CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTUAL DESIGN

2016

2016

BRITISH COLLEGE
OF APPLIED
STUDIES
DINESH

[CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS &

STRUCTUAL DESIGN]

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTUAL DESIGN 2016

Acknowledgement
Professional career of a quantity surveyor is depended on the cost controlling of the project.
Main professional characteristic of the quantity surveyor is dealing with the cost of the project
correctly whether it is a contractors point of view or clients point of view. Bill of Quantities is the
major source for handle the project cost. Preparing BOQ is mainly based on the taking of
quantities from drawings. The way of taking off for construction projects are coming under
measurement subject.
Therefore, being a professional quantity surveyor, knowledge in CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
& STRUCTUAL DESIGN is very important. Here the method of taking off quantities for
mathematical works is going to be considered.
I am indeed grateful to Mr. Jeyanthan assessor of CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS &
STRUCTUAL DESIGN in the department of quantity surveying at British college of applied
studies who taught this valuable subject in our first semester.
I must remember my family members with grateful affection & deep gratitude for their
support & monumental patience during the period preparing the report.
Finally I thanks to all my friends and others, but assisted me to complete my report directly.

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTUAL DESIGN 2016

TABLE OF CONTENT
Contents
LO 1Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of construction materials and their
applications. ................................................................................................................................................ 1
1.1
Assess the construction materials regarding their properties, uses and specifications or
types ...................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Compare the alternative materials available for construction and evaluate their applications. ..... 12
LO 2Demonstrate the knowledge in quality testing method, way of improving properties, and protective
/preventive methods of distortion and storage requirements of construction materials. ........................ 14
2.2 Evaluate the methods of improving the properties of construction materials. ............................... 21
2.3 Justify how the protective / preventive methods of distortion effectively useful for construction
materials and explain in the detail the storage requirements of different construction materials....... 22
LO 3 Demonstrate knowledge in understanding the principles of reinforced concrete design................. 27
3.1 Analyze the limit state principles and identify the load acting on a structure and find the design
load. Demonstrate the sign conventions and range of method using to calculate shear force and
bending moment. ................................................................................................................................... 27
3.2 Evaluate the section requirements of designing simple load bearing elements with reference to
BS8110-1997 code of practice. Asses the section of reinforced concrete beam regarding the limit of
allowable deflection and calculate the proper steel diameter and spacing of shear link of the column
................................................................................................................................................................ 30
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 35
Reference ............................................................................................................................................ 36

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CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTUAL DESIGN 2016

FIGURES OF CONTENT
Figure 1 Tokyo Super -Ordinary Portland cement ........................................................................................ 2
Figure 2 Tokyo Super - Portland Pozzolana Cement ..................................................................................... 2
Figure 3 Nippon Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) ....................................................................................... 3
Figure 4 concrete mixer .................................................................................................. 5
Figure 5specially shaped brick ................................................................................................................. 7
Figure 6 ........................................................................................................................................................ 8
Figure 7 ....................................................................................................................................................... 10
Figure 8 steel rod put in concrete ............................................................................................................... 14
Figure 9 removed mould ............................................................................................................................. 14
Figure 10 specimen base plate of machine ................................................................................................ 15
Figure 11 slump test.................................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 12 slump test procedure .................................................................................................................. 17
Figure 13 ..................................................................................................................................................... 17
Figure 14............ ................... 18
Figure 15 aggregate impact value ............................................................................................................... 19
Table 5 Figure 16 AIV value strength .......................................................................................................... 20
Figure 17 cement storage method ............................................................................................................. 23
Figure 18 brick storage................................................................................................................................ 24
Figure 19 timber storage............................................................................................................................. 25
Figure 20 positive notation ......................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 21 shear force .................................................................................................................................. 29

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CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTUAL DESIGN 2016

TABLE OF CONTENT
Table 1 concrete ratio ................................................................................................................................... 5
Table 2 asphalt details .................................................................................................................................. 9
Table 3 brick vs block advantage & disadvantage ...................................................................................... 12
Table 4 timber vs plastic advantage & disadvantage ................................................................................. 12
Table 5 tiles vs terrazzo advantage & disadvantage ................................................................................... 13
Table 6 concrete vs asphal advantage & disadvantage .............................................................................. 13
Table 7 Figure 16 AIV value strength .......................................................................................................... 20

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CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTUAL DESIGN 2016

INTRODUCTION
This assignment is Fundamentals of Drawings & surveying subject for the 1st semester in BTEC
HND in Quantity Surveying &construction Economics. This subject is most important for
Quantity surveyors.
Task 01 construction materials properties, types and alternative materials advantage &
disadvantage.
Task 02 materials strength improving method, material storage methods.
Task 03 structural elements calculations.

