Photosynthesis

Overview:

Carbon dioxide is reduced as hydrogen and electrons from water are added to it,
producing a carbohydrate.
The reactions in photosynthesis require an input of energy from light. The energy needed
to break the bonds within the carbon dioxide and water is greater than the energy
released when the products glucose and molecular oxygen are formed. Therefore, the
products of the reaction (glucose and oxygen) are at a higher energy level than the
reactants (carbon dioxide and water) and act as a store of energy. In photosynthesis,
oxygen is a waste product and is released into the atmosphere. Glucose is a fuel, which
can later be oxidised during respiration to release energy.
CO and HO have no direct contact
Although the overall equation for photosynthesis suggests that carbon dioxide and water
react with one another, the carbon dioxide and water never come into direct contact with
each other. The hydrogen, electrons and energy needed for the reduction of CO are
transferred indirectly using the reduced NADP and ATP.
Releasing hydrogen from water
The splitting of water into hydrogen and oxygen required energy. Photosynthesis uses
energy from sunlight to split the strong OH bonds in water. This process is known as the
photolysis of water; because of the involvement of energy from light in the reaction.
Storing hydrogen in the carbohydrate:
The hydrogen reacts with the carbon dioxide in order to store the hydrogen. Carbon
dioxide is reduced to form the carbohydrate fuel glucose, which can be stored as starch
or used to make other organic molecules such as cellulose.
Using the glucose:
The fuel has the potential to release large amounts of energy when the hydrogen stored
in the carbohydrate reacts with oxygen during respiration. In aerobic respiration, glucose
is broken down: the hydrogen combines with oxygen to make water, and energy and
carbon dioxide is released.
Some of the glucose is converted into the variety of chemical substances needed by the
plant to grow new cells. For example, glucose can be converted, using enzymes, into
starch, cellulose, fats, amino acids/ proteins and nucleic acids. The extra elements
needed to make some of these compounds, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, are taken
up by the roots of the plant from the soil in the form of ions.
The importance of photosynthesis:
The organic molecules made during photosynthesis are passed on through food webs to
other organisms. Animals cannot make all the organic compounds they need for

themselves; they are entirely dependent upon plants for their existence. And, of course,
plants release oxygen into the atmosphere which organisms are able to carry out aerobic
respiration.

How photosynthesis works

Photosynthesis is not a single reaction, but a series of reactions catalysed by
enzymes. These reactions occur in two main stages.

Light-dependent reactions use energy from the light and hydrogen from
photolysis of water to produce reduce NADP, ATP and the waste product
oxygen. The oxygen is either used directly in respiration or released into
the atmosphere.
Light independent reactions use the reduced NADP and ATP from the
light-dependent reactions to reduce carbon dioxide into carbohydrates.

What is meant
by reduction?
In a reduced form,
the substance has
gained

electrons. The co-enzyme NADP is reduced when electrons are added to it during
photosynthesis.

Where does photosynthesis take place?

The site of photosynthesis is the chloroplast. A palisade mesophyll cell in a leaf
can contain as many as 50 chloroplasts. Each chloroplast is made up of
membranes, arranged in a very precise, organised way.

Key
biological principle:
Why does

photosynthesis take place inside chloroplasts?

Thylakoids and the light-dependent reaction:
Photosynthesis consists of a series of enzyme-controlled reactions in which some
of the energy falling on the plant surface is initially stored as chemical potential
energy within ATP in water. The formation of ATP occurs in the light-dependent
reactions, as a result of a series of reduction and oxidation reactions. These
electrons involve the transfer of electrons between electron carrier molecules.
The electron carriers are located within the thylakoid membranes in the
chloroplast. Their positioning within the membrane creates an electron transport
chain, allowing electrons to pass efficiently from each electron carrier to its
neighbour.
The stroma and the light-independent reaction
The ATP molecules that are formed in the light-independent reactions act as
energy carriers within the cell, allowing small amounts of energy to be
transferred and used where needed. In photosynthesis, the chemical potential
energy within ATP in water is used in the reactions of the light-independent
stage, in the fixing of carbon dioxide to form organic molecules. These reactions

