than the bolt diameter (d)
standard hole (dh ) as 16
1
1
in. larger than the
for bolt diameters 2 in. and larger and 32
1
bolt diameter for bolts less than 2 in. diameter. Oversized
holes, short-slotted holes, and long-slotted holes are also
dened in Table E3.
d
Fu
9:25
272
Connections
where Fbu is the bearing stress between the bolt and sheet
at tearout failure. Equation (9.25) is compared with the
tests on bolted connections in single shear (with and without washers) in Figure 9.11. Additional graphs of test
results for double shear are given in Ref. 9.6. In all cases,
Eq. (9.25) adequately predicts failure for low values of the
ratio e=d.
Letting Fbu Pn =dt in Eq.(9.25) results in
Pn teFu
9:26
273
Chapter 9
FIGURE 9.11 Bolted connection tests (tearout and bearing failures): (a) single shear connections with washers; (b) single shear
connections without washers.
274
Connections
for
Fu
5 1:08
Fsy
9:27
for
Fu
< 1:08
Fsy
9:28
O 2:0
f 0:60
O 2:22
In addition, the AISI Specication species a minimum
distance between bolt holes of not less than 3d and a
minimum distance from the center of any standard hole
to the end boundary of a connecting member as 1:5d.
9:29
275
Chapter 9
Connections
277
Chapter 9
No washers
2:5rd
Pn 1 r
Fu An 4 Fu An
s
9:31
f 0:65;
O 2:0
9:32
f 0:55;
O 2:22
9:33
Connections
9:34
9:35
9:36
Chapter 9
Connections
9:37
9:38
9:39
9:40
9:41
Chapter 9
9:42
FIGURE 9.14
9:43
Screws in tension.
282
Connections
9.7 RUPTURE
A mode of failure can occur at bolted connections, where
tearing failure can occur along the perimeter of holes as
shown in Figures 9.15 and 9.16. In some congurations,
such as the coped beam with both anges coped as in
Figure 9.15a, the net area of the web in shear resists
rupture, and Section E5.1 of the AISI Specication should
be used. In other cases, such as the coped beam with one
ange coped as shown in Figure 9.15b, block shear rupture
occurs where a block is pulled out of the end of the section
with a combination of shear failure on one plane and tensile
failure on the other plane. For the case of tension loading,
block shear rupture planes are shown in Figure 9.16.
Connection tests were performed by Birkemoe and
Gilmor (Ref. 9.11) on coped beams to derive formulae
for shear rupture and block shear rupture. These were
adopted in the American Institute of Steel Construction
FIGURE 9.15 Rupture of coped beam: (a) shear alone; (b) shear
and tension.
283
Chapter 9
FIGURE 9.16 Block shear rupture: (a) small shear force and large
tension force; (b) large shear force and small tension force.
Connections
9.8 EXAMPLES
9.8.1 Welded Connection Design Example
Problem
The 3-in.-wide, 0.1-in.-thick ASTM A570 Grade 45 sheet is
to be welded to the 0.2-in. plate shown in Figure 9.17 by
(a) Longitudinal llet welds, or
(b) Combined longitudinal and transverse llet
welds, or
(c) An arc spot weld, or
(d) An arc seam weld
Determine the size of each weld to fully develop the design
strength of the plate. The example uses the LRFD method.
The following section numbers refer to the AISI Specication.
Solution
A.
and
Fu 60 ksi
285
Chapter 9
Section C2
Tn Ag Fy btFy
Eq: C2-1
Eq: C2-2
3 0:1 60 18 kips
286
Connections
Section E2.4
Assuming L=t > 25,
Pn 0:75tLFu
Eq: E2:4-2
0:550:75 0:1 60
4:90 in:
2:45 in:
2
2
Check
L 2:45
24:5 < 25
t
0:1
A slightly shorter length could be used according to Eq.
(E2.4-1), but a 2.5- in.-weld will be used.
C.
Chapter 9
0:1
t
Ll
tLl Fu
fPn 0:60 1 0:01
t
Eq: E2:4-1
Connections
0:1
t
s
r
E
29500
18:1 > 9
0:815
0:815
Fu
60
Hence
Pn 2:20tda Fu
Eq: E2:2:1-2
Pu
fFu t
Eq: 2:2:1-6b
Hence
Pu emin fFu t
Now f 0:70 for Eq. (E2.2.1-6b).
289
Chapter 9
Eq: E2:3-2
Connections
Section E2.3
2
de
Pn p Lde 0:75Fxx
4
"
#
2
0:55
p
2 0:55 0:75 60
2
Eq: E2:3-1
60:2 kips
Now f 0:60 for Eq. (E2.3-1).
Hence
fPn 0:60 60:2 36:1 kips > Td 12:15 kips
Check Minimum-Edge Distance
Section E2.3 (refers to Section E2.2-1)
emin 3 in: > 1:5d 1:5 in:
P
emin u
Eq: E2:2:1-6b
fFut
Hence
Pu emin fFut
Now f 0:70 since
Fu
1:33 > 1:08
Fsy
Pu 3 0:70 60 0:1
12:6 kips > 12:15 kips
Hence, 3 in. edge distance is satisfactory, and the nal
detail is shown in Figure 9.17d.
Chapter 9
Section C2
An b dh t 3 0:6250:1 0:2375 in:2
Tn is lesser of
Tn Ag Fy 3 0:1 45 13:5 kips
Eq: C2-1
Eq: C2-2
Connections
2:22
O
B.
0:196 in:2
4
4
Pn Ab Fnv 0:196 54:0 10:58 kips
Ab
Eq: E3:4-1
Now
O 2:4
Pn
4:41 kips
O
3Pn
13:23 kips > Td 5:56 kips
O
Table E3:4-1
C.
Chapter 9
Now
O 2:22
Pn
4:05 kips
O
P
3 n 12:16 kips > Td 5:56 kips
O
D. Edge Distance (ASD Method)
Section E3.1
Use e 1:0 in: > 1:5d 0:75 in:
Pn teFu 0:1 1:0 60 6 kips
Table E3:4-1
Eq: E3:1-1
Now
O 2:0
for
Fu
1:33 > 1:08
Fsy
Pn
3:0 kips
O
P
3 n 9:0 kips > 5:56 kips
O
Also distance between center of bolt holes must be greater
than or equal to 3d 1:5 in: > e 14 in: 1:25 in. Hence,
bolt hole spacing is governed by the 3d requirement and not
tearout.
