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National Defense University

Term Paper

Course:

U.S Role in Global Politics

Topic:

U.S Involvement in Vietnam War

Submitted To:

Dr. Mansur khan

Submitted By:

Sobia Jamil

Summary:
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This abstract gives a summary of my term paper which discusses Americas


involvement in the Vietnam War. I argue that US embroiled itself in the Vietnam War because it
viewed the conflict as a cold war and not a civil war.
Prior to Americas involvement in Vietnam during the 1950s, Vietnam had endured
foreign colonial rule by China, France and Japan. France had ruled Vietnam until World War II
when it lost control to Japan. Following Japans defeat and the end of World War II, France
resolved to resume its control of Indochina. This was vigorously opposed by Ho Chi Minh who
created the National Liberation Committee of Vietnam and proclaimed a Democratic Republic of
Vietnam (DRV) in1945. War between Vietnam and France ensued. Meanwhile America had
evolved from World War II as a world super power. It vowed to protect democracy and
capitalism while it despised and feared communism.
During the war between France and Vietnam, America took an active role supporting
France

with

financial

aid

in

order

to

prevent

Vietnam

from

entering

the

communist orbit. Despite US support however France was defeated in 1954 and withdrew its
forces from the region. Subsequent peace talks in Geneva resulted in Cambodia, Laos and
Vietnam receiving their independence. Vietnam was temporarily divided between anticommunist South Vietnam and communist North Vietnam. The US did not support the
Geneva accords. With the departure of French troops the US entangled itself in a war against Ho
Chi Minhs communist North Vietnam. The US did not want Ho Chi Minh to reunite North
and South Vietnam under communist rule. The US therefore threw its support behind South
Vietnams Pro-American and anti-communist leader Ngo Dinh Diem.

The Vietnam War was a political, diplomatic and military failure for America. It
spanned over twenty years with five different American administrations. Significantly President
Johnson was responsible for escalating US military intervention in Vietnam with minimal
international support. He was succeeded by President Nixon, elected in 1968 on the platform for
withdrawing from the war in Vietnam; this was not achieved until 1975. Ho Chi Minh on the
other hand had the support of his people (including supporters in South Vietnam)
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and international support from communist China and Russia. The Vietnam War was deeply
unpopular in America with anti-war protests taking place around the country. This was due in
part to vast media coverage of the war. Television reports informed Americans and the
international population exactly what was going on in Vietnam. The Vietnam War was Americas
longest and most unpopular war of the twentieth century, fought thousands of miles away
from home, costing millions of lives and billions of dollars. It was Americas first military defeat.

Introduction:

The Vietnam War was a military, diplomatic, and political disaster for the
U.S.A1. Americas contribution to the war in Vietnam spanned a period of over twenty years. It
was the longest and most unpopular war in American twentieth century history. It is estimated
58,132 Americans died in Vietnam, more than 150,000 were injured and 21,000 permanently
disabled. Over three million American soldiers with an average age of nineteen served in
Vietnam. The estimated financial cost of the war in Vietnam was $176 billion. It was the
Vietnamese people however who paid the greatest cost; approximately two million people
died during the conflict while hundreds of thousands were displaced from rural villages2.

U.S Involvement in Vietnam War:


How did America become involved in a war thousands of miles away from
home? To address this question we need to look back to the post World War II period. Vietnam
had endured Chinese, French and Japanese imperialism. Vietnams long history of war was due
to foreign invasion and colonization, however subsequent to World War II, Vietnam
was determined to eject the foreign invaders and win its independence. France however had
other ideas; it wanted to return to its pre-war position of power and reasserted its colonial
domination over Indo- china. This resulted in conflict between the colony and the colonizer3.
In 1945 Vietnamese leader Ho Chi Minh created the National Liberation
Committee of Vietnam and George C. Herring, Fighting without allies, the international
dimensions of Americas failure in Vietnam in M.J. Gilbert, Mark Lawrence, Transnational
Coalition-Building and the making of the Cold War in Indochina, 1947-1949 in Diplomatic History,
1 George C. Herring, Fighting without allies, the international dimensions of Americas failure in Vietnam, inM.J.
Gilbert (ed.), why the North won the Vietnam War, p. 77

2 http://www.archives.gov/research/military/vietnam-war/casualty-statistics.html Accessed on 18 October