are dependent on the collision of the substrate(s) and the appropriate enzymes
to catalyse the reactions.
Maintaining a high concentration of each enzyme throughout the cell would be
very costly in terms of synthesis of enzyme. On the other hand, low
concentrations would reduce the rate of reaction and efficiency of
photosynthesis. The compartmentalisation of these reactions within the
chloroplast stroma means that the substrates and the enzymes can be at
concentrations that allow the reactions to be catalysed quickly.
The light dependent reactions
In the thylakoid membranes, photosynthetic pigments are arranged in clusters
each called a photosystem (PS) with several hundred pigment molecules
surrounding a primary chlorophyll molecule. There are two types of these
chlorophyll molecule; they are structurally different and known as PS 1 and PS 2.
When light is absorbed by the PS1 and PS2 chlorophyll in the thylakoid
membranes of the chloroplast, the following events occur:
1. Energy from light raises two electrons in each chlorophyll molecule to a
higher energy level. The chlorophyll molecules are now in an excited
state.
2. The electrons leave the excited chlorophyll molecules and pass along a
series of electron carrier molecules, all of which are embedded in the
thylakoid membranes. These molecules form the electron transport chain.
3. The electrons from the PS2 chlorophyll pass from one carrier to the next in
a series of oxidation and reduction reactions, losing energy in the process.
The energy is used in the synthesis of ATP, in a process called
photophosphorylation.
4. The electrons from PS2 replace those lost by the PS1 chlorophyll.
5. The electrons lost from the PS2 chlorophyll must be replaced if the flow of
electrons along the electron transport chain is to continue.
6. Within the thylakoid space, an enzyme catalyses the splitting of water
(photolysis) to give oxygen gas, hydrogen ions and electrons. These
electrons replace those that were emitted from the PS2 chlorophyll
molecule, so it is no longer positively charged. The hydrogen ion
concentration within the thylakoid space is raised as a result of photolysis.
7. The electrons from the PS1 chlorophyll that have passed along the
electron transport chain combine with the co-enzyme NADP and hydrogen
ions from the water to form reduced NADP.
The ATP and reduced NADP created in the light-dependent reactions are used in
the light-independent reactions.

Key biological principle: Metabolic pathways

Reactions in cells can involve simple molecules combining to form more complex
molecules, for example, in the production of polysaccharides / proteins.
Reactions can also involve the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler
molecules.
Reactions rarely occur in a single step, such as A D. Instead, there is generally
a series of smaller reactions, each controlled by a specific enzyme, forming a
metabolic pathway, e.g. A B C D.
This allows the rate of the overall reaction to be controlled, as each step is
controlled by a specific enzyme. A range of intermediate products can be
produced, which might be useful as end- products or take part in other reactions.
For example:
ABCD
l
EF

Key biological principle: The role of ATP

ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the most important energy transfer molecule

within cells. It moves energy around the cell from energy-yielding reactions to
energy-requiring reactions.
ATP is a nucleotide, similar to those that make up DNA. ATP consists of adenine
(an organic base), ribose (a 5-carbon sugar) and three phosphate groups. The
third phosphate group on ATP is only loosely bonded to the second phosphate, so
is easily removed. When the phosphate group is removed from ATP, adenine
diphosphate (ADP) forms. Once removed, the phosphate group becomes
hydrated, forming bonds with surrounding water molecules. A lot of energy is
released as bonds form between water and the phosphate group. This energy
can be used to drive energy-requiring reactions in the cell. ATPase catalyses the
breakdown of ATP to ADP.

ATP is produced from ADP by the addition of

inorganic phosphate. This addition of phosphate
to ADP is
known as phosphorylation. In order to make ATP, phosphate
must be
separated from water molecules, and this reaction
requires
energy. ATP in water is higher in energy than ADO
and phosphate ions in water, so ATP in water
is a way of
storing chemical potential energy. Formation of ATP
separates the phosphate and water. The phosphate and water can then be
brought together in an energy-yielding reaction each time energy is needed for
reactions within a cell. In this way ATP transfers energy around the cell.

The light independent reactions

The light-independent reactions of photosynthesis take place in the stroma of the
chloroplasts using the reduced NADP and ATP from the light-dependent reactions.
Carbon dioxide is reduced to carbohydrate. NADP acts as a hydrogen carrier;
using a carrier prevents the hydrogen reacting with the oxygen released by
photolysis.
As with all metabolic pathways, there is a series of reactions. The reactions form
a cyclical pathway called the Calvin cycle. Each stage of the cycle is catalysed by
a series of enzymes.

In the Calvin cycle, the inorganic carbon in carbon dioxide is incorporated into
organic molecules, initially glycerate 3-phosphate (GP). This is known as carbon
fixation. The carbon is fixed in organic molecules making it available to other
organisms.