Final solution is three 12-in. ASTM A325 bolts in line
spaced 1.5 in. between the centers of the bolt holes and
1.0 in. from the end of the plate to the center of the last bolt
hole. Allowable design load is 5.56 kips, which is controlled
by the plate strength and not the bolt in shear or bearing
strength.
Connections
Eq: E4:4:4:1
0:696 kips
f 0:5
Section E4
for Section E4
REFERENCES
9.1
Chapter 9
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11
9.12
10
Metal Building Roof and Wall Systems
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Metal building roof and wall systems are generally
constructed with cold-formed C- and Z-sections. Roof
members are called purlins, and wall members are referred
to as girts, although the sections may be identical. Generally, purlins are lapped, as shown in Figure 10.1, to provide
continuity and, therefore, greater efciency. The lap
connection is usually made with two machine-grade bolts
through the webs of the lapped purlins at each end of the
lap as shown in the gure. In addition, the purlins are
ange-bolted to the supporting rafter or web-bolted to a
web clip or an antiroll device. Z-section purlins are generally point symmetric; however, some manufacturers
produce Z-sections with unequal-width anges to facilitate
nesting in the lapped region. Girts are generally not lapped
but can be face- or ush-mounted as shown in Figure 10.2.
297
Chapter 10
FIGURE 10.1 Continuous or lapped purlins: (a) lapped Csections; (b) lapped Z-sections
FIGURE 10.3
Chapter 10
Chapter 10
variability of the methods and their complexity necessitated something simpler for routine use. Consequently, the
empirical R-factor method was developed for determining
the exural strength of through-fastened roof purlins
under uplift loading. The method is described in Section
10.2.2.
The lateral and torsional restraints provided by standing seam roof systems vary considerably, depending on the
panel prole and the clip details. Consequently, a generic
solution is not possible. The so-called base test method was
therefore developed; it is described in Section 10.2.3.
10.2.2 R-Factor Design Method for ThroughFastened Panel Systems and Uplift
Loading
The design procedure for purlins subject to uplift loading in
Section C3.1.3 of the AISI Specication Supplement No. 1 is
based on the use of reduction factors (R-factors) to account
for the torsional-exural or nonlinear distortional behavior
of purlins with through-fastened sheathing. The R-factors
are based on tests performed on simple span and continuous span systems. Both C- and Z-sections were used in the
testing programs; all tests were conducted without intermediate lateral bracing (Ref. 10.3).
The R-factor design method simply involves applying a
reduction factor (R) to the bending section strength (Se Fy ),
as given by Eq. (10.1), to give the nominal member moment
strength:
Mn RSe Fy
10:1
r 1:00 0:01ti
303
Chapter 10
Chapter 10
The predicted failure load is then compared to the experimental failure load of the continuous span test.
The gravity loading series included tests with lateral
restraint only at the rafter supports and tests with lateral
restraint at the rafter supports plus intermediate thirdpoint restraint. The ratio of actual-to-predicted failure
loads for the three-span continuous tests was 0.87 to 1.02.
The uplift loading tests were also conducted with rafter and
third-point lateral restraints. The ratio of actual-topredicted failure loads for the three-span continuous tests
was 0.81 to 1.25.
Section C3.1.4 of the 1996 AISI Specication allowed
the use of the base test method for gravity loading; Supplement No. 1 expands its use to wind uplift loading. The
nominal moment strength of the positive moment regions
for gravity loading or the negative moment regions for
uplift loading is determined by using Eq. (C3.1.4-1) of the
AISI Specication, given as
Mn RSe Fy
10:3
Mts
Mnt
10:5
Chapter 10
FIGURE 10.9
Chapter 10
6. Use of vertical slotted holes, which facilitate erection of the purlin lines, for the bolted lap web-toweb connection does not affect the strength of
continuous purlin lines.
7. The critical location for checking combined bending and shear is immediately adjacent to the end of
the lap in the single purlin.
Constrained bending implies that bending is about an
axis perpendicular to the Z-purlin web and that there is no
purlin movement perpendicular to the web. That is, all
movement is constrained in a plane parallel to the web.
Because a Z-purlin is point symmetric and because the
applied load vector is not generally parallel to a principal
axis of the purlin, the purlin tends to move out of the plane
of the web, as discussed in Section 10.4.1. Constrained
bending therefore is not the actual behavior. However, it
is a universally used assumption and its appropriateness is
even implied in the AISI Specication. For instance, the
nominal strength equations for Z-sections in Section C3.1.2,
Lateral Buckling Strength, of the 1996 AISI Specication
apply to ``Z-sections bent about the centroidal axis perpendicular to the web (x-axis).'' All of the analyses referred to
in this section are based on the constrained bending
assumption.
It is also assumed that through-fastened roof sheathing provides full lateral support to the purlin in the positive
moment region. However, it is obvious that this assumption
does not apply equally to standing seam roof systems. The
degree of restraint provided depends on the panel prole,
seaming method, and clip details. The restraint provided
by the standing seam system consists of panel drape (or
hugging) and clip friction or lockup. Lower values are
obtained when ``snap together'' (e.g., no eld seaming)
panels and two-piece (or sliding) clips are used. Higher
values are obtained when eld-seamed panels and xed
clips are used. However, exceptions apply to both of these
general statements.
311
Chapter 10
Chapter 10
FIGURE 10.10
tion point.
314
Chapter 10
FIGURE 10.11
Chapter 10
FIGURE 10.13
Chapter 10
with b
0:220b1:5
0:90 t0:60
n0:72
p d
10:8
FIGURE 10.14
rafters.
