Marketing Research for PGDMM-2016

Introduction to Marketing Research

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What is Marketing Research

Why do you Study MR
Seven Steps of Research
Kinds of Research
Defining Research Problem
Developing Research Approach
Research Design
Classification of Research
In-course Examination

15-03-16

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Dr .U. K.D

16-03-16

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Dr. U.K. D

28-03-16

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29-03-16

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30-03-16

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Exploratory Research
Evaluating Secondary Data
Qualitative Research
Projective Techniques
Descriptive Research
Survey & Observation Methods

04-04-16

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Dr. U. K. D

05-04-16

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Dr .U. K.D

06-04-16

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Mid term Examination

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Causal Research
Contd....
Causal Research Design
Experimentation
Validity in Experimentation
Pre-experimental Designs
Questionnaire Definition
Questionnaire Design Process
Attitude Measurement
Methods of Measuring Attitude
Field Work Procedure
Evaluation of Field work
Purpose of Sampling
Methods of Sampling
Advertising Research
Contd
Product Research
Contd
Research Report Presentation

18-04-16

8.15 9.45

Dr. U. K. D

19- 04-16

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Dr. U. K. D

26-04-16

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Dr. U. K. D

27-04-16

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Dr .U. K.D

04-05-16

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Dr. U.K. D

10-05-16

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Dr. U.K. D

11-05-16

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Dr. U. K. D

16-05-16

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Dr. U. K. D

17-05-16

8.159.45

Dr. U. K. D

25- 05-16

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Dr. U. K. D

Contd...

Paper Leader: Dr. Uttam Kumar Datta

 What is Marketing Research?

Why Marketing Research has Evolved and Grown
1. What is Marketing Research?
According to the American Marketing Association Marketing Research is the function
which links the consumer, customer and public to the marketing through informationinformation used to identify and define marketing opportunities and problems:
o Generate, refine, and evaluate marketing actions;
o Monitor marketing performance;
o And improve understanding of marketing as a process.

Marketing Research specifies the information required to address these issues;

designs the method for collecting information

manages and implements the data collection process;

analyzes the results;

and communicates the findings and their implications.

2. Why Marketing Research has evolved and grown?

Several Characteristics of modern business encourage the use of marketing research by
businesses.

First, the suppliers of products and services need to have information about final consumers
in order to market their products and services more effectively.

Second, as a company grows and starts distributing its products in a number of different
markets, the managers of the company find themselves becoming more separated from the
final consumers of their products.
On the other hand, there are two major reasons of marketing Research.

Managers are separated from their Final Customers.

Most of the marketers distribute their products through their own sales personnel to
wholesalers, who in turn sell those products to retailers, who then make the sale to the final
consumers. In their normal course of business many manufacturers have little direct contact

with the retailers of their products and no contact at all with the final consumers of their
products. Thus, the marketing managers in such firms are separated from their final
consumers by geographical distance as well as by a number of layers of people within their
own organizations and within their wholesalers and retailers organizations.

Although retailers and service organizations direct contact with their customers, managers of
retail operations often have little knowledge of their customers attitudes, opinions and
preferences because sales clerks and other store personal dont relay customers comments to
their managers.

Managers Need Information from Final Consumers.

Marketers need certain kinds of information in order to be able to satisfy their customers
wants and needs and to design effective marketing programs while still earning a profit. At
least five such information topics are of great interest to marketing managers.

Target market:

What is the best target market for the products or services being offered by the
organization?

How large is the target market and how can it be described?

What are the attitudes, opinions, preferences, and lifestyles, and so on of its members?

Products/ Services: Regarding particular products and services,

How satisfied or dissatisfied is the target market with what is currently available?

What product features and benefits do those consumers desire?

How do they compare the organizations product with those offered by competitors?

Price:

How much value does the target market place on the product in questions?

What products are they willing to substitute for the product in question?

What prices are charged for those substitutes?

What advantages-in features or benefits or appeals- does the organizations product

have that might allow it to charge a higher price?

Distribution:

What distribution channel is the target market most likely to use when purchasing the
product in questions?

Is the organizations pricing in line with what the target market expects to pay for the
product when purchased through that channel?

Does the pricing include the size of margin the channel traditionally expects to
receive?

Will the channel be able to provide the service or support needed for the product?

Promotion:

What can the organization say in its communication about its product that will appeal
to the target market and lead them to consider the organizations product more
attractive than those offered by competitors?

-Through what medium(s) should the organization communicate?

What specific vehicles should the organization use to carry the advertisements?

What kinds of promotions would have a favorable effect on the target market?

Marketing managers in most organizations need answers to all of these questions.

Obtaining answers to many of these questions requires contact with final consumers.
Because most managers are separated from their final consumers and from the
information they need-business and other organizations are increasingly turning to
marketing research to obtain the information they need for decision making.

Kinds of Research
Marketing
Research

Problem Identification
Research

o
o
o
o

Market Potential Research

Market Share Research
Image Research
Market Characteristics
Research
o Sales Analysis Research
o Forecasting Research
o Business Trends Research

Problem-Solving
Research

o
o
o
o
o

Segmentation Research
Product Research
Pricing Research
Promotion Research
Distribution Research

Problem Solving Research

Segmentation Research
Determine basis of segmentation
Seven
Steps
in Designing
Project:
Establish
market
potential andResearch
responsiveness
for various segments
Select target markets and create lifestyle profiles, demography, media, and product
image characteristics
Whenever managers feel uneasy or uncertain
about making
a decision, they may decide to
Promotional
Research
Product Research
promotional
budget used to collect the
gather additional information that will reduceOptimal
uncertainty.
The procedures
Test concept
Sales promotion relationship
Package tests
information
should be ones that will result in
information
that is mix
both valid and reliable. To
Optimal
promotional
Product modification
Copy
help acquire valid and reliable information, they
aredecisions
likely to use a series of
Brand positioning and repositioning
Media decisions
Test marketing
Creative advertising testing
Control store tests
Claim substantiation
Evaluation of advertising
Pricing Research
effectiveness
Importance of price in brand selection
Distribution Research
Pricing policies
Type of distribution
Product line pricing
Attitudes of channel members
Price elasticity of demand
Intensity of wholesale and retail
Response to price changes
coverage channel margins
Location of retail and wholesale
outlets

Seven steps referred to collectively as the marketing research process.

1. Specifying research objectives: In this step of the research process researchers must
first obtain answers to the questions, What is the purpose of this study? If these
questions are not properly answered at the outset, the study is likely to be misdirected
and to pursue vague or obscure goals. The probable result will be that the collected
data will not be as valid and/or reliable as desired.

Minimizing potential sources of error. Perhaps the nest way to identify specific
research objectives is to put them in written form. The manager and the researcher can
then discuss the written form. The manager and the researcher can then discuss the
written statement, modifying it where it can serve as the researchers guide to what the
manager expects from the research.

2. Preparing a List of the Needed Information. After a satisfactory statement of the

studys purpose and objectives has been established, it is necessary to prepare a list of
the information needed to attain the objectives. The contents of such a list will be
determined by the objectives of the research and the situation leading to the research
request.

Minimizing potential sources of error. Managers and researchers should work together
to develop the list of needed information and then attempt to evaluate its usefulness. They
can do so by trying to anticipate the possible findings of the study and then trying to
answer the question. What will we do if these are the findings If it appears that the
manager will select a certain course of action regardless of the findings, there is no
decision to be made-hence, no need for research to be undertaken.

It may also be possible that some finding s may suggest courses of action that cannot be
undertaken- because of limited financial resources, for example. If the firm can take no
action regardless of the findings, there is no reason to undertake a research project.

3. Designing the Data-Collection Project: After the research objectives have been
specified and the list of needed information has been prepared the researcher should
determine whether such information is already available, either in company records or
in outside sources, Certainly, the researcher should not collect data from the field until
the appropriate secondary sources of information have been reviewed. If the needed

information is not available from secondary sources, the researcher will have to
collect data in the field, and so it will be necessary to design a data- collection project

Minimizing potential sources of error. Researchers can do many things to minimize the
possible sources of error associated with designing a data collection project. Much of the
remainder of this book concerns reducing error in marketing research projects. At this
point in the text we introduce the five important issues that must be addressed when
designing a data collection project. Buy giving each of these issues proper attention;
researchers can make good progress toward reducing the possible sources of error in their
research projects. These issues are:
o Should the research be exploratory or conclusive?
o Who should be interviewed and how?
o Should only a few cases be studied, or should a large sample be used?
o How will experiments be incorporated kin the research?
o How should the data-collection form be designed?

Important issues to be addressed when designing the data-collection form typically include
the following:
o What type of questionnaire (personal interview, telephone interview, or mail survey)
should be used?
o What should be the content- and the wording- of individual questions?
o What types of questions should be used?
o In what sequence should the questions be placed?

4. Selecting a Sample Type: Almost all marketing research projects are interested in
information about a large population such ads all families with children at home or all
retail grocery stores. As it is impractical to collect data from all members of such
large populations, a sample is selected. Various types of samples are possible, but
they can be classified into two general categories- nonprobability and probability.

Minimizing potential sources of error. The first task in sampling is to define carefully
just what groups of people, stores, or other units are to be sampled. For example, if the
study calls for collecting data from appliance dealers, it is necessary to define what is
meant by an appliance dealer (are discount stores selling appliances to be included?). It is

also necessary to define the precise geographical area of interest (e.g. the metropolitan
Chicago area).

5. Determining Sample Size: The researcher must also decide how large a sample to
select. Marketing research samples vary from fewer than 10 to several thousand. The
researcher must consider the problem at hand, the budget, and the accuracy needed in
the data before the question of sample size can be answered

Minimizing potential sources of error. The magnitude of potential error from sample
size can be calculated using the theory of sampling statistics if a probability sample is
used. That theory can help researchers determine what sample size is needed for a given
degree of accuracy. The accuracy needed in the study and the costs of using various size
samples will determine the choice and, therefore, the reliability of the results.