2012
3 Mark Lawrence , Transnational Coalition Building and the Making of the Cold war in Indo-China,
1947-1949 ,in Diplomatic History , xxvi ,no. 3(2002) .,453.
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declared an independent Democratic Republic of Vietnam. Ho was a communist but first and
foremost he was a nationalist. He campaigned to free Vietnam of its foreign invaders 4. In the
Declaration of Independence he made references to both the American Declaration of
Independence and Frances Declaration of the Rights of Man5.
Minh wanted the same principles applied to Vietnam. War consequently broke out
between Vietnam and France in 1946. From 1950 America provided France with military and
economic aid as it was keen to keep Indochina free of communism; this was during the
McCarthys red-baiters era6. By throwing its support and resources behind France in the
war against Ho Chi Minhs Viet Minh, America revealed a total disregard for Vietnamese
nationalist aspirations7.
Despite American support however France was defeated in 1954.The defeat of
France was followed by a peace conference held in Geneva. France withdrew all their troops
from Vietnam. As a result of the Geneva conference Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam received their
independence. Vietnam was temporarily divided between the anti-communist South Vietnam and
the communist North Vietnam. According to the final declaration of the Geneva conference it

4 David Marr, Vietnam: Harnessing the Whirlwind in Robin Jeffrey (ed.), Asia - The Winning of Independence:
the Philippines, India, Indonesia, Vietnam, Malaya (London, 1981) p. 196.

5 The Declaration of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, 2 September 1945 available at
Fordham University, Internet History Sourcebook at http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/vietdec.htm Accessed on
20th October 2012.

6 Mark Lawrence, Transnational Coalition-Building and the making of the Cold War in Indochina, 19471949, Diplomatic History, xxvi, no. 3 (2002), p.480.

7 Paul Halsall, Internet History Sourcebook at http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/mod/1954-geneva-indochina.asp


Accessed on 20th October 2012.

was agreed that each member country would respect the sovereignty, independence, unity and
territorial integrity of Vietnam and refrain from any interference in their internal affairs.8
This did not happen. America did not support the Geneva accords; instead it gave its
support to South Vietnamese pro-American Ngo Dinh Diem, who also refused to accept the
Geneva Accords. There was a common consensus in American foreign policy that it needed to
counter the global threat of communism. With Americas blessing, Diem proclaimed himself
President of the Republic of South Vietnam in 1955 however he ignored the provision for
nationwide elections in 1956.9 Diem was an anti-communist and therefore a suitable candidate
for Americas support; in a letter to Diem, and President Eisenhower offered American aid to
his government10.
America wanted to create a self-sustaining, anti-communist, stable and independent
government in South Vietnam and decided to use Diem as their pawn for doing so. From 1958
communist led guerrillas known as the Viet Cong battled with the South Vietnamese
government. In a letter to Diem, President Kennedy wrote that America wanted to contribute to
the welfare and stability of the government of Vietnam. He went on the government of the
United States expects that this aid will be met by performance on the part of the government of
Vietnam in undertaking needed reforms11.
8 Ibid
9 David Marr, Vietnam: Harnessing the whirlwind in Robin Jeffrey (ed.), Asia - The Winning of Independence:
the Philippines, India, Indonesia, Vietnam, Malaya (London, 1981), p. 205.

10 Letter to Ngo Dinh Diem from President Eisenhower available at Fordham University,Internet
History Sourcebook at http://wiretap.area.com/Gopher/Gov/US-History/Vietnam/diem-letters.txt Accessed on 23
October 2012

11 Letter to Ngo Dinh Diem from President Kennedy available at Fordham University, Internet
History Sourcebook at http://wiretap.area.com/Gopher/Gov/US-History/Vietnam/diem-letters.txt [23 October
2012].

President Kennedys letter sharply stressed the need for reforms by Diem but they
were not forthcoming. Regardless the United States escalated financial and military support to
Diems corrupt and unpopular government. Meanwhile Buddhist priests in South Vietnam were
setting themselves on fire to protest against the Diem government. This created a vacuum to be
filled by the National Liberation Front, the Viet Cong.