320
10:9
10:10
321
Chapter 10
10:11
10:12
P0
2Ix d
For low slopes, P0 is positive (tension) and for high
slopes P0 is negative (compression). A positive value indicates that the purlin is trying to twist in a clockwise
direction; a negative value means twist is in the counterclockwise direction. The anchorage force is zero for
db
1 Ixy
y0 tan
10:13
2Ix d
For y < y0 ; P0 is in tension, and for y > y0 ; P0 is in compression. The distance db has a signicant effect on the value of
the intercept angle y0 . In Ref. 10.19, db was taken as b=3,
based on anchorage forces measured in tests of zero-slope
roof systems (Ref. 10.17).
Statistical analysis of stiffness model results was used
to develop a relationship for the system effect factor a:
t
n*p 1
10:14
a 1 C2
d
with C2 a constant factor that depends on the bracing
conguration and n*p is described below. The factor a is
dimensionless and, when included in Eq. (10.10), models
the reversal of the system effect when P0 changes from
tension to compression. The coefcient C2 was determined
from a set of regression analyses with values tabulated in
Table 10.1. The value of the coefcient differs for each
bracing conguration because bending resistance changes
depending on the distance between a brace and rafter
supports or other braces.
Equation (10.10) is quadratic with respect to np ,
because a is linear with np . For some value of np , denoted
as npmax ; PL will reach a maximum and then decrease as
np is increased above npmax . From basic calculus, npmax is
determined as
npmax 0:5
d
2C2 t
10:15
Chapter 10
TABLE 10.1 Anchorage Force Coefcients for Use in Eq. (10.10)
Bracing conguration
Support anchorages only
Single span
Multispan, exterior supports
Multispan, interior supports
Third-point anchorages
Single span
Multispan, exterior spans
Multispan, interior spans
Midspan anchorages
Single span
Multispan, exterior spans
Multispan, interior spans
Quarter-point anchorages
Single span, outside 14 points
Single span, midspan location
Multispan, exterior span 14 points
Multispan, interior span 14 points
Multispan, midspan locations
Third-point plus support anchorages
Single span, at supports
Single span, interior locations
Multispan, exterior support
Multispan, interior support
Multispan, third-point locations
C1
C2
C3
0.50
0.50
1.00
5.9
5.9
9.2
0.35
0.35
0.45
0.50
0.50
0.45
4.2
4.2
4.2
0.25
0.25
0.35
0.85
0.80
0.75
5.6
5.6
5.6
0.35
0.35
0.45
0.25
0.45
0.25
0.22
0.45
5.0
3.6
5.0
5.0
3.6
0.35
0.15
0.40
0.40
0.25
0.17
0.35
0.17
0.30
0.35
3.5
3.0
3.5
5.0
3.0
0.35
0.05
0.35
0.45
0.10
FIGURE 10.16
(10.10).
FIGURE 10.17
and (10.10).
325
Chapter 10
The stiffness models used to develop the AISI provisions, Eq. (10.9), included a roof deck diaphragm stiffness of
G0 2500 lb=in. with the assumption that the required
anchorage force for systems with roof decks stiffer than
2500 lb=in. is negligible. Roof deck diaphragm stiffness was
taken as
PL
10:16
G0
4aD
where P point load applied at midspan of a rectangular
roof panel,
L panel's span length
a panel width
and
D deection of the panel at the location of the
point load.
In Ref. 10.19 stiffness models of roof systems with up
to eight restrained purlins were analyzed, and it was found
that deck stiffness above 2500 lb=in. caused signicant
increases in the anchorage forces for systems with four or
more purlin lines. The panel stiffness modier (g) in Eq.
(10.10) accounts for this effect. As shown in Figure 10.18,
FIGURE 10.18
model).
326
the anchorage force varies linearly with the common logarithm of the roof panel shear stiffness over a nite range of
stiffnesses, which leads to the following equation for the
panel stiffness modier:
G0
10:17
g C3 log
2500 lb/in.
where G0 roof panel shear stiffness (lb=in.)
C3 constant from regression analysis of stiffness
model
When G0 2500 lb=in., g 0 as necessary, and g is
and
negative
for
positive
for
G0 > 2500 lb=in.
0
0
G < 2500 lb=in. Thus, when G > 2500 lb=in., the anchorage force is increased, and when G0 < 2500 lb=in., the
required anchorage force is decreased. The values of C3 ,
which depend on the location of a brace relative to rafter
supports and other braces, are tabulated for each bracing
conguration in Table 10.1.
The effect of g is to adjust the system effect factor, a. In
Eq. (10.10) g is multiplied by np instead of n*,
p because as
panel stiffness changes, change in anchorage force depends
on the total number of purlins in the system and npmax no
longer applies. The panel stiffness modier g is valid only
for 1000 lb=in. G0 100,000 lb=in. This is the range of
linear behavior and most roof decks have shear stiffness
within this limitation.
For very large panel stiffness, Eq. (10.10) can predict
an anchorage force greater than that obtained from basic
principles [Eq. (10.7)]. However, the maximum anchorage
force is the anchorage force ignoring system effects. Thus,
PL P0 C1 np
10:18
Figure 10.19 is a typical plot of anchorage force versus
panel stiffness for Eq. (10.10), compared with stiffness
model results.
Since the stiffness models used to develop Eq. (10.10)
had eight purlin lines or fewer, Eq. (10.10) must be used
327
Chapter 10
with caution when there are more than eight purlin lines. If
the top anges of adjacent purlins or sets of purlins face in
opposite directions, an anchorage is required to resist only
the net downslope component.
Anchorage force calculations for a Z-purlin supported
roof system are illustrated in Section 10.5.3.
10:19
10.5 EXAMPLES
10.5.1 Computation of R-value from Base
Tests
Problem
Determine the R-value relationship for the gravity loading
base test data shown. The tests were conducted using Zsections with nominal thicknesses of 0.060 in. and 0.095 in.
and nominal yield stress of 55 ksi. The span length was 22 ft
9 in., and intermediate lateral braces were installed at the
third points. The total supported load (wts ) is equal to the
sum of the applied load (w) and the weight of the sheathing
and purlins (wd ). The maximum applied moment is Mts .
Solution
A. Summary of Test Loadings
Test
no.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Max. applied
load
w (lb=ft)
Deck
weight
(lb=ft)
Purlin
weight
(lb=ft)
wd
(lb=ft)
Total
load, wts
(lb=ft)
Mts
(K-in.)