6. Organizing and Carrying Out the Fieldwork: Fieldwork includes selecting,

training, controlling and evaluation the members of the field force. The methods used
in the field are very important, for they usually involve a substantial part of the
research budget and are a potential soured of error through lack of both validity and
reliability. Fieldwork methods arte dictated largely by the method of collecting data,
the sampling requirements, and the kinds of information that must be obtained.

Minimizing potential sources of error. By following what are considered good practices
in the selection, training, controlling, and evaluating if fieldworkers, marketing
researchers can do much to standardize procedures and to minimize errors resulting from
fieldwork.

7. Analyzing the Collected Data and reporting the Findings. After all interviews and
/or observations have been dame, the completed data-collection forms must be
processed in a way that will yield the information the project was designed to obtain.
First, the forms need to be edited to ensure that instructions were followed, that all
questions were asked of observations made, and that the resulting data are consistent
and logical. Nest, the data must be prepared for tabulation. This means the data must
be assigned to categories and then coded so the responses can be put into the
computer. The responses are usually tabulated and analyzed on a computer.

Chapter 2
Defining the Marketing Research Problem and Developing an Approach
Importance of defining the Problem
Although each step in a marketing research project is important, problem definition is the
most important step. Problem definition involves

Stating the general problem and identifying the specific components of the marketing
research problem. Only when the marketing research problem has been clearly
defined can research be designed and conducted properly.

Of all the tasks in a marketing research project, none is more vital to the ultimate
fulfillment of a clients needs than a proper definition of the research problem.

All the effort, time, and money spent from this point on will be wasted if the problem
is misunderstood or ill defined.

Inadequate problem definition is a leading cause of failure of marketing research

projects.

Better communication and more involvement in problem definition are the most
frequently mentioned ways of improving the usefulness of research.

These results lead to the conclusion that the importance of clearly identifying and defining
the marketing research problem cannot be overstated.

The Process of Defining the Problem and Developing an approach

The problem definition an approach development process is shown in the flowing figure. The
tasks involved in problem definition consist of discussions with the decision makers,
interviews with industry experts and other knowledgeable individuals, analysis of secondary
data, and sometimes qualitative research. These tasks help the researcher to understand the
background of the problem buy analyzing the environmental context. Certain essential
environmental factors bearing on the problem should be evaluated. Understanding of the
environmental contest facilitates the identification of the management decision problem.
Then the management decision problem is translated into a marketing research problem.
Based on the definition of the marketing research

Tasks Involved

Discussions
with Decision
Makers

Interviews
with Experts

Secondary
Data
Analysis

Qualitative
Research

Environmental Context of the Problem

Step-1 : Problem Definition

Management Decision Problem

Marketing Research Problem

Objectives/
Theoretical
Foundations

Step 2: Approach to the Problem

Analytical
Research
Hypotheses
Model: Verbal,
Questions
Graphical,
Mathematical

Specification
of
Information
Needed
Theoretical
Foundations

Steps 3 Research Design

Tasks Involved

Discussions with Decision Makers: Discussions with decision makers (DM) are
extremely important. The problem audit provides a useful framework for interacting
with the DM and identifying the underlying causes of the problem. The problem audit
, like any other type of audit, is a comprehensive examination of a marketing problem
with the purpose of understanding its origin and nature.

Interviews with Industry Experts: These experts may be found both inside and
outside the firm. Typically, expert information is jobtained by unstructured personal
interviews, without administering a formal questionnaire.

Secondary Data Analysis: Secondary data are data collected for some purpose other
than the problem at hand. Analysis of available secondary data is an essential step in
the problem definition process: Primary data should not be collected until the
available secondary darta have been fully analyzed.

Qualitative Research: Qualitative research is unstructured, exploratory in nature,

based on small samples, and may utilize popular qualitative technbiques such as focus
groups interviews, word associations and depth interveiws.

Environmental Context of the Problem: To understand the background of a

marketing research probloem, the researcher must understand the clients firm and
industry. In particular, the researcher should analyze the factors that hve an inpact on
the definition of the marketing rewearch problem. these factors, encompassing the
environmentaal context of the problem, include
past inforation and forecasts pertaining to the industry and the firm,
resources and constraints of the firm,
objectives of the decision maker,
buyer behavior,
Legel environment
Economic environment
And marketing and technological skills of the firm

Management

Decision

Problem and

Marketing

Research

Problem:The

management decision problem asks what the DM needs to do, whereas the marketing
research problem asks what information is needed and how it can best be obtained.

Components of the Approach: In the process of developing an approach, we must

not lose sight of the goal- the outputs. The outputs of the approach development
process should include the following conponents:
Objective/ theoretical framework,
analytical models,
research questions,
hypotheses,
and specification of information needed.

Chapter-3: Research Design: Definition

A research design is a framework or blueprint for conducting the marketing research project.
It details the procedures necessary for obtaining the information needed to structure or solve
marketing research problems. A research design lays the foundation for conducting the
project. A good research design will ensure that the marketing research project is conducted
effectively and efficiently. Typically, a research design involves the following components,
or tasks:
1. Design the exploratory, descriptive, and /or causal phases of the research.
2. Define the information needed
3. Specify the measurement and scaling procedures.
4. Construct and pretest a questionnaire ( interviewing form) or an appropriate form for
data collection
5. Specify the sampling process and sample size.
6. Develop a plan of data analysis.

Research Design: Classification

Research Design

Exploratory
Research

Conclusive
Research

Descriptive
Research

CrossSectional
Design

Single CrossSectional Design

Causal
Research

Longitudinal
Design

Multiple CrossSectional Designs

Research designs may be broadly classified as exploratory or conclusive. The differences

between exploratory and conclusive research are summarized below.
1. Exploratory Research: The primary objective of exploratory research is to provide
insights into, and an understanding of, the problem confronting the researcher.

Exploratory research is used in cases when you must define the problem more
precisely; identify relevant courses of action, or gain additional insights before an
approach can be developed.

The information needed is only loosely defined at the stage, and the research process
that is adopted is flexible and unstructured.

For example, it may consist of personal interviews with industry experts. The sample,
selected to generate maximum insights, is small and non-representative. The primary data are
qualitative in nature and are analyzed accordingly. These characteristics of the research
process, the findings of exploratory research should be regarded as tentative or as input to
further research.

Exploratory research could be used for any of the following purposes:

o Formulate a problem or define a problem more precisely
o Identify alternative courses of action
o Develop hypotheses.
o Isolate key variables and relationships for further examination
o Gain insights for developing an approach to the problem.
o Establish priorities for further research.

2. Conclusive Research: The objective of conclusive research is to test specific hypotheses

and examine specific relationships. This requires that the researcher clearly specify the
information needed. Conclusive research is typically more formal and structured than
exploratory research. It is based on large, representative samples, and the data obtained are
subjected to quantitative analysis. The findings from this research are considered to be
conclusive in nature in that they are used as input into managerial decision making.

Descriptive Research: The major objective of descriptive research is to describe

something usually market characteristics or functions. Descriptive research is
conducted for the following reasons:
1. To describe the characteristics of relevant groups, such as consumers,
salespeople, organizations, or market areas.
2. To estimate the percentage of units in a specified population exhibiti9ng a
certain behavior.
3. To determine the perceptions of product characteristics.
4. To determine the degree to which marketing variables are associated

5. To make specific predictions

A descriptive design requires a clear specification of the six Ws:

Who- Who should be considered for interview?

What What information should be obtained form the respondents?
When- When should the information be obtained form the respondents?
Where- Where should the respondents be contacted to obtain the required information?
Why Why are we obtaining information from the respondents?
Way In what way are we going to obtain information from the respondents?

These and other similar questions should be asked until the information to be obtained has
been clearly defined.

The examples of descriptive research are:

o Market studies, which describe the size of the market, buying power of the
consumers, availability of distributors, and consumer profiles
o Market share studies, which determine the proportion of total sales received by a
company and its competitors
o Sales analysis studies, which describe sales by geographic region, product line, type
and size of the account.
o Image studies, which determine consumer perceptions of the firm and its products.
o Product usage studies, which describe consumption patterns.
o Distribution studies, which determine traffic flow patterns and the number and
location of distributors.
o Pricing studies, which describe the range and frequency of price changes and probable
consumer response to proposed price changes
o Advertising studies, which describe media consumption habits and audience profiles
for specific television programs and magazines.

Cross- Sectional Designs: Cross-sectional designs involve the collection of

information from any given sample of population elements only once. They may be
either single cross-sectional or multiple cross-sectional.

A. In single cross-sectional designs only one sample or respondents is drawn from the
target population, and information is obtained from this sample only once. These
designs are also called sample survey research designs.

B. In multiple cross-sectional designs, there are two or more samples of respondents

and information from each sample is obtained only once. Often, information from
different samples is obtained at different times over ling intervals.

Longitudinal Designs: In longitudinal designs, a fixed sample of population elements

is measured repeatedly on the same variables. In other words, the same people are
studied over time and the same variables are measured.

3. Casual Research: Causal research is used to obtain evidence of cause and-effect (causal)
relationships. Marketing managers continually make decisions based on assumed causal
relationships. These assumptions may not be justifiable, and the validity of the causal
relationships should be examined via formal research.

For example, the common assumption that a decrease in price will lead to increased sales
and market share does not hold in certain competitive environments. Causal research is
appropriate for the following purposes:
A. To understand which variables are the causes (independent variables) and which
variables are the effects (dependent variables) of a phenomenon.
B. To determine the nature off the relationship between the causal variables and the
effect to be predicted.
An examination requires a causal design, in which the causal or independent variables are
manipulated in a relatively controlled environment. A relatively controlled environment is
one in which the other variables that may affect the dependent variable are controlled or
checked as much as possible. The effect of this manipulation on one or more dependent
variables is then measured to infer causality. The main method of causal research is
experimentation.