South Vietnam and aimed to unify Vietnam under Ho Chi Minh. The communist
enemy was therefore everywhere; in the North and South. Diem was literally despised with little
or no support from the people. Although America wanted to control the government, it needed
a strong government in place that could stand on its own feet after the US military left12.
Diems government did not fulfill this need .Following a military coup Diem was
overthrown and murdered. His successor Nguyen Van Thieu was no better, he failed to push
through much need reforms despite being urged to do so by the US. South Vietnam by now was
completely economically dependent on the US; there was widespread corruption in
administering American

funds. Shortly

after

Diems

death

President

Kennedy

was

assassinated. Americas alliance with Diem and Thieu failed. It certainly did not win the hearts
and minds of the South Vietnamese people, many of whom turned instead to the Viet
Cong. America had now become the imperialist invader while Vietnam was fighting against its
oppressor for independence. President Kennedy was succeeded by Lyndon B. Johnson; he
escalated American military involvement in the war. This period saw more troops sent to
Vietnam; more financial aid for the South Vietnamese government; and the beginning of
Americas military campaign on the ground. Following the alleged attack on a US destroyer, The
Maddox in the Tonkin Gulf, President Johnson was given the power to take all necessary
measures by Congress13.
12 Richard Crockett, The Vietnam War and the superpower triangle in The Cold War: the essential readings,
(2001), p. 143.

13 Transcript of the Tonkin Gulf Resolution (1964) available at the US National Archives website on
http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?doc=98&page=transcript [25 October 2012].

Johnson duly intensified the war effort with wide scale bombing missions. America
managed to drop more bombs on Vietnam than it did during World War II. The escalation of the
war continued with minimal international support from its allies 14. Only the Pacific allies
contributed troops; Australia, New Zealand, South Korea, the Philippines and Thailand15.

The US was especially disappointed by Britains failure to provide troops; instead


they provided intelligence, arms and counterinsurgency expertise 16. By 1967 the US found itself
isolated on Vietnam; the lack of support dismayed Johnson but he fought on anyway.

Ho Chi Minh on the other hand had the support of his people in North Vietnam and
was gaining more support from the people in South Vietnam. Internationally he had the support
of China and the USSR; Minh brilliantly played one off against the other. The Soviets provided
the North with large modern weapons while China provided small arms, vehicles and food. With
the help of China and the USSR, Minh managed to resist Americas military pressures17.

14 George C. Herring, Fighting without allies, in M.J. Gilbert (ed.), Why the North won the Vietnam War. (2002)
P, 80

15 Ibid, p , 81.
16 Ibid p.80

17 Ibid p.85
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The war was a political failure for the American administration; it caused domestic
turmoil. The American people loathed the war and demonstrated their opposition by organizing
anti-war protests around the country. The war succeeded in destroying the reputation and career
of President Johnson. This was partly due to mass media coverage of the war which informed the
worldwide audience exactly what was going on in Vietnam. This was the first media war. Each
night televisions beamed pictures of the war into living rooms. Reports regarding the Tet
Offensive, the My Lai massacre and Americas incursion into Cambodia heightened the antiwar sentiment in America and around the world18. Other difficulties haunted the American
administration with political, financial and economic pressures mounting on the government19.
Race riots and student protests took place around the country. Questions were asked
if America had the ability to fund the war with the dollar losing value on the international money
markets20. This was catastrophic for America and President Johnsons credibility.
President Johnson went on to announce to the nation his decision to stop the
escalation in the war, to seek negotiations and to withdraw from the president ialrace. Peace
negotiations opened in Paris during 1968 with America seeking to use the USSR as
an intermediary to broker a negotiated settlement of the war. The US administration however had
overestimated the Soviets influence over North Vietnam and ultimately the Soviets proved
unhelpful and unsuccessful in brokering a peace agreement21.

18 Richard Crockett, The Vietnam War and the superpower triangle in The Cold War: the essential readings,
(2001), p. 146.

19 George C. Herring, Fighting without allies, in M.J. Gilbert (ed.) Why the North won the Vietnam War (2002) p
, 87

20 Ibid
21 Ibid , p. 84
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Richard Nixon meanwhile was elected president while Johnson was shunned by his
countrymen. Nixon was elected on the platform for withdrawing from the war in Vietnam
however it took him more than five years to carry this through. The Nixon doctrine was
announced in 1969; this included the Vietnamisation policy (military training of South
Vietnamese troops to replace American troops); the detente policy (a diplomatic effort to
improve relations with Russia and China); and achieving peace with honor (withdrawing from
Vietnam without suffering a humiliating defeat). Nixon who saw himself as a skilled diplomat
actively embarked on a diplomatic exercise to improve relations between America and China;
America and the USSR22. Meanwhile China and Russia were providing North Vietnam with the
means to continue the war against the US. Fighting continued during diplomatic peace talks
which finally came to an agreement in 1973; Nixon claimed he had achieved peace with
honor23.