91.79
86.29
81.84
186.4
189.1
184.5
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
3.10
3.14
3.10
5.05
5.01
4.91
7.10
7.14
7.10
9.05
9.01
8.91
98.9
93.4
88.9
195.4
198.1
193.4
76.8
72.5
69.0
151.7
153.8
150.2
329
Chapter 10
t (in.)
Seff
(in.)
Fy
(ksi)
Mnt Seff Fy
(K-in.)
Mts
(K-in.)
Rt
(%)
0.059
0.059
0.060
1.88
1.90
1.92
60.0
59.2
57.3
76.8
72.5
69.0
0.097
0.096
0.097
3.38
3.38
3.30
68.4
67.1
66.5
112.8
112.5
110.0
111.8
231.2
226.8
219.4
225.8
68.1
64.5
62.8
65.1
65.6
67.8
68.5
67.3
151.7
153.8
150.2
0:298Mn 111:8
0:624
1000
The variation of R with purlin strength for the standing seam roof system tested is shown in Figure 10.20.
(Figure 10.20 shows the R-value line sloping upward to
the right. For some standing seam roof systems, the
line will slope downward to the right.)
330
FIGURE 10.20
D. Application
For a purlin having the same depth, ange width, edge
stiffener slope, and material specication as those used
in the above example and with a nominal exural
strength Mn Se Fy 135 in.-kips, the reduction
factor is
R
0:298135 111:77
0:624 0:631
1000
M
1:67
Ob
331
Chapter 10
E 29;500 ksi
H 8 in.
ycg 4 in.
Solution
A. Full Section Properties
Area (A), second moment of area about centroidal axis
perpendicular to web (Ix ), second moment of area about
FIGURE 10.21
Ix 8:858 in:4
Iy 1:714 in:4
Iy
0:857 in.4
2
I
Sf x 2:215 in:3
ycg
Iyc
(Eq. C3.1.4-1)
fb Mn 120
98:1 lb/ft (LRFD)
5:715
ASD
Ob 1:67
(ASD)
Mn
3:108 kip-ft
Ob
333
Chapter 10
Mn
120
65:3 lb/ft (ASD)
Ob 5:715
124:7
t 0:060
s r
Ekv
29;500 5:34
53:51
55
Fy
Since
s
h
Ekv
> 1:415
75:73
t
Fy
then
Vn
0:905Ekv t3
4:12 kips
h
(Eq. C3.2-3)
fv 0:90 (LRFD)
Ov 1:67 (ASD)
Maximum V at end of lap in end span 1.468 kips
when w 120 lb=ft
334
LRFD
Assuming
that
bending
alone
wu (LRFD) 98:1 lb/ft B:1; then
controls
98:1
1:468 1:20 kips
120
Vu
1:20
controls
65:3
1:468 0:80 kips
120
V
0:80
0:324 < 1:0
Vn =Ov 4:12=1:67
V
at Fy
Mnxo Se Fy
1:618 55
Eq. C3.1.1-1)
Chapter 10
LRFD
Again assuming that bending alone controls with
wu (LRFD) 98.1 lb=ft (B.1), then
98:1
5:452 4:457 kip-ft
120
4:457
Mu
Mu
fb Mnxo
ASD
Again assuming that bending alone controls with
w (ASD) 65.3 lb=ft (B.1), then
65:3
5:452 2:97 kip-ft
120
M
2:97
0:90 4:12
fv Vn
2
2
Mu
Vu
0:6322 0:2782
fb Mnxo
fv Vn
0:477 < 1:0
Hence, combined bending and shear are satised
for LRFD at end of lap in interior span. Checking
end of lap in end span produces a lower (safer)
result due to signicantly lower moment.
336
ASD
For M and V based on bending alone (B.1) with w
(ASD) 65.3 lb=ft:
2
2
M
V
0:6682 0:2782
Mnxo =Ob
Vn =Ov
0:524 < 1:0
Hence, combined bending and shear are satised
for ASD at end of lap in interior span. Checking
end of lap in end span produces a lower result due
to signicantly lower moment.
C. Design Load on Continuous Lapped Purlin under
Gravity Loading
1. Strength for Bending with Lateral Buckling
Section C3.1.2 Lateral Buckling Strength
The Center for Cold-Formed Steel Structures
Bulletin (Vol. 1, No. 2, August 1992) suggests
using a distance from inection point to end of
lap, as unbraced length for gravity load with
Cb 1:75. Check interior span since it is more
highly loaded in negative moment region.
L distance from end of lap to inection point
as shown in Figure 10.21
73.1 in. based on statics using Figure
10.21 with zero moment at inection
point
Cb 1:75
Me
p2 ECb dIyc
326:8 kip-in: 27:2 kip-ft
2L2
Eq. C3.1.2-16
Chapter 10
Since
Me 27:2 kip-ft < 2:78 My 28:2 kip-ft
10My
10
Mc
M 1
121:20 kip-in.
9 y
36Me
Eq: C3:1:2-3
Fc
Mc
54:73 ksi
Sf
fb Mn 120
146:9 lb/ft
5:452
ASD
Ob 1:67 ASD
Mn
4:44 kip-ft
Ob
ASD design load per unit length (see moment
diagram in Figure 10.21 at w 120 lb=ft, where
338
maximum moment
5.452 kip-ft):
w (ASD)
in
interior
span
equals
Mn
120
97:74 lb/ft
Ob 5:452
(LRFD)
Ov 1:67
ASD
LRFD
Assuming that bending alone controls with
wu 146:9 lb=ft (C.1), then
146:9
1:468 1:797 kips
120
Vu
1:797
Vn =Ov 4:12=1:67
V
Chapter 10
0:95 7:42
Mu
Mu
fv Mnxo
1:0 1:0
Mnxo =Ob 7:42=1:67
M
LRFD
For Mu and Vu based on bending alone (C.1) with
wu (LRFD) 146.9 lb=ft. Maximum V at end of lap
in interior span 1.260 kips when w 120 lb=ft.