Potential Sources of Error

Total Error

Random
Sampling Error

Non-sampling
Error

Response
Error

Researcher
Errors

Surrogate Information Error

Measurement Error
Population Definition
Sampling Frame Error
Data Analysis Error

Interviewers
Errors

Respondent selection
Error
Questioning Error
Recording Error
Cheating Error

Non-response
Error

Respondent
Errors

Inability Error
Unwillingness
Error

1. Random Sampling Error: Random sampling error occurs because the particular
sample selected is an imperfect representation of the population of interest. Random
sampling error is the variation between the true mean value for the population and the
true mean value for the original sample.
2. Non-sampling Error: Non-sampling errors can be attributed to sources other than
sampling, and they may be random or nonrandom. They result from a variety of
reasons, including errors in problem definition, approach, scales, questionnaire
design, interviewing methods, and data preparation and analysis.
3. Non-response Error: Non-response error arises when some of the respondents
included in the sample do not respond. The primary causes of non-response are
refusals and not-at-homes.
4. Response Error: Response error arises when respondents give inaccurate answers or
their answers are miss-recorded or misanalyses. Response error is defined as the
variation between the true mean value of the variable in the net sample and the
observed mean value obtained in the marketing research project.

Errors made by the researcher include surrogate information, measurement, population

definition, sampling frame, and data analysis errors.

Surrogate information error may be defined as the variation between the information
needed for the marketing research problem and the information sought by the
researcher.

Measurement error may be defined as the variation between the information sought
and the information generated by the measurement process employed by the researcher.

Population definition error may be defined as the variation between the actual
population relevant to the problem at hand and the population as defined by the
researcher.

Sampling frame error may be defined as the variation between the population defined
by the researcher and the population as implied by the sampling frame (list) used. For
example, the telephone directory used to generate a list of telephone numbers does not
accurately represent the population of potential consumers because of unlisted,
disconnected, and new numbers in service.

Data analysis error encompasses errors that occur while raw data from questionnaires
are transformed into research findings.

Respondent selection error occurs when interviewers select respondents other than
those specified by the sampling design or in a manner inconsistent with the sampling
design.

Questioning error denotes errors made in asking questions of the respondents or in not
probing when more information is needed.

Recording error arises due to errors in hearing, interpreting, and recording the answers
given by the respondents.

Cheating error arises when the interviewer fabricates answers to a part or all of the
interview.

Inability error results from the respondents inability to provide accurate answers.
Respondents may provide inaccurate answers because of unfamiliarity, fatigue,
boredom, faulty recall, question format, question content, and other factor.

Unwillingness error arises from the respondents unwillingness to provide accurate

information. Respondents may intentionally misreport their answers because of a desire
to provide socially acceptable answers, avoid embarrassment, or please the interviewer.

Chapter-4 Exploratory Research Design: Secondary Data

Primary Data versus Secondary Data
Primary data are originated by a researcher for the specific purpose of addressing the problem
at hand. Obtaining primary data can be expensive and time consuming.

Secondary data are data that have already been collected for purposes other than the problem
at hand. These data can be located quickly and inexpensively.
The differences between primary and secondary data lead to some distinct advantages and
uses of secondary data.

Advantages and Uses of Secondary Data

Secondary data are easily accessible, relatively inexpensive, and quickly obtained. Some
secondary data, such as those provided by the country Bureau of the Census, are available on
topics for which it would not be feasible for a firm to collect primary data. Such data can be
useful in a variety of ways. Secondary data can help you:

1. Identify the problem

2. Better define the problem
3. Develop an approach to the problem
4. Formulate an appropriate research design ( for example, by identifying the key
variables)
5. Answer certain research questions and test some hypotheses.
6. Interpret primary data more insightfully.

Given these advantages and uses of secondary data, we state the following general rule:

Examination of available secondary data is a prerequisite to the collection of

primary data.

Start with secondary data.

Proceed to primary data only when the secondary data sources have been
exhausted or yield marginal returns.

Researcher should be cautious in using secondary data, because they have some limitations
and disadvantages.

Disadvantages of Secondary Data:

1. Secondary data have been collected for purposes other than the problem at hand.
2. Their usefulness to the current problem may be limited in several important ways,
including relevance and accuracy.
3. The objectives, nature, and methods used to collect the secondary data may not be
appropriate to the present situation.
Before using secondary data, it is important to evaluate them on these factors.

Criteria for Evaluating Secondary Data

1. Specifications: Methodology Used to Collect the Data: The specifications or the
methodology used to collect the data should be critically examined to identify
possible sources of bias. Such methodological considerations include

Size and nature of the sample,

Response rate and quality.

Questionnaire design and administration,

Procedures used for fieldwork, and data analysis and reporting procedure.

These checks provide information on the reliability and validity of the data and help
determine whether they can be generalized to the problem at hand.
2. Errors: Accuracy of the data: The researcher must determine whether the data are
accurate enough for the purposes of the present study. Secondary can have a number
of sources of error, or inaccuracy, including

errors in the approach,

research design,

sampling,

data collections,

analysis,

and reporting stages of the project.

Researcher should verify data by conducting pilot studies.

3. Currency: When the data Were Collected: Secondary data may not be current, and
the time lag between data collection and publication may be long, as is the case with
much census data. Moreover, the data may not be updated frequently enough for the
purpose of the problem at hand. Fortunately, several marketing research firms update

census data periodically and make the current information available on a syndicated
basis.
4. Objective: The Purpose for which the data Were Collected: The objective for
collecting data will ultimately determine the purpose for which that information is
relevant and useful. Data collected with a specific objective in mind may not be
appropriate in another situation.
5. Nature: The Content of the Data: The nature, or content, of the data should be
examined with special attention to the definition of key variables, the units of
measurement, categories used, and the relationships examined. If the key variables
have not been defined or are defined in a manner inconsistent with the researchers
definition, then the usefulness of the data is limited.
6. Dependability: How dependable are the Data? An overall indication of the
dependability of data may be obtained by examining the expertise, credibility,
reputation, and trustworthiness of the source. This information can be obtained by
checking with others who have used the information provided by the source.

A Classification of Secondary Data:

Secondary Data

Internal

Ready to use

Requires
Further
Processing

External

Published
Materials

Computerized
Database

Syndicated
Services

1. Internal Secondary Data: Internal data are those generated within the organization
for which the research is being conducted. Internal data have two significant
advantages. They are easily available and inexpensive. In fact, internal secondary
sources are generally the least costly of any source of marketing research information;
yet these data often are not fully exploited. However, this trend is changing with the
increased popularity of database marketing. Database marketing involves the use of
computers to capture and track customer profiles and purchase detail. This secondary

information serves as the foundation for marketing programs or as an internal source

of information related to customer behavior.

2. External Data: Published External Secondary Sources

Published Secondary
Data

General Business
Sources

Guides

Directories

Government Sources

Statistical
Data

Indexes

Other Government
Publications

Census Data

Computerized Databases
Computerized
Databases

Online

Bibliographic
Databases

Internet

Numeric
Databases

Full-Text
Databases

Offline

Directory
Databases

Special
Purpose
Databases

Syndicated Sources of Secondary Data: Syndicated sources constitute the other major
source of external secondary data. Syndicated services, also referred to as syndicated sources,
are companies that collect and sell common pools of data of known commercial value,
designed to serve information needs shared by a number of clients.

Chapter-5, Exploratory Research Design: Qualitative Research

Primary data may be qualitative or quantitative in nature; Qualitative research provides
insights and understanding of the problem setting, while quantitative research seeks to
quantify the data and, typically, applies some form of statistical analysis.

A Classification of Marketing Research Data

Marketing
Research Data

Secondary Data

Primary Data

Qualitative Data

Quantitative Data

Descriptive Data

Survey Data

Causal Data

Observational and
Other Data

Experimental Data

Rationale for Using Qualitative Research:

There are several reasons to use qualitative research. It is not always possible, or desirable, to
use fully structured or formal methods to obtain information from respondents. People may
be unwilling or unable to answer certain questions. People are unwilling to give truthful
answers to questions that invade their privacy, embarrass them, or have a negative impact on

their ego or status. Examples of such sensitive questions include: Have you recently
purchased sanitary napkins?

A Classification of Qualitative Research Procedures

Qualitative Research
Procedures

Direct
(Non-disguised)

Focus Groups

Association
Techniques

Indirect
(Disguised)

Depth Interviews

Completion
Techniques

Projective
Techniques

Construction
Techniques

Expressive
Techniques

A direct approach is not disguised. The purpose of the project is disclosed to the
respondents or is otherwise obvious to them from the questions asked. Focus groups and
depth interviews are the major direct techniques.

An indirect approach disguises the true purpose of the project. Projective techniques, the
commonly used indirect techniques, consist of association, completion, construction, and
expressive techniques.

Focus group is an interview conducted by a trained moderator in a non-structured and

natural manner with a small group of respondents. The moderator leads the discussion. The
main purpose of focus groups is to gain insights by listening to a group of people from the
appropriate target market talk about issues of interest to the researcher. The value of this
technique lies in the unexpected findings often obtained from a free-flowing group
discussion.

Characteristics of Focus Groups

Characteristics of Focus Groups

Group size

8-12

Group composition

Homogeneous; respondents prescreened

Physical setting

Relaxed, informal atmosphere

Time duration

1 to 3 hours

Recording

Use of audiocassettes and videotapes

Moderator

Observational, interpersonal, and communication skills of

the moderator.