The war continued for another two years with North Vietnam defeating South
Vietnam while the USA hastily withdrew from the region. Significant damage was done to
Americas reputation and credibility internationally but also at a national level. The war left deep
scars on the country which would affect American foreign policy for years to come. It is
therefore fair to say, with the benefit of hindsight and much research, that America involved
itself as a player in the Vietnam War because it viewed the war as a cold war conflict and not a
civil war. American paranoia and fear of communism was extremely heightened during this
period; its relations with Russia and China were extraordinarily strained at the time. It deeply
feared communist domination of Indochina and mistakenly believed that Ho Chi Minh was
Moscows pawn; this was de facto not the case. America had aimed not only to prevent
communism in Vietnam but to prevent countries of Southeast Asia passing into the communist
orbit24. It seemed to believe that it knew what was best for Vietnam rather than the Vietnamese
people themselves. It wanted to contain communism, deliver an independent non-communist
22 George C. Herring, Fighting without allies, in M.J. Gilbert (ed.) Why the North won the Vietnam War (2002) p
, 88

23 Ibid, p.92
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Vietnam while at the same time it was determined to maintain its reputation and credibility in the
eyes of its allies and enemies. Unfortunately however as the war advanced these aims were
less apparent.
A triangle of superpowers was involved in the Vietnam war, namely America,
China and the USSR. It could be argued that Vietnam was only a minor actor in the war; it was
incidental in the priority of reinforcing American power and prestige in the eyes of friend and foe
alike25. The US, China and the USSR influenced the pattern and progress of the war 26. North
Vietnam fought for an independent unified Vietnam under communism. This ambition never
changed throughout the course of the war. Americas aims on the other hand changed as the war
progressed due to a myriad of reasons including public and political disapproval; international
opposition; economic and financial strains; and changes in diplomatic relations.
Vietnam was an unconventional war for America; it was unlike any battle
or conflict experienced by the US before. From a military viewpoint it was a unique war in that
there were rarely conventional battle-lines. It was the first American military defeat. It was the
first time America officially exploited the use of toxic chemicals during the course of war, Agent
Orange and napalm. These chemicals caused longstanding damage to the health of the
Vietnamese people, American troops and the environment.
Five American administrations were involved in the duration of the war;
President Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson, Nixon and Ford. The war brought about the demise of
President Johnson. It was a deeply unpopular war both domestically and internationally. America
had minimal international support or allies during the war. It was the first media war with
24 Richard Crockett, The Vietnam War and the superpower triangle in The Cold War: the essential readings
(2001), p. 141

25 Ibid, p. 145
26 Ibid, P.139
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considerable media coverage. For the first time, with the advent of television, the war was
beamed into homes around the world for all to see. Following the war Congress enacted the War
Powers Act in 1973, requiring the president to receive explicit Congressional approval before
committing American forces overseas. The Vietnam War has affected American foreign policy to
this day.

Bibliography:
Secondary Sources:

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Brown, Paul, The Cold War 1945-1991, available on Charles Sturt University, NSW website at
http://hsc.csu.edu.au/modern_history/international_studies/cold_war/3273/detente.htm#outcomes
Crockett, Richard, The Vietnam War and the superpower triangle, in Larres, Klausand Ann
Lane (eds), The Cold War: the essential readings (Oxford, 2001).
Herring, George C., Fighting without allies, the international dimensions of Americasfailure in
Vietnam, in M.J. Gilbert (ed.), Why the North won the Vietnam War (2002).
Lawrence, Mark Atwood, 'Transnational coalition-building and the making of the Cold War in
Indochina, 1947-49' in Diplomatic History, xxvi, no. 3 (2002).
Marr, David; Vietnam: Harnessing the Whirlwind in Robin Jeffrey (ed.), Asia - The Winning of
Independence: the Philippines, India, Indonesia, Vietnam, Malaya (London, 1981).
Norton, Katzman, Escott, Chudacoff, Paterson, Tuttle , A People and a Nation ,(Boston, 1990).
Yang, Kuisong, Changes in Mao Zedongs attitude toward the Indochina War, 1949- 73 in the Cold
War International History Project Working Papers, No. 34 (2002), available at Wilson Center,
CWIHP,http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/ACFB04.pdf
Rotter, Andrew J., Causes of the Vietnam War available at
http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/causes.htm

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