Hence
Vu
146:9=120 1:260
0:90 4:12
fv Vn
0:415
Mu
0:944
(from C.3)
fb Mnxo
2
2
Mu
Vu
0:9442 0:4152
fb Mnxo
f v Vn
1:064 > 1:00
Hence, combined bending and shear are not satised for LRFD. Revise load down to
146:9
wu (LRFD) p 142 lb/ft
1:064
Chapter 10
Vn =Ov
4:12=1:67
0:415
M
1:00
(from C.3)
Mnxo =Ob
2
2
M
V
1:002 0:4152
Mnxo =Ob
Vn =Ov
1:172 > 1:00
Hence combined bending and shear is not satised
for ASD. Revise load down to
97:34
w ASD p 90:3 lb/ft
1:172
Checking end of lap in end span produces a lower
(safer) result due to signicantly lower moment.
5. Web Crippling
The web crippling strength at the end and interior
supports must be checked according to Section
C3.4 of the AISI Specication if the purlins are
supported in bearing by the building rafter
anges. The method set out in Example 6.8.1
should be used. If the purlins are web-bolted to
antiroll devices or web shear plates, bearing and
tearout at the web bolts, as well as bolt shear
rupture, must be checked.
342
D. Service Loads
The following calculations assume that web crippling
or bearing and tearout is satised.
1. LRFD
a. Uplift Loading
Using load combination 6 in Section A6.1.2,
Load Factors and Load Combinations, (0.9D
1.3W ), the controlling design load 98.1 lb=ft
(B.1), and applying Exception 3 ``For wind
load on individual purlins, girts, wall panels
and roof decks, multiply the load factor for W
by 0.9.''
0:9 13:5 1:3 0:9ww 98:1 lb/ft
ww 94:2 lb/ft
which is equivalent to a service uplift load of
18.1 psf for a 5-ft purlin spacing.
b. Gravity Loading
Using load combination 2 1:2D 1:6S and
the controlling design load 142 lb=ft (C.4) give
1:2 13:5 1:6ws 142 lb/ft
ws 78:6 lb/ft
which is equivalent to a service snow load of
15.7 psf for a 5-ft purlin spacing.
2. ASD
a. Uplift Loading
Using load combination 3 in Section A5.1.2,
Load Combinations D W and the controlling design load 65.3 lb=ft (B.1) give
13:5 ww 65:3 lb/ft
ww 78:8 lb/ft
343
Chapter 10
0:350Mn 70:6
0:691
1000
with
Mn Se Fy 1:618 55 89:0 kip-in.
R
0:35089:0 70:6
0:691 0:697
1000
LRFD
Positive moment design strength
fb 0:90
fb Mn fb RSe Fy 0:90 0:697 89:0 55:8 kip-in.
4:65 kip-ft
344
fb Mn 120
97:6 lb/ft
5:715
37:1 kip-in.
1:67
Ob
Ob
3:10 kip-ft
Mn =Ob 120
65:1 lb/ft
5:715
Chapter 10
ling service gravity loading is this value. Using load combination 3 in Section A5.1.2, Load Combinations D W :
13:5 ws 65:1 lb/ft
ws 51:6 lb/ft
which is equivalent to a service snow load of 10.3 psf for a
5-ft purlin spacing.
C3 0:35
C3 0:45
346
Solution
A. Anchorage Force per Purlin
Ixy db
P0
Eq. 10.12
cos y sin y Wp
2Ix d
2:30
2:5
28:15 38:0
0:07758Wp lb
B. Anchorage Force at Restraint
n*p minfnp ; npmax g
npmax 0:5
d
2C2 t
Eq:10:15
npmax 0:5
npmax 0:5
Eq. 10.17
Chapter 10
Eq. 10.10
27:24 5 25 6 1
2838 lb
6
17:7 5 25 6 1
1844 lb
6
FIGURE 10.22
Chapter 10
REFERENCES
10.1 American Iron and Steel Institute, A Guide for
Designing with Standing Seam Roof Panels,
Design Guide 97-1, American Iron and Steel Institute, Washington, DC, 1997.
10.2 Bryant, M. R. and Murray, T. M., Investigation of
Inection Points as Brace Points in Multi-span
Purlin Roof Systems, Research Report No. CE=
VPI-ST-00=11, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 2000.
10.3 LaBoube, R. A., Golovin, M., Montague, D. J., Perry,
D. C. and Wilson, L. L., Behavior of Continuous
Span Purlin System, Proceedings of the Ninth International Specialty Conference on Cold-Formed
Structures, University of Missouri-Rolla, Rolla,
MO, 1988.
10.4 LaBoube, R. A., Roof Panel to Purlin Connection:
Rotational Restraint Factor, Proceedings of the
ISABSE Colloquium on Thin-Walled Structures in
Buildings, Stockholm, Sweden, 1986.
10.5 Fisher, J. M., Uplift Capacity of Simple Span Cee
and Zee Members with Through-Fastened Roof
Panels, Final Report MBMA 95-01, Metal
Building Manufacturers Association, Cleveland,
OH, 1996.
10.6 Brooks, S. and Murray, T. M. Evaluation of the Base
Test Method for Predicting the Flexural Strength of
Standing Seam Roof Systems under Gravity Loading', Research Report No. CE=VPI-ST-89=07,
Department of Civil Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA,
1989.
10.7 Rayburn, L. and Murray, T. M., Base Test Method
for Gravity Loaded Standing Seam Roof Systems,
Research Report CE=VPI-ST-90=07, Department of
350
10.8
10.9
10.10
10.11
10.12
10.13
10.14
Chapter 10
352
11
Steel Storage Racking
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Steel racks were introduced in Section 1.5, and typical
components and congurations are drawn in Figures 1.4
and 1.5. A large proportion of steel storage rack systems are
manufactured from cold-formed steel sections, so the design
procedures set out in the AISI Specication and this book
are relevant to the design of steel storage racks for supporting storage pallets. However, several aspects of the structural design of steel storage racks are not adequately
covered by the AISI Specication and are described in the
Rack Manufacturers Institute (RMI) Specication (Ref.