Key Qualifications of Focus Group Moderators

1. Kindness with firmness: The moderator must combine a disciplined detachment with
understanding empathy in order to generate the necessary interaction.
2. Permissiveness: The moderator must be permissive yet alert to signs that the groups
cordiality or purpose is disintegrating.
3. Involvement: The moderator must encourage and stimulate intense personal
involvement.
4. Incomplete understanding: The moderator must encourage respondents to be more
specific about generalized comments by exhibiting incomplete understanding.
5. Encouragement: The moderator must encourage unresponsive members to
participate.
6. Flexibility: The moderator must be able to improvise and alter the planned outline
amid the distractions of the group process.
7. Sensitivity: The moderator must be sensitive enough to guide the group discussion at
an intellectual as well as emotional level.

Procedure for Planning and Conducting Focus Groups

1. Determine the objectives of the marketing research project and define the problem.
2. Specify the objectives of qualitative research

3. State the objectives/questions to be answered by focus groups.

4. Write a screening questionnaire.
5. Develop a moderators outline
6. Conduct the focus group interviews
7. Review tapes and analyze the data
8. Summarize the findings and plan follow-up research or action.

Variations in Focus Groups:

1. Two-way focus group. This allows one target group to listen to and learn from a
related group.
2. Dual-moderator group. This is a focus group interview conducted by two moderators.
One moderator is responsible for the smooth flow of the session, and the other ensures
that specific issues are discussed.
3. Dueling-moderator group. Here also there are two moderators, but they deliberately
take opposite positions on the issues to be discussed. This allows the researcher to
explore both sides of controversial issues.
4. Respondent-moderator group. In this type of focus group. The moderator asks
selected participants to play the role of moderator temporarily to improve group
dynamics.
5. Client-participant groups. Client personnel are identified and made part of the
discussion group. Their primary role is to offer clarification that will make the group
process more effective.
6. Mini groups. These groups consist of a moderator and only 4 or 5 respondents. They
are used when the issues of interest require more extensive probing than is possible in
the standard group of 8 to 12.
7. Tele-session groups. Focus group sessions by phone using the conference call
technique.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Focus Groups
Focus groups offer several advantages over other data collection techniques. These may be
summarized by the 10 Ss
1. Synergism: Putting a group of people together will produce a wider range of
information, insight, and ideas than will individual responses secured privately.
2. Snowballing: a bandwagon effect often operates in a group interview, in that one
persons comment triggers a chain reaction from the other participants.

3. Stimulation: Usually after a brief introductory period, the respondents want to

express their ideas and expose their feelings as the general level of excitement over
the topic increases in the group.
4. Security: Because the participants feelings are similar to those of other group
members, they feel comfortable and are therefore willing to express their ideas and
feelings.
5. Spontaneity: Since participants are not required to answer specific questions, their
responses can be spontaneous and unconventional and should therefore provide an
accurate idea of their views.
6. Serendipity: Ideas are more likely to arise out of the blue in a group than in an
individual interview.
7. Specialization: Because a number of participants are involved simultaneously, use of
a highly trained, but expensive, interviewer is justified.
8. Scientific scrutiny: The group interview allows close scrutiny of the data collection
process, in that observers can witness the session and it can be recorded for later
analysis.
9. Structure: The group interview allows for flexibility in the topics covered and the
depth with which they are treated.
10. Speed: Since a number of individuals are being interviewed at the same time, data
collection and analysis proceed relatively quickly.

The disadvantages of focus groups may be summarized by the five Ms:

1. Misuse: Focus groups can be misused and abused by considering the results as
conclusive rather than exploratory.
2. Misjudge: Focus group results can be more easily misjudged than the results o other
data-collection techniques. Focus groups are particularly susceptible to client and
researcher biases.
3. Moderation: Focus groups are difficult to moderate. Moderators with all the
desirable skills are rare. The quality of the results depends heavily on the skills of the
moderator.
4. Messy: The unstructured nature of the responses makes coding, analysis, and
interpretation difficult. Focus group data tend to be messy.
5. Misrepresentation: Focus group results are not representative of the general
population and are not project-able. Consequently, focus group results should not be
the sole basis for decision making.

Applications of Focus Groups:

1. Understanding consumers perceptions, preferences, and behavior concerning a
product category.
2. Obtaining impressions of new product concepts.
3. Generating new ideas about older products
4. Developing creative concepts and copy material for advertisements
5. Securing price impressions
6. Obtaining preliminary consumer reaction to specific marketing programs.

Depth Interviews
An unstructured, direct, personal interview in which a single respondent is probed by a highly
skilled interviewer to uncover underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, and feelings on a
topic.
Characteristics
1. Depth interviews are an unstructured and direct way of obtaining information
2. Depth interviews are conducted on a one-to-one basis.
3. A depth interview may take from 30 minutes to more than one hour.
4. The interviewer begins by asking a general question such as, How do you feel about
shopping at department stores?
5. The subsequent direction of the interview is determined by the respondents initial
reply, the interviewers probes for elaboration, and the respondents answers.
Techniques

Three depth-interviewing techniques that have recently gained popularity are:

Laddering: In laddering, the line of questioning proceeds from product

characteristics to user characteristics.

Hidden issue questioning: In hidden issue questioning, the focus is not on socially
shared values but rather on personal sore spots not on general lifestyles but on
deeply felt personal concerns.

And symbolic analysis: Symbolic analysis attempts to analyze the symbolic meaning
of objects by comparing them with their opposites.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Depth Interviews:

1. Depth interviews can uncover greater depth of insights than focus groups.

2. Depth interviews attribute the responses directly to the respondent, unlike

focus groups, where is often difficult to determine which respondent made a
particular response.
3. Depth interviews result in free exchange of information that may not be
possible in focus groups because three is no social pressure to conform to
group response.

Disadvantages of Depth Interviews

1. Skilled interviewers capable of conducing depth interviews are expensive and difficult
to find.
2. The lack of structure makes the results susceptible to the interviewers influence.
3. The quality and completeness of the results depend heavily on the interviewers skills.
4. The data obtained are difficult to analyze and interpret, and the services of skilled
psychologists are typically required for this purpose.
5. The length of the interview combined with high costs.

Applications of Depth Interviews

1. Detailed probing of the respondent.
2. Discussion of confidential, sensitive, or embarrassing topics.
3. Situations where strong social norms exist and the respondent may be easily swayed
by group response.
4. Detailed understanding of complicated behavior.
5. Interviews with professional people
6. Interviews with competitors, who are unlikely to reveal the information in a group
setting.
7. Situations where the product consumption experience is sensory in nature, affecting
mood states and emotions.

Projective Techniques
A projective technique is an unstructured, indirect form of questioning that encourages
respondents to project their underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings regarding
the issues of concern. In projective techniques, respondents are asked to interpret the
behavior of others rather than describe their won behavior. In interpreting the behavior of
others, respondents indirectly project their own motivations, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings into

the situation. Projective techniques are classified as association, completion, construction,

and expressive.

1. Association Techniques: In association techniques, an individual is presented with a

stimulus and asked to respond with the first thing that comes to mind. Word
association is the best known of these techniques. In word association, respondents
are presented with a list of words, one at a time, and asked to respond to each with the
first word that comes to mind. The words of interest, called test words. For example,
in the department store study, some of the test words might be: location, parking,
shopping quality and price. The subjects response to each word is recorded
verbatim and responses are timed so that respondents who hesitate or reason out
(defined as taking longer than three seconds to reply) can be identified.
2. Completion Techniques: In completion techniques, the respondent is asked to
complete an incomplete stimulus situation. Common completion techniques in
marketing research are sentence completion and story completion.

Sentence Completion.

Sentence completion is similar to word association.

Respondents are given incomplete sentences and asked to complete them.

Generally, they are asked to use the first word or phrase that comes to mind.

Story Completion. In story completion, respondents are given part of a story

enough to direct attention to a particular topic but not to hint at the ending. They
are required to give the conclusion in their own words. The respondents
completion of this story will reveal their underlying feelings and emotions.

3. Construction Techniques: Construction techniques are closely related to completion

techniques. Construction techniques require the respondent to construct a response in
the form of a story, dialogue, or description. In a construction technique, the
researcher provides less initial structure to the respondent than in a completion
technique. The two main construction techniques are :

Picture Response. The roots of picture response techniques can be traced to the
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), which consists of a series of pictures of
ordinary as well as unusual events. The respondent is asked to tell stories about
these pictures. The respondents interpretation of the pictures gives indications of
that individuals personality.

Cartoon Tests. In cartoon tests, cartoon characters are shown in a specific

situation related to the problem. The respondents are asked to indicate what on
cartoon character might say in response to the comments of another character.

The responses indicate the respondents feelings, beliefs, and attitudes toward the
situation.

4. Expressive Techniques: In expressive techniques, respondents are presented with a

verbal or visual situation and asked to relate the feelings and attitudes of other people
to the situation. The respondents express not their own feelings or attitudes, but those
of others. The two main expressive techniques are role playing and third-person
technique.
Role Playing. In role playing, respondents are asked to play the role or assume the behavior
of someone else. The researcher assumes that the respondents will project their own feelings
into the role.
Third-Person Technique. In third-person technique, the respondent is presented with a
verbal or visual situation and asked to relate the beliefs and attitudes of a third person may be
a friend, neighbor, colleague, or a typical person.

Chapter-6,
Descriptive Research Design: Survey and Observation
Survey Methods:

The survey method of obtaining information is based on the questioning of respondents. They
are asked a variety of questions regarding their behavior, intentions, attitudes, awareness,
motivations and demographic and lifestyle characteristics. These questions may be asked
verbally, in writing, or via computer, and the responses may be obtained in any of these
forms. Typically, the questioning is structured.
In a typical questionnaire, most questions are fixed-alternative questions that require the
respondent to select from a predetermined set of responses.

The survey method has several advantages.

The questionnaire is simple to administer.

The data obtained are reliable because the responses are limited to the alternatives
stated.

The use of fixed-response questions reduces the variability in the results that may be
caused by differences in interviewers.

Coding, analysis, and interpretation of data are relatively simple.

Disadvantages of survey method

Respondents may be unable or unwilling to provide the desired information.

Structured questions and fixed-response alternatives may result in loss of validity for
certain types of data such as beliefs and feelings.

Wording questions properly is not easy.

Survey Methods Classified by Mode of Administration

Survey
Methods

Telephone
Interviewing

Traditional

In
home

Personal
Interviewing

Mail
Interviewing

ComputerAssisted

Mall
Intercept

Electronic
Interviewing

E-mail

ComputerAssisted

Mail

Mail
Panel

Internet

A Comparative Evaluation of Survey Methods

Criteria
Flexibility of data
Collection
Diversity of
Questions
Use of physical
stimuli
Sample control

Telephone
Moderate to
high
low

Low

Quantity of data
Response rate
Perceived anonymity
of the respondent
Social desirability

Obtaining sensitive
information
Potential for
interviewer bias
Speed

Cost

Interviews

Intercept

High

High

High

High

Moderate to
high
Potentially

high

high

Moderate

environment
Control of field force

Mall

Moderate to

Control of datacollection

In-home

Moderate to
high

Mall

Mall

Surveys

Panels

Low

Low

Low

High

Moderate

Moderate

Moderate

High

High

Moderate

Moderate

Low

Moderate

Moderate

Low

High

High

Low

Low

Low

Low

High

High

CAPI
Moderate to
high

Moderate
to high

E-mail

Low

Internet
Moderate
to high
Moderate
to high
Moderate
Low to
Moderate

Moderate

Low

Moderate

Moderate

High

High

Low

High

Moderate

Moderate

Moderate

High

Moderate

High

High

High

Low

Moderate

Low

Very low

Moderate

Low

Low

Low

High

High

Moderate

High

Moderate

High

High

Low

Low

Moderate

Low

High

Low

Low

Moderate

High

Moderate

High

High

Low

None

None

High

Moderate

Moderate

Moderate to

to high

high

High

Very high

Moderate

High

Moderate

Moderate to

to high

high

Low

Low

Moderate to
high
Low to
moderate

High

None

Low

Low

Moderate
to high
None
Low to
Moderate
Low to
Moderate

Moderate Moderate

Observation Methods
In observation methods, the observer does not question or communicate with the people
being observed. Information may be recorded as the events occur or from records of past
events. Observational methods may be structured or unstructured, direct or indirect.

Structured Versus Unstructured Observation: In structured observation, the

researcher specifies in detail what is to be observed and how the measurements are to
be recorded. Structured observation is suitable for use on conclusive research. In
unstructured observation, the observer monitors all aspects of the phenomenon that
seem relevant to the problem at hand without specifying the details in advance.

Disguised versus Undisguised Observation: In disguised observation, the

respondents are unaware that they are being observed. Disguise enables respondents
to behave naturally, since people tend to behave differently when they know they are
being observed. In undisguised observation, the respondents are aware that they are
under observation.

Natural versus Contrived Observation: Natural observation involves observing

behavior as it takes place in the environment. Example, one could observe the
behavior of respondents eating fast food at Burger King. In contrived observation,
respondents behavior is observed in an artificial environment, such as a test kitchen
set up in a shopping mall.

Observation Methods Classified by Mode or Administration

Observation
Methods

Personal
Observation

Mechanical
Observation

Audit

Content
Analysis

Trace
Analysis

Personal Observation: In personal observation, a researcher observes actual

behavior as it occurs. The observer does not attempt to control or manipulate the
phenomenon being observed. He merely records what takes place.

Mechanical Observation: In mechanical observation, mechanical devices, rather

than human observers, record the phenomenon being observed. They are used for
continuously recording ongoing behavior for later analysis. The mechanical
observation devices may be classified :
1. Psycho-galvanometer: An instrument that measures a respondents galvanic
skin response.
2. Voice pitch analysis: Measurement of emotional reactions through changes in
the respondents voice.
3. Response latency: The amount of time it takes to respond.
4. Eye-tracking monitors: Eye tracking monitors records the gaze movements of
the eye.
5. Pupil meters: The pupil meter measures changes in the diameter of the pupils
of the respondents eyes.

Audit: In an audit, the researcher collects data by examining physical records or

performing inventory analysis. Pantry audit, the researcher takes an inventory of
brands, quantities, and package sizes in a consumers hone, perhaps in the course of a
personal interview.

Content Analysis: Content analysis is an appropriate method then the phenomenon to

be observed is communication, rather than behavior or physical objects. It is defined
as the objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of a
communication.

Trace Analysis: In trace analysis, data collection is based on physical traces, or

evidence, of past behavior. This trace may be left intentionally or unintentionally by
the respondents.

Chapter 7 Causal Research Design: Experimentation

The concept of causality requires some explanation. The scientific meaning of causality is
more appropriate to marketing research than is the everyday meaning. A statement such as
X causes Y will have different meanings to an ordinary person and to a scientist, as seen in
the following table.
Ordinary Meaning

Scientific Meaning

X is the only cause of Y.

X is only one of a number of possible

causes of Y.
X must always lead to Y.

The occurrence of X makes the occurrence

(X is a deterministic cause of Y)

of Y more probable. (X is a probabilistic

cause of Y).

It is possible to prove that X is a cause of We can never prove that X is a cause of Y.

Y.

At best, we can infer that X is a cause of Y.

Conditions for Causality

Before making causal inferences, or assuming causality, three conditions must be satisfied.
These are:
1. Concomitant Variation: Concomitant variation is the extent to which a cause, X, and
an effect, Y, occur together or very together in the way predicted by the hypothesis
under consideration. Evidence pertaining to concomitant variation can be obtained in
a qualitative or quantitative manner.
2. The Order of Occurrence of Variables: The time order of occurrence condition
states that the causing event must occur either before or simultaneously with the
effect: it cannot occur afterwards. But a variable can be both a cause and an effect in
the same causal relationship.
3. Absence of Other Possible Causal Factors: The absence of other possible causal
factors means that the facto or variable being investigated should be the only possible
causal explanation. In-store service may be a cause of sales if we can be sure that
changes in all other factors affecting sales, such as pricing, advertising, level of
distribution, product quality, competition, and so on were held constant or otherwise
controlled.

Definitions and Concepts

1. Independent Variables. Variables that are manipulated by the researcher and whose
effects are measured and compared. These variables, also known as treatments, may
include price levels, package designs, and advertising themes.

2. Test Units. Test units are individuals, organizations, or other entities whose response
to the independent variables or treatments is being examined. Test units may include
consumers, stores, or geographic areas.

3. Dependent Variables. Dependent variables are the variables that measure the effect
of the independent variables on the test units. These variables may include sales,
profits and market shares.

4. Extraneous Variables. Extraneous variables are all variables other than the
independent variables that affect the response of the test units. Extraneous variables
include store size, store location, and competitive effort.

5. Experiment. An experiment is formed when the researcher manipulates one or more

independent variables and measures their effect on one or more dependent variables,
while controlling for the effect of extraneous variables.

6. Experimental Design. An experimental design is a set of procedures specifying

The test units and how these units are to be divided into homogeneous sub
samples

What independent variables or treatments are to be manipulated

What dependent variables are to be measured, and

How the extraneous variables are to be controlled.

Definition of Symbol:
To facilitate our discussion of extraneous variables and specific experimental designs, we
define a set of symbols that are now commonly used in marketing research.

X = the exposure of a group to an independent variable, treatment, or event, the effects of

which are to be determined

O = the process of observation or measurement of the dependent variable on the test units or
group of units

R= the random assignment of test units or groups to separate treatments

In addition, the following conventions are adopted:

Movement from left to right indicates movement through time.

Horizontal alignment of symbols implies that all those symbols refer to a specific
treatment group.

Vertical alignment of symbols implies that those symbols refer to activities or events
that occur simultaneously. For example, the symbolic arrangement

O1

O2

Means that a given group of test units was exposed to the treatment variable (X) and the
response was measured at two different points in time, O1 and O2.

Likewise, the symbolic arrangement

R

X1

O1

X2

O2

Means that two groups of test units were randomly assigned to two different treatment groups
at the same time, and the dependent variable was measured in the two groups simultaneously.

Validity in Experimentation
When conducting an experiment, a researcher has two goals:
1. Draw valid conclusions about the effects of independent variables on the study group.
2. Make valid generalizations to a larger population of interest. The first goal concern
internal validity, the second, external validity.

Extraneous Variables
1. History (H). Specific events that are external to the experiment but occur at the same
time as the experiment. Example, general economic conditions declined during the
experiment, and the local area was particularly hard hit by layoffs and plant closings
(history).

2. Maturation (MA). An extraneous variable attributable to changes in the test units

themselves that occur with the passage of time. Example, consider the case in which
the test units are department stores. Stores change over time in terms of physical
layout, dcor, traffic, and composition.

3. Main Testing Effects (MT). An effect of testing occurring when a prior observation
affects a latter observation. Consider an experiment to measure the effect of
advertising on attitudes toward a certain brand. The respondents are given a

pretreatment questionnaire measuring background information and attitude toward the

brand. They are then exposed to the test commercial embedded in an appropriate
program. The effect might be that the respondents tried to maintain consistency
between their pre- and post-treatment attitudes.

4. Interactive testing effect (IT). An effect in which a prior measurement affects the
test units response to the independent variable. Continuing with our advertising
experiment, when people are asked to indicate their attitudes toward a brand, they
become aware of that brand: they are sensitized to that brand and become more likely
to pay attention to the test commercial than people who were not included in the
experiment.