11.1). These aspects include the following:
(a) Loads specic to rack structures covered in
Section 2, Loading
(b) Design procedures as described in Section 3
(c) Design of steel elements and members accounting
for perforations (slots) as described in Section 4
353
Chapter 11
11.2 LOADS
Steel storage racking must be designed for appropriate
combinations of dead loads, live loads (other than pallet
and product storage), vertical impact loads, pallet and
product storage loads, wind loads, snow loads, rain loads,
or seismic loads. The major loading on racks is the gravity
load resulting from unit (pallet) loads taken in conjunction
with the dead load of the structure. In practice, since racks
are usually contained within buildings and wind loads are
not applicable, the major component of horizontal force is
that resulting from the gravity loads, assuming an out-ofplumb of the upright frames forming the structure. In some
installations earthquake forces may also need to be considered and may be greater than the horizontal force caused
by gravity loads, assuming an out-of-plumb.
The horizontal forces resulting from out-of-plumb are
specied in Section 2.5.1 of the RMI Specication and are
shown in Figure 11.1, where
y 0:015 rad
11:1
Chapter 11
FIGURE 11.1 Horizontal forces equivalent to out-of-plumb gravity loads: (a) upright frames (cross-aisle); (b) plane of beams
(down-aisle).
356
The 1997 RMI Specication provides loading combinations for storage rack systems. They are an extension of
those in the 1996 AISI Specication (Ref. 1.2). The ASD
combinations are given in Section 2.1, and the LRFD
combinations are given in Section 2.2.
The additional loads to be considered in the design of
storage racking are
PL Maximum load from pallets or product stored on
the racks
Imp Impact loading on a shelf
PLapp That portion of pallet or product load which
is used to compute seismic base shear
For ASD, PL is added to
Gravity Load Critical (Eq. 2, AISI Section A5.1.2) and
Gravity Plus Wind=Seismic Critical (Eq. 4, AISI Section
A5.1.2).
PLapp is added to Uplift Critical (Eq. 3, AISI Section
A5.1.2).
An additional combination of 5, DL LL 0:5SL or RL
0:88PL Imp, is included for shelf plus Impact Critical in
the RMI Specication.
For LRFD, factored values of PL are added to
Dead load (Eq. 1, AISI Section A6.1.2), factor 1:2
Live=product load (Eq. 2, AISI Section A6.1.2),
factor 1:4
Snow=rain load (Eq. 3, AISI Section A6.1.2),
factor 0:85
Wind load (Eq. 4, AISI Section A6.1.2), factor 0:85
Seismic load (Eq. 5, AISI Section A6.1.2), factor 0:85
Uplift load (Eq. 6, AISI Section A6.1.2), factor 0:9
An additional combination of 7, 1:2DL 1:6LL
0:5SL or RL 1:4PL 1:4Imp, is included for the
Product=Live=Impact for shelves and connections.
357
Chapter 11
FIGURE 11.2 Inuence of exible joints: (a) portal test; (b) beam
deections and moments.
Chapter 11
11.3.2 Beams
In the design of pallet beams in steel storage racks, the end
xity produces a situation where the beam can be regarded
as neither xed-ended nor pin-ended. It is important to
accurately account for the joint exibility in the design of
beams since the beam deections and the bending moment
distribution are highly dependent on the value of joint exibility. If a very stiff joint is produced, the beam deections
will be reduced. However, the resulting restraining moment
on the end of the beam may damage the joint. If a very
exible joint is used, the beam deections may be excessive.
The deected shape of a pallet beam and the assumed
bending moment distribution are shown in Figure 11.2b.
The restraining moment (Me ) is a function of the joint
stiffness (F), which can be determined from either a cantilever test, as described in Section 9.4.1 of the RMI Specication, or the pallet beam in upright frame assembly test,
as described in Section 9.3.2 of the RMI Specication. The
resulting equations for the maximum bending moment
(Mmax ) and central deection (dmax ) are given by Eqs.
(11.2) and (11.3), which are based on the bending moment
distribution in Figure 11.2b.
WL
rm
11:2a
Mmax
8
rm 1
2FL
6EIb 3FL
11:2b
11:3a
5WL3
384EIb
rd 1
11:3b
4FL
5FL 10EIb
11:3c
Chapter 11
FIGURE 11.3 Perforated sections: (a) exural member; (b) compression member.
362
11:4
Chapter 11
Q
ASx;net min
Sc @1
11:6
2
Fy
In Eqs. (11.5) and (11.6), the effect of local buckling and the
interaction of local buckling with perforations are
accounted for by using the form factor Q derived from a
stub column test. As Mc and Fc decrease, Sc approaches the
section modulus of the net section (Sx;net min ). As the value of
Fc Mc =Sf approaches Fy , Sc approaches that given by Eq.
(11.5), where the effect of Q is essentially half what it would
be for a stub column since only one ange is in compression,
as shown in Figure 11.3a. The resulting design curves for
different values of Q are shown in Figure 11.4, where Me is
the elastic critical moment determined according to Section
C3.1.2 of the AISI Specication.
FIGURE 11.4
FIGURE 11.5
curves.
11:7
365
Chapter 11
11.6 EXAMPLE
Problem: Unbraced Pallet Rack
Calculate the design load in the uprights for the three-level
multibay rack in Figure 11.6b. The upright section is shown
in Figure 11.6a. The design example is the same frame and
section as in Problem 1, Part III of Ref. 11.2. Section
numbers refer to the specication referenced in each
section (A to I).
Solution
A.
1:046 in:2
1:585 in:4
1:304 in:4
0:00385 in:4
3:952 in:6
1:232 in:
1:118 in:
2:935 in:
0
Ixp
0 1:057 in:3
a =2
366
367
Chapter 11
Ag
Ixp
Iyp
J
Cw
x0
B.
C.
0:019 in:3
Lf 1440
1440
368
Ib
Lb
red
Ib =Lb
1 6EIb =Lb F
8:871=100
6 29500 8:871
1
100 10 105
0:00531 in:3
Lc1 48 in:;
GA
Lc2 60 in:
5:60
GB
Ic =Lc2 1:585=60
1:409
0:019
If =Lf
GA 5:60;
Kx 1:8
GB 1:409
(see AISC Specification
Commentary Ref. 1.1)
42
Llong
Hence effective length factor (Ky ) can be taken as
Ky 1:0
369
Chapter 11
Ly Llong
Ky Ly 1:0 42 42 in:
Lt Llong
p2 E
Kx Lx =rxg 2
p2 29500
108=1:2322
37:89 ksi
Eq: C3:1:2-8
sey
p E
2
Ky Ly =ryg
p 29500
42=1:1182
206:3 ksi
Eq: C3:1:2-9
Cw 4:213 in:
1
1:046 3:392
11346 0:00385 33:62
94:1 ksi
370
AISI SpecicationSection
Loaded Compressive Members
Q 0:82
C4.1:
Concentrically
Fy 45 ksi
Fe 28:53 ksi
s r
Fy
45
lc
1:256 < 1:5
28:53
Fe
Eq: C4-4
Eq: C4-2
Chapter 11
Eq: C3:1:2-6
From section D,
sey 206:3 ksi
st 94:1 ksi
Ag 1:046 in:2
r0 3:39 in:
Cb 1:0
Eq: C3:1:2-5
3=2
372
Q
F
c
ASx;net min
Scx @1
2
Fy
1 0:82
0:82
1
0:881 in:3
1
2
From section E,
Pn 19:15 kips
fc 0:85
From section D,
sex 37:89 ksi
PEx Ag sex 1:046 37:89 39:63 kips
P
ax 1 u
Eq: C5:2:2-4
PEx
From section F,
Mnx 36:06 kip-in:
fb 0:9
For compression members in frames subject to joint translation (side sway)
Cmx 0:85
373
Chapter 11
41
0:85 19:15 0:9 36:06 1 Pu =39:63
where Pu is in kips and Mux is in kip-in.
H.
0:45Pu kip-in:
Assume Pu 12:7 kips:
12:7
0:85 0:45 12:7
REFERENCES
11.1 Rack Manufacturers Institute, Specication for the
Design, Testing and Utilization of Steel Storage
Racks, Rack Manufacturers Institute, Charlotte, NC,
1997.
11.2 Rack Manufacturers Institute, Specication for the
Design, Testing and Utilization of Steel Storage
Racks, Materials Handling Institute, Chicago, IL,
1990.
11.3 Centre for Advanced Structural Engineering, Program THIN-WALL, Users Manual, Version 1.2,
School of Civil and Mining Engineering, University of
Sydney, 1996.
374
12
Direct Strength Method
12.1 INTRODUCTION
The design methods used throughout this book to account
for local and distortional buckling of thin-walled members
in compression and bending are based on the effective
width concept for stiffened and unstiffened elements introduced in Chapter 4. The effective width method is an
elemental method since it looks at the elements forming a
cross section in isolation. It was originally proposed by Von
Karman (Ref. 4.4) and calibrated for cold-formed members
by Winter (Refs. 4.5 and 4.6). It was initially intended to
account for local buckling but has been extended to distortional buckling of stiffened elements with an intermediate
stiffener in Section B4.1 and edge-stiffened elements in
Section B4.2 of the AISI Specication. It accounts for
postbuckling by using a reduced (effective) plate width at
the design stress.
375
Chapter 12
Chapter 12
for ll 0:776
!0:4 1
!0:4
F
F
crl
crl
A
Fnl @1 0:15
Fy
Fy
Fy
where
s
Fy
ll
Fcrl
12:1
for ll > 0:776
12:2
12:3
for ll 0:776
12:4
!0:4 1
!0:4
P
A Pcrl
Py for ll > 0:776 12:5
Pnl @1 0:15 crl
Py
Py
379
Chapter 12
FIGURE 12.1
where
s
Py
ll
Pcrl
12:6
For bending
Mnl My
0
for ll 0:776
12:7
!0:4 1
!0:4
Mcrl A Mcrl
My for ll > 0:776 12:8
Mnl @1 0:15
My
My
where
s
My
ll
Mcrl
12:9
for ld 0:561
!0:6 1
!0:6
F
F
crd
crd
A
@1 0:25
Fy
Fy
Fy
12:10
for ld > 0:561
12:11
Chapter 12
where
s
Fy
ld
Fcrd
12:12
The 0.6 exponent in Eq. (12.11), rather than 0.4 as used for
local buckling strength in Eqs. (12.1) to (12.3), reects a
lower postbuckling reserve for a complete section in the
distortional mode than the local mode.
The distortional buckling limiting stress (Fnd ) can be
multiplied with the full unreduced section area (A) for a
column or full unreduced section modulus (Sf ) for a beam to
get the distortional buckling column strength (Pnd ) or the
distortional buckling beam strength Mnd . The resulting
alternative formulations in Eqs. (12.10)(12.12) in terms of
load or moment for compression or bending, respectively,
are
For compression
Pnd Py
0
Pnd
for ld 0:561
!0:6 1
!0:6
P
P
crd
crd
A
@1 0:25
Py
Py
Py
12:13
for ld > 0:561
12:14
where
s
Py
ld
Pcrd
12:15
For bending
Mnd My
0
Mnd
for ld 0:561
!0:6 1
!0:6
M
M
crd
crd
A
@1 0:25
My
My
My
12:16
where
s
My
ld
Mcrd
12:18
12:19
12:20
Chapter 12
for ll 0:776
0:4 !
0:4
Pcrl
Pcrl
Pne
Pnl 1 0:15
Pne
Pne
12:21
for ll > 0:776
12:22
where
s
Pne
ll
Pcrl
12:23
FIGURE 12.3
for ll 0:776
0:4 !
0:4
Mcrl
Mcrl
Mne
Mnl 1 0:15
Mne
Mne
12:24
12:26
The direct strength method also allows for the interaction of distortional and overall buckling by a further
variant of the unied approach. This is achieved simply
by replacing Py in Eqs. (12.13)(12.15) for distortional
buckling by Pne from Eq. (12.19). The resulting limiting
load (Pnd ) as given by Eqs. (12.27)(12.29) accounts for the
interaction of distortional buckling with overall column
buckling since the limiting load is Pne rather than Py . A
comparison of the test strengths for failure in the distortional mode is shown by the circles (s) in Figure 12.3
compared with Eqs. (12.27)(12.29).
Pnd Pne
Pnd
for ld 0:561
0:6 !