5. Instrumentation (I). Sometimes, measuring instruments are modified during the

course of an experiment. In the advertising experiment, if a newly designed
questionnaire was used to measure the post-treatment attitudes, this could lead to
variations in the responses obtained.

6. Statistical Regression (SR). Statistical regression effects occur when test units with
extreme scores move closer to the average score during the course of the experiment.
In the advertising experiment, suppose that some respondents had either very
favorable or very unfavorable attitudes. On post-treatment measurement, their
attitudes might have moved toward the average.

7. Selection bias (SB). Selection bias refers to the improper assignment of test units to
treatment conditions. This bias occurs when selection or assignment of test units
results in treatment groups that differ on the dependent variable before the exposure to
the treatment condition.

8. Mortality (MO). Mortality refers to the loss of test units while the experiment is in
progress. This happens for many reasons, such as test units refusing to continue in the
experiment.

The various categories of extraneous variables are not mutually exclusive. They can occur
jointly and also interact with each other.

Pre-experimental Designs
These designs are characterized by an absence of randomization. Three specific designs are
described:

The one-shot case study,

The one-group pretest-posttest design, and

The static group.

The one- shot case study:

This experiment is also known as the after-only design; the one-shot case study may be
symbolically represented as
X

O1

A single group of test units is exposed to a treatment X, and then a single measurement on the
dependent variable is taken (01). There is no random assignment of test units. The symbol R
is not used here, because the test units are self-selected or selected arbitrarily by the
researcher.
One Group Pretest- Posttest Design
The one- group pretest-posttest design may be symbolized as
O1

O2

In this design, a group of test units is measured twice. There is no control group. First, a pretreatment measure is taken (O1), and then the group is exposed to the treatment (X). Finally, a
post-treatment measure is taken (O2 ).The treatment effect is computed as O2 O1, but the
validity of this conclusion is questionable because extraneous variables are largely
uncontrolled. History, maturation, testing (both main and interactive testing effects),
instrumentation, selection, mortality, and regression could possibly be resent.
Static Group design:

The static group is a two-group experimental design. One group, called the experimental
group (EG), is exposed to the treatment, and the other, called the control group (CG), is not.
Measurements on both groups are made only after the treatment, and test units are not
assigned at random. This design may be symbolically described as
EG:

O1

CG:

O2

The treatment effect would be measured as O1 O2.

True Experimental Designs:

Pretest- Posttest control Group Design:
In the pretest posttest control group design, test units are randomly assigned to either the
experimental or the control group, and a pretreatment measure is taken on each group. Only
the experimental group is exposed to the treatment, but posttest measures are taken on both
groups. This design is symbolized as

EG:

O1

CG:

O3

O2
O4

The treatment effect (TE) is measured as (O2 O1) (O4 O3)

This design controls for most extraneous variables. Selection bias is eliminated by
randomization. The other extraneous effects are controlled as follows
O2 O1 = TE + H + MA + MT + IT + I + SR + MO
O4 O3 = H + MA + MT + I + SR + MO (Extraneous Variables)
The experimental result is obtained by (O2 O1) (O4 O3) = TE + IT

Interactive testing effect is not controlled, because of the effect of the pretest measurement on
the reaction of units in the experimental group to the treatment.

Posttest-only Control Group Design:

The posttest-only control group design does not involve any pre-measurement. It may be
symbolized as
EG:

CG:

O1
O2

The treatment effect is obtained by TE = O1 O2.

This design is fairly simple to implement. Because there is no pre-measurement, the testing
effects are eliminated, but this design is sensitive to selection bias and mortality.

Chapter 8
Measurement and Scaling: Fundamentals and Comparative Scaling
Measurement: Measurement means assigning numbers or other symbols to characteristics of
objects according to certain prespecified rules.

Scaling: Scaling involves creating a continuum upon which measured objects are located. It
is the process of placing the respondents on a continuum with respect to their attitude toward
an object. To illustrate, consider a scale from 1 to 100 for locating consumers according to
the characteristic attitude toward department stores.

Primary Scales of Measurement

There are four primary scales of measurement:

Nominal Scale: A nominal scale is a figurative labeling scheme in which the numbers serve
only as labels or tags for identifying and classifying objects. For example, the numbers
assigned to the respondents in a study constitute a nominal scale.

Ordinal Scale: An ordinal scale is a ranking scale in which numbers are assigned to objects
to indicate the relative extent to which the objects possess some characteristic. For example,
quality rankings, rankings of teams in a tournament.

Interval Scale: In an interval scale, numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal
values in the characteristic being measured. There is a constant or equal interval between
scale values. The difference between 1 and 2 is the same as the difference between 2 and 3,
which is the same as the difference between 5 and 6.

Ratio Scale: In ratio scales we can identify or classify objects, rank the objects, and compare
intervals or differences. It is also meaningful to compute ratios of scale values.

Illustration of Primary Scales of Measurement

Nominal Scale

Ordinal Scale

Interval Scale

Ratio Scale

No.

Preference

Preference

$ spent last 3

Ranking

Rating

Months

Store

1----7
1

Parisian

79

Macys

25

200

Kmart

82

Kohls

30

100

JC Penney

10

250

Neiman-Marcus

53

35

Marshalls

95

Saks Fifth Avenue

61

100

Sears

45

10

Wal-Mart

10

115

10

Comparison of Scaling Techniques

The scaling techniques commonly employed in marketing research can be classified into
comparative and no comparative scales. (See the following figure)

Scaling Techniques

Comparative
Scales

Paired
comparison

Rank Order

No comparative
Scales

Constant Sum

Q-short and
other Procedures

Continuous Rating
Scales

Likert Scales

Semantic
Differential

Itemized Rating
Scales

Stapel

Comparative Scaling Techniques

Comparative scales involve the direct comparison of stimulus objects. For example,
respondents might be asked whether they prefer Coke or Pepsi.

Paired comparison Scaling: As its name implies, in paired comparison scaling, a respondent
is presented with two objects and asked to select one according to some criterion. The data
obtained are ordinal in nature.

Rank Order Scaling: In rank order scaling, respondents are presented with several objects
simultaneously and asked to order or rank them according to some criterion. For example,
respondents may be asked to rank brands of toothpaste according to overall preference.
Constant Sum Scaling: In constant sum scaling, respondents allocate a constant sum of
units, such as points, dollars among a set of stimulus objects with respect to some criterion.
Q- Sort Scaling: Q sort scaling was developed to discriminate quickly among a relatively
large number of objects. This technique uses a rank order procedure in which objects are
sorted into piles based on similarity with respect to some crite

Chapter-9
Non-comparative Scaling Techniques
1.

7- point verbal balanced scale.

For each of the following brands, check the degree it is acceptable to you.

Extremely acceptable

Quite acceptable

Slightly acceptable

Neither one nor the other

Slightly unacceptable

Extremely unacceptable
1. 11- point numbered and verbal scale.

What is the chance of your buying (-------------) the next time you purchase this product?

100 absolutely

90

80 strong possibility

70

60

50

40

30

20 slight possibility

10

0 absolutely no chance.
2. 7 point verbal unbalanced Scale

What is your opinion of ( X, brand)?

Excellent

Very good

Good

Fair

Not so good

Poor

Dont know

3. Score by brand. But constant sum.

The number of brands to be considered are presented two at a time so that each brand is
presented once with each other. In the two brands on the basis of how they like one compared
to the other. A score is then totaled for each brand.

4. 3- point, small number of favorable ratings.

If you were to purchase this product tomorrow, which brand would be your first choice?
Which would be our second choice?
-----First choice
-----Second choice
-----No mention

5. 10- point numerical scale.

Check your opinion of (brand) on the following scale.

Poor 1

6. 11 point numerical and verbal scale

Mark on the following scale how you like (Brand).
-------------100
------------- 90 excellent
------------- 80 like very much
------------- 70 like quite well
------------- 60 like well
------------- 50 indifferent
------------- 40 not like very well
------------- 30 not so good
------------- 20 not like at all
------------- 10 Terrible
------------- 0

10 Exct.

7. 5 point verbal.
What is the chance of your buying (brand) the nest time you purchase this product?

Definitely

Very likely

Will buy

will buy

probably will
buy

Might or

definitely will

might not

not buy

Not buy

8. 5- point verbal
Check your agreement with the following statement: (brand) is considered one of the best.
Agree

Agree

Completely somewhat

Dont

Disagree

Disagree

know

somewhat

completely

9. 11 value positions. But constant sum

Respondent is given 10 pennies and a num be of brands and asked to allocate the pennies
over the brands on the basis of how she likes them.

10. 7- point verbal balanced.

--------How do you rate the quality of (brand)?

------- Extremely high quality
--------Quite high quality
--------Slightly high quality
--------Neither one nor the other
--------Slightly low quality
--------Quite low Quality Extremely low quality

11. 11- point numerical scale.

What is your opinion of (brand)?

Poor

Excellent
-5

-4

-3 -2

-1

+1

+2

+3

+4

+5

Chapter 10, Questionnaire and Form Design

Questionnaire Definition
A questionnaire, whether it is called a schedule, interview form, or measuring instrument, is a
formalized set of questions for obtaining information from respondents.

Objectives of a Questionnaire
Any questionnaire has three specific objectives.

First, it must translate the information needed into a set of specific questions that the
respondents can and will answer.

Second, a questionnaire must uplift, motivate, and encourage the respondent to

become involved in the interview, to cooperate, and to complete the interview.

A questionnaire should minimize response error.