0:6
Pcrd
Pcrd
1 0:25
Pne
Pne
Pne
12:27
Chapter 12
where
s
Pne
ld
Pcrd
12:29
for ld 0:561
0:6 !
0:6
Mcrd
Mcrd
1 0:25
Mne
Mne
Mne
12:30
s
Mne
ld
Mcrd
12:32
The nominal member strength is the lesser of Pnl and Pnd for
compression members and of Mnl and Mnd for exural
members. It has been suggested that the same resistance
factors and factors of safety apply as for normal compression and exural member design.
12.5 EXAMPLES
12.5.1 Lipped Channel Column (Direct
Strength Method)
Problem
Determine the nominal axial strength Pn of the lipped
channel in Example 7.6.3 by using the direct strength
386
FIGURE 12.4
Chapter 12
Fn 31.78 ksi
20:51
Pcrl
Since ll > 0:776;
22:2
Pcrd
Since ld > 0:561;
Pnd
Chapter 12
FIGURE 12.5
C-section in bending.
83:4
Mcrd
Since ld > 0:561; use Eq. (12.31) to get
Mnd
0:6 !
0:6
83:4
83:4
1 0:25
50:2
50:2
50:2
45:0 kip-in.
REFERENCES
12.1 Schafer, B.W. and Pekoz, T., Direct Strength Prediction of Cold-Formed Steel Members Using Numerical Elastic Buckling Solutions, Thin-Walled
Structures, Research and Development, Eds. Shanmugan, N.E., Liew, J.Y.R., and Thevendran, V.,
Elsevier, 1998, pp. 137144 (also in Fourteenth
International Specialty Conference on ColdFormed Steel Structures, St Louis, MO, Oct. 1998).
12.2 Hancock, G.J., Kwon, Y.B., and Bernard, E.S.,
Strength design curves for thin-walled sections
undergoing distortional buckling, J. Constr. Steel
Res., Vol. 31, Nos. 2=3, 1994, pp. 169186.
12.3 Schafer, B.W. and Pekoz, T., Laterally braced coldformed steel members with edge stiffened anges,
Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 1999, Vol.
125, No. 2, pp. 118127.
12.4 Hancock, G.J., Design for distortional buckling of
exural members, Thin-Walled Structures, Vol. 20,
1997, pp. 312.
391
Index
393
Index
Brake forming, 14
British steel standard, 5,
172
Buckling modes, 57
Butt joint, 253, 255
C-sections, 5, 71, 106, 142,
158, 389
Canadian standard, 5
Centroid, 21
Channel (see C-sections)
Circular hollow sections
(CHS), 13
Clinching, 2, 26
Clips, 8, 301
Cm factor, 226
Cold reducing, 38
Cold work of forming, 22, 46
Column design curves, 364
Combined axial load and
bending, 221, 223,
231
Combined bending and
shear, 174
Combined bending and web
crippling, 179
Combined longitudinal and
transverse llet
welds, 260
Compression member
design curves, 196
Compression members, 189
Concealed fasteners, 5
Concentrated force, 177
Concentric load, 62
Connections, 24
Continuous beams, 134
394
Index
Decking proles, 7
Deection calculations, 86
Deoxidation, 47
Direct strength method, 58,
375, 383
Distortional buckling, 20,
22, 58, 65, 67, 70, 73
D model, 148
Double lap joints, 254, 259
Doubly symmetric sections,
191
Ductility, 41
Earthquake forces, 354
Eccentric load, 63, 223
Edge distance, 271, 282
Edge stiffened element, 19,
90
Effective area, 194, 196
Effective design stress, 87,
88
Effective length, 131
Effective section modulus,
128
Effective stress distribution,
83
Effective width, 17, 18, 83
Factor of safety, 4
Fillet welds, 253, 256, 258
Finite elements, 53, 134,
138
Finite strip method, 57
First order analysis, 358
Flange distortional
buckling, 65, 66, 68,
72, 73, 74, 376, 381
Flare groove welds, 24, 253,
261
Flexible joints, 359
Flexural buckling, 192, 228
Flexural-torsional buckling
(see Torsionalexural buckling)
Form factor (Q), 363
Fracture mechanics, 52
Fracture toughness, 52, 53
Frameless structures, 6
Frames, 358
Fusion welds, 255
Galvanizing, 26
Geometric imperfection, 84,
89
G550 steel, 44, 53, 276, 278
Girts, 257
Glassber blanket, 303
Grain bins, 11
Groove weld, 253
395
Index
Hard rolling, 38
Hat section, 95, 184
Holes, 88, 182
Hollow ange beams, 74, 75
Hollow structural sections
(HSS), 12
Horizontal loads, 355
Hot-rolled steel, 2
Impact loads, 357
Inelastic reserve capacity,
27, 155
Inection point, 314
Interaction equations, 223
Interaction of bending and
web crippling (see
Combined bending
and web crippling)
Intermediate stiffener, 18,
91, 93, 100
Imperfect elements, 84
Joints, 359
Killed steel, 47
Lapped purlin, 298
Lateral buckle (see Lateral
torsional buckle)
Lateral distortional buckle,
72, 75
Lateral restraint, 143
Lateral torsional buckle, 20,
72, 128, 377
Lipped channels, 64, 69,
201, 210, 242, 386
Out-of-plumb, 356
Overall buckling, 383
Pallet beams, 6, 360
Panel shear stiffness, 326
Partially stiffened element,
19
Perforations, 53, 353, 361
Plate buckling coefcients,
79
396
Index
397
Index
Stiffeners, 90
Storage racks, 353
Strain aging, 48
Strain hardening, 42
Stress gradient, 89
Stress intensity factors, 53
Stress-strain curves, 37, 38
Stub columns, 194
Tearout failure, 272
Tensile strength, 42, 232
THIN-WALL (Computer
program), 58, 366
Through-fastened roof, 299
Torsional deformation, 21
Torsional-exural buckling,
20, 21, 61, 66, 70, 75,
190, 228, (see also
Lateral torsional
buckle)
Torsional restraint, 145
Torsion constant, 130
Transverse llet welds, 256
Transverse stiffeners (see
Web stiffeners)
Truss frames, 6, 11
Tubular members, 12
Twisting, 20
U model, 148
398