Questionnaire Design Process

The great weakness of questionnaire design is lack of theory. Because there are no scientific
principles that guarantee an optimal or ideal questionnaire, questionnaire design is a skill
acquired through experience. It is an art rather than a science. Questionnaire design will be
presented as a series of steps. These steps are:

Specify the Information Needed:

1. Ensure that the information obtained fully addresses all the components of the
problem. Review components of the problem and the approach, particularly
the research questions, hypotheses, and the information needed.
2. Prepare a set of dummy tables.
3. Have a clear idea of the target population.

Type of Interviewing Method: The type of interviewing method influences the

questionnaire. In personal interviews, respondents see the questionnaire and interact

face to face with the interviewer. Thus, lengthy, complex, and varied questions can be
asked. In telephone interviews, the respondents interact with the interviewer, but
they do not see the questionnaire. This limits the type of questions that can be asked
to short and simple ones. Mail questionnaires are self administered, so the questions
must be simple and detailed instructions must be provided.

Individual Question Content: What to include in individual questions.

1. Is the question necessary?
2. Are several questions needed instead of one to obtain the required information
in an unambiguous manner?
3. Do not use double barrel questions.

Overcoming Inability to Answer: Researcher should not assume that respondents

can provide accurate or reasonable answers to all questions. The researcher should
attempt to overcome the respondents inability to answer. Certain factors limit the
respondents ability to provide the desired information.
1. Is the respondent informed?
2. Can the Respondent Remember?
3. Can the respondent articulate?

Overcoming Unwillingness to Answer: Even if respondents are able to answer a

particular question, they may be unwilling to do so, either because too much
1. Effort is required of the respondents
2. The situation or context may not seem appropriate for disclosure
3. No legitimate purpose or need for the information requested is apparent.
4. The information requested is sensitive.
Increasing the Willingness of Respondent
1. Place sensitive topics at the end of the questionnaire.
2. Preface the question with a statement that the behavior of interest is
common.
3. Ask the question using the third-person technique.
4. Hide the question in a group of other questions that respondents are
willing to answer.
5. Provide response categories rather than asking for specific figures.
6. Use randomized techniques, if appropriate.

Choosing Question Structure: Questionnaire may be unstructured or structured.

Unstructured questions are open-ended questions that respondents answer in their

own words. Structured questions specify the set of response alternatives and the
response format. A structured question may be multiple choices, dichotomous, or a
scale.

Choosing Question Wording: Question wording is the translation of the desired

question content and structure into words that respondents can clearly and easily
understand. Unless the respondents and the researcher assign exactly the same
meaning to the question, the results will be seriously biased. To avoid these problems,
we offer the following guidelines:
1. Define the issue: One can begin to define the issue in terms of whom, when,
where, why, and way. Example, which brand of shampoo do you use?
(Incorrect), which brand or brands of shampoo have you personally used
at home during the last month? (Correct).
2. Use ordinary words: Ordinary words should be used in a questionnaire and
they should match the vocabulary level of the respondents.

Example, Do you think the distribution of soft drinks is adequate? (Incorrect), Do you think
soft drinks are readily available when you want to buy them? (Correct)
3. Avoid ambiguous words: The words used in a questionnaire should have a
single meaning that is known to the respondents. Example, In a typical month,
how often do you shop in department stores? ( Incorrect)

Never

Occasionally

Sometimes

Often

Regularly

In a typical month, how often do you shop in department stores? (Correct)

Less than once

1or 2 times

3 or 4 times

More than 4 times

4. Avoid leading questions: A leading question is one that clues the respondent to
what answer is desired or leads the respondent to answer in a certain way, as
in the following:
Do you think that patriotic Americans should buy imported automobiles when that would put
American labor out of work? (Incorrect)

Yes

No

Dont Know

Do you think that Americans should buy imported automobiles? (Correct)

Yes

No

Dont Know

5. Avoid implicit alternatives

6. Avoid implicit assumptions
7. Avoid generalizations and estimates, and
8. Use positive and negative statements.

Chapter-13
Field Work Procedure
Research directors have two major alternatives for getting their fieldwork done-

1. They can develop their own organizations;

2. They can contract with a fieldwork agency to do the job.
Fieldwork Involves;

Selecting field workers

Training Field Workers

Supervising Field Workers

Validating Field Work

Evaluating Field Workers

The data collection Process (Interview)

1. Telephone Interview
2. Personal Interview
Develop job specification for the specific project.
Decide what characteristics the field workers should have
Select field workers from the sample areas.
Send training materials and work schedule through mail.
Completed forms are returned to the home office by local
interviewers.
A verification check is made.
Ensure interviewer did not cheat.

Common Sources of Error in Field Works

Five common sources of error in field work are
Identified in the following discussion
1. Errors in selecting respondents

Telephone Surveys

Mail Intercept Interviews.

Door-to-Door Surveys.

2. No response errors (Failure to get data from selected respondents)

Not at homes

Refusals

3. Errors created by the method of seeking data.

Motivating the respondents

Setting the question (answer, exact word, sequence, instruction).

Respondents perception of the interviewer.

4. Errors resulting from interviewers misinterpreting or misreporting answers;

Differences in the characteristics of interviewers, (experience, attitudes, opinion etc)

Clerical errors.

Dont know

Amount of space left for an answer

5.Interviewer cheating.

Filled the questionnaire without madding interviews

Difficulty of door-to-door supervision.

Dwelling units interview.

Influenced respondents.
Minimizing Fieldwork Errors
There are general administrative and control procedures, also, which can improve the overall
quality of fieldwork while holding costs at acceptable levels. Most research organizations pay
particular attention to five factors;
1. Selection and training of field-workers- interviewers or observers.
2. Administrative procedures for handling projects in the field.
3. Supervision of field-workers and the data collection process.
4. Quality and cost control procedures

Control

Detection of cheating

Central office control

5. Validation of fieldwork,

Sample test of collected data by supervisor (10%-15% of selected sample)

Ensure the providing data are correct.

Supervisors ask the sample respondent about the behavior of interviewers.

Evaluation of fieldworkers or interviewers

Check for cheating

Cost

Refusals or response rate.

Following instruction or quality of interviewers

Quality of data.

Chapter-14 Data Preparation

Before the raw data contained in the questionnaires can be subjected to statistical analysis,
they must be converted into a form suitable for analysis. The quality of statistical results
depends on the care exercised in the data-preparation phase. Paying inadequate attention to
data preparation can seriously compromise statistical results, leading to biased findings and
incorrect interpretation.

The Data Preparation Process

Preparing Preliminary
plan of Data Analysis

Questionnaire Checking

Editing

Coding

Transcribing

Data Cleaning

Questionnaire Checking
Questionnaire checking involves a check of all questionnaires for completeness and
interviewing quality. Often these checks are made while fieldwork is still underway. If the
fieldwork was contracted to a data-collection agency, the researcher should make an
independent check after it is over. A questionnaire returned from the field may be
unacceptable for several reasons.
1. Parts of the questionnaire may be incomplete.
2. The pattern of responses may indicate that the respondent did not understand or
follow the instructions.
3. The responses show little variance. For example, a respondent has checked only 4s on
a series of 7-point rating scales.
4. The returned questionnaire is physically incomplete: one or more pages are missing.
5. The questionnaire is received after the pre-established cutoff date.
6. The questionnaire is answered by someone who does not qualify for participation.

Editing
Editing is the review of the questionnaires with the objective of increasing accuracy and
precision. It consists of screening questionnaires to identify illegible, incomplete,
inconsistent, or ambiguous responses.

Treatment of Unsatisfactory Responses

Returning to the Field: The questionnaires with unsatisfactory responses may be

retuned to the field, where the interviewers re contact the respondents.

Assigning Missing Values: If returning the questionnaires to the field is not feasible,
the editor may assign missing values to unsatisfactory responses. This approach may
be desirable if the number of respondents with unsatisfactory responses is small.

Discarding Unsatisfactory Respondents: In this approach, the respondents with

unsatisfactory responses are simply discarded. This approach may have merit when
the proportion of unsatisfactory respondents is small

Coding
Coding means assigning a code, usually a number, to each possible response to each
question. The code includes an indication of the column position (field) and data record it
will occupy. For example, sex of respondents may be coded as 1 for females and 2 for males.
A field represents a single item of data, such as sex of the respondent. A record consists of
related fields, such as sex, marital status, age, household size, occupation and so forth.
Codebook:
A codebook contains coding instructions and the necessary information about variables in the
data set. A codebook guides the coders in their work and helps the researcher to properly
identify and locate the variables. Even if the questionnaire has been pre coded, it is helpful to
prepare a formal codebook. a codebook generally contains the following information: (1)
column number, (2) record number, (3) variable number, (4) variable name, (5) Question
number and instructions for coding.

Transcribing
Transcribing data involves transferring the coded data from the questionnaires or coding
sheets onto disks or magnetic tapes or directly into computers by keypunching. If the data
have been collected via CATI or CAPI, this step is unnecessary because the data are entered
directly into the computer as they are collected. If keypunching is used, errors can occur, and
it is necessary to verify the data set, or at least a portion of it, for key punching errors.
Verification of the entire data set will double the time and cost of data transcription. Given
the time and cost constraints, as well as the fact that experienced keypunch operators are
quite accurate, it is sufficient to verify only 25 to 50 percent of the data.

Data Cleaning
Data cleaning includes consistency checks and treatment of missing responses. Although
preliminary consistency checks have been made during editing, the checks at this stage are
more thorough and extensive, because they are made by computer.
Advertising Research

What are the advertising objectives and product appeals?

Discuss the copy testing measures and methods.
Advertising objectives should be stated in terms of sales or profits. It interacts with other
controlled and uncontrolled variables that also impact sales and profits. The advertising

objective must somehow relate to consumers; behavior since this is what must be influenced
to obtain a sale.

In recent years the use of attitude maintenance or shift as a measure of advertising

effectiveness has grown in importance. This has resulted from recent work dealing with
product positioning, in which product benefits serve as the basis for market segmentation. To
achieve any attitudinal change objective, the communication must satisfy several
requirements. Including attracting attention, being understood, and being convincing.
Awareness is often used as a summary measure of advertisings success in attracting attention
and being remembered and, thus, can be used as an objective.
There are many highly specific communication objectives that can involve advertising. These
are listed under eight headings as follows:

1. closing an immediate sale (buy now because of price)

2. creating near-term sales by moving the prospect closer to purchase (combating
competitive claims);
3. building a long-range consumer franchise ( establish brand recognition and
acceptance)
4. contribute towards increased sales ( convert non-users of the product type
5. emphasizing a specific step which leads to a sale (induce prospects to sample the
product)
6. imparting information needed to close a sale (where to buy it )
7. building confidence in the company (past and present profitability) and
8. building images (product quality and corporate citizenship).

Advertising objectives can also be classified as per their objective in terms of informing,
persuading, or reminding. Examples of information type objectives include making
prospective consumers aware of a new product, announcing a new piece, and explaining how
a product words. Persuading objectives include attempting to build brand preference and
loyalty and changing a consumers attitudes about a particular brands characteristics.
Objectives having to do with reminding include communications telling consumers where
and when to buy the products.

Discuss the copy testing measures and methods.

Copy testing research seeds to evaluate alternative ways for advertisers to present their
messages. The use of the word copy is perhaps unfortunate, since it seems only to refer to
print media and, more specifically, to the headline and text of the advertising message. For
our discussion, copy will refer to an entire advertisement, including the verbal message,
pictures, colors, and dramatizations, whether the advertisement appears in print, on radio or
television, or via some other medium.
There are many different copy-testing methods. Which one to use depends upon what
assumptions are made about how advertising words and its objectives?

If the objective is to persuade, then a measure of purchase intent will be used.

If attitude shift is what is wanted, then scales will be used to measure change.

If exposure to a message over time is considered essential, then in market

controlled experiments will be used.

Copy testing is divided into two major parts, those tests made before the copy is released on a
full-run basis (before or pretests) and those tests done after the copy is run (after or posttests).
Pretests are designed to determine what weaknesses exist in the copy before too much money
has been spent on the advertising.
After or post testing attempts to measure the combined effect of the advertising, the media
used, the scheduling, the products distribution, and competitive advertising.

Before Tests

Consumer Jury: This testing method is one of the oldest and simplest before tests. It
provides a rating given an advertisement by a group of consumers who represent
potential buyers of the product. Personal interviews may be used, or a group may be
assembled and the members asked to vote on the alternatives. The copy may be
dummy form or the major theme placed on cards. Respondents are then asked to rank
the alternatives according to their preferences or interest in buying the product. It is
assumed that respondents will always like at least one advertisement; in reality, the
rating may be on the basis of which advertisement is disliked the least.

Rating Scales: These can be used by consumers or by advertising agency personnel

to rate alternative ads. Their use requires the establishment of standards for
effective copy and numerical weights for each standard. The weights indicate a
standards relative worth in the overall success of the copy. Ads are then rated in
accordance with the scale values and a numerical score obtained.

Portfolio Tests. These tests are named after the manner n which the advertisements to
be tested are packaged. A group of ads, usually a mixture of test ads and control
ads, is placed in a portfolio. Sometimes the ads are actually placed in dummy copies o
newspapers or magazines, Respondents who are thought to be representative of the
target audience are given the folio and asked to go through it, reading whatever
interests them and taking as much ti8me as they want. After completing this task, the
respondents are asked to recall (with the folio closed) the ads that they can remember.
Such recall may be on a completely unaided basis, or the interviewer may aid recalled
ad, the respondent is asked to play back as much of the ad as possible. This
information is recorded verbatim. Additional questions may be asked about such
things as the believability of the claims in the ad, the general reaction the ad, and
whether the respondent uses the product.

Psychological Tests. These tests are somewhat related to the tests already discussed,
but they differ in the methods used. Advertisement effectiveness depends on the
results achieved in the mind of the individual reached by the advertisement. Ideally,
one could set up a list of the reactions that might result from a given advertisement,
such as self-pity security, fear, or nostalgia. Alternative advertisements could then be
rated on how readers responded with respect to those reactions. Psychological tests
employ variety of research techniques, including word association, sentence
completion, depth interviewing, and story telling.

Physiological Tests. Measures derived from physiological tests are obtained using
special laboratory equipment which records and individuals physiological responses
to advertisements. Such tests have prevailed over the years because of their potential
for providing objective responses to identifiable stimuli. Two of the older ones are the
galvanic skin response and the eye movement test. Respondents are linked by
electrodes to a monitor and are exposed to a number of stimuli in the form of test and
control ads. The eye camera is a device that records continuously the activity of the
eye-both horizontal and vertical as it reads printed material. By analyzing the route
taken researchers can determine what part of the advertisement attracted the initial
attention, what was interesting in it, and whether there was part, which appeared
confusing.

Inquiries. Some advertisements are designed to produce direct results, such as sales
or inquiries. In such cases, a basis exists for measuring accurately the advertisements
worth.
Inquiry tests may be handled in several ways.

1. The same offer may be placed in different pieces of copy placed in different
issues of the same medium.
2. The same offer is placed in different advertising copy that appears in different
magazines or newspapers. The assumption is that differences between media
are either negligible or can be corrected for (say, on the basis of circulation),
and that the adjusted returns will indicate the best copy.
3. The same offer placed a medium that provides a split-run service. This is a
procedure whereby half the copies of the magazine or newspaper contain one
piece of copy and half contain another piece of copy. This is accomplished in
a systematic way so that the two pieces of copy reach similar audiences.

Sales Tests. Such tests can be conducted using a variety of experimental designs.
They are sometimes done as part of a variety of experimental designs. They are
sometimes done as part of a test-marketing program, in which case the number of
cities is typically small. Despite their appeal, such tests have important limitations:
they measure only short-term effects the measuring instruments may not be
sufficiently sensitive to detect relatively small differences in sales; they are timeconsuming; it is hard to hold all other factors constant; and they are quite
expensive.

Day-After Recall Tests. Such tests are typically applied to television commercials.
They consist of an on air exposure of a finished commercial in one or more cities,
following which several hundred viewers are interviewed by phone to determine if
they can recall the message.

After Tests
Once an advertisement or campaign has run, it is impossible to measure the effects of the
message separately, since the results are confounded by the frequency of the media schedule,
the impact of the medium used, and other market factors. To a considerable extent, an after
test is one concerned with total advertising effectiveness.
After tests may be designed in a number of ways.
Recall versus Recognition Tests: Recognition tests are used primarily with print ads. The
critical thing that defines a recognition test is that the person is given a copy of the
information he or she needs to find in memory. In the typical advertising publication issue to
which the respondent has been exposed. The subject is then queried as to whether or not she
or he has even seen the particular ad in that issue.

Research Presentation and Research Evaluation

There is no one best format for all reports. However, the physical format can be employed to
create desirable emphasis and clarity. The use of widely spaced paragraphs, varied margins,
separated headings, different type sizes, and colors- all make it possible to emphasize major
points and to clarify the sequence and relationship of ideas. A report must use the format that
best fits the needs and ants of its readers. The following format is suggested as a basic outline
that has sufficient flexibility to meet most situations. It should not be thought of as a rigid
outline that must always be followed.

1. Title Page, The title page should indicate the subject, the date the report is prepared,
for whom prepared, and by whom prepared, sometimes it is not necessary to specify
for whom the report is prepared, while at other times it is wise to indicate this
precisely and to show who actually receives copies. Some research reports are
confidential and for limited distribution; in such cases, it is particularly desirable to
indicate on the title page who will receive a copy.
2. Table of Contents, If the report is lengthy, or if it is divided into numerous parts, it is
usually desirable to have a table of contents, If the report includes numerous charts,
graphs, and tables, it is desirable to include a list of them immediately following the
table of contents.

3. Foreword, (Preface/Introduction), This section serves to introduce the reader to the

research project. It should give the background of the problem; the importance of the
problem; the various dimensions of the problem; and whether any previous research
was done that is pertinent to the specific project being reported.

4. Statement of Objectives, The specific objectives of the report need to be set forth
clearly. The reader must know exactly what the report covers. If the particular project
is part of a large problem, it is desirable to state the overall problem and the problem
solution process.

5. Methodology, The purpose of the methodology section is to describe the research

procedure, this includes the overall research design the sampling procedures, the data
collection method, the field methods, and analysis procedures. This section is difficult

to write because it is hard to discuss methodology without using technical terms, yet
much of the audience for the report will not understand technical language.

Research design

Data-Collection Methods

Sampling

Fieldwork

Analysis.

6. Limitations. In describing the limitations of the study, researchers should point out
the degree to which they could affect the results. If limitations are overemphasized
and not put in their proper perspective, they may tend to destroy confidence in the
valuable parts of the study instead of increasing confidence.

7. Findings, Findings are the results of the study. This section makes up the bulk of the
report. It is not just an assortment of statistical tables and charts but an organized
narrative of the results. Summary tables and graphic methods of presentation should
be used liberally. Highly detailed tables should be relegated to the appendix. The
specific objectives of the study should be kept in mind and findings presented with
them in view. Too often, writers feel they must present all findings regardless of their
bearing on the objectives of the study. The list of information needed to achieve the
objectives, which was prepared in the problem formulation step should limit the scope
of the findings presented.

8. Conclusions and Recommendations, Conclusions should be drawn with direct

reference to the objectives of the study. The readers should be able to read the
objectives, turn to the conclusions section, and find specific conclusions relative to
each objective, If as sometimes happens, the study does not obtain satisfactory data
from which to draw a conclusion relative to an objective, this should be
acknowledged rather than disguised.