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTUAL DESIGN 2016

LO 1Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of construction
materials and their applications.
1.1

Assess the construction materials regarding their properties, uses and

specifications or types

Cement:The first cement factory in Sri Lanka was established in 1950s kankesanturai. This
factory is presently out of production. The method of manufacture is basically a dry process. In
the 1980s there was rapid expansion in cement industry. Two more plants were established at
Kankesanturai and Trincomalee by Lanka Cement Company and Tokyo Cement Company
respectively. The gap between demand and supply necessitates importation of OPC, which is
mainly handled by NGOs.
Uses of Cement
Cement is used widely for the construction of various structures. Some of them are listed
below:
Cement slurry is used for filling cracks in concrete structures.
Cement mortar is used for masonry work, plastering and pointing.
Cement concrete is used for the construction of various structures like buildings, bridges.
Water tanks, tunnels, docks, harhours etc.
Cement is used to manufacture lamp posts, telephone posts, railway sleepers, piles etc.
For manufacturing cement pipes, garden seats, dust bins, flower pots etc. cement is
commonly used.
It is useful for the construction of roads, footpaths, courts for various sports etc.

Types of Cement:

White cement
Colour cement
Quick setting cement
Rapid Hardening cement
Low heat cement
Pozzulana cement
Expanding cement
High alumina cement
Blast furnace cement
Acid resistant cement
Sulphate resistant cement
Fly ash blended cement
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CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTUAL DESIGN 2016

Tokyo Super -Ordinary Portland cement

Figure 1 Tokyo Super -Ordinary Portland cement

Acclaimed for general construction purposes

Applications: Concreting slabs / drive ways, block making, pre-cast panels, brick laying,
mortars etc...
Can be used for both structural & non-structural concrete
Available in 50 Kg packs & bulk carrier
Tokyo Super Ordinary Portland cement is manufactured to conform to Sri Lanka
Standard Specification SLS 107:2008 Strength Class 42.5N requirement.
Factory fresh cement.
Assured good quality.
Economically priced cement.
Compatible with chemical admixtures.

Tokyo Super - Portland Pozzolana Cement

Figure 2 Tokyo Super - Portland Pozzolana Cement

Appropriate for concrete under normal and aggressive environments (Marine, Marshy
Lands, Sulphate Soils. Etc...)

Can be used for general construction

Recommend for High Performance concrete, mass concretes and as a low heat cement

Available in 50 Kg packs & bulk carrier

Tokyo Super Portland Pozzolana Cement is blended cement manufactured to conform

to Sri Lanka Standard Specification SLS 1247:2008 Strength Class 42.5 N requirements.

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTUAL DESIGN 2016

Manufactured by inter grinding Portland Cement clinker with fly ash (Fly Ash is a
supplementary cementations material, which react to form cementations compounds)

Greener Cement (Helps to reduce use of virgin material and green-house gas emission)

Suitable for aggressive environments

Nippon Ordinary Portland cement (OPC)

Figure 3 Nippon Ordinary Portland cement (OPC)

The No. 1 choice for concrete which requires high compressive strength

Highly recommended for large scale infrastructure projects

Applications: Pre-stressed concrete, Railway sleepers, Bridges, Foundations, Cement

building blocks, etc

Can be used as general purpose cement & in cement mortars / grouts / plasters for
improved results

Available in 50 Kg packs & bulk carrier

Nippon is the premium brand of cement manufactured by Tokyo Cement Co. (Lanka)
PLC.

Nippon is the first cement to obtain SLS 107 certification in Sri Lanka.

Conforms to requirements given in Sri Lanka standard specification SLS107:2008

strength class 42.5N for Ordinary Portland Cement.

Super fine particle of cement results higher compressive strength smooth surfaces and
good bonding with steel.

Quality is ascertained by advanced testing methods.

Compatible with chemical admixtures used in concrete.

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTUAL DESIGN 2016

Aggregates for concrete:1. Batching: The measurement of materials for making concrete is known as batching. The
following two methods of batching is practiced:
(a) Volume batching
(b) Weight batching.
(a) Volume Batching: In this method cement, sand and concrete are batched by volume. A
gauge box is made with wooden plates, its volume being equal to that of one bag of cement.
One bag of cement has volume of 35 liters. The required amount of sand and coarse aggregate
is added by measuring on to the gauge box. The quantity of water required for making concrete
is found after deciding water cement ratio. For example, if water cement ratio is 0.5, for one bag
of cement (50 kg), water required is 0.5 50 = 25 kg, which is equal to 25 liters. Suitable
measure is used to select required quantity of water. Volume batching is not ideal method of
batching. Wet sand has higher volume for the same weight of dry sand. It is called bulking of
sand. Hence it upsets the calculated volume required.
(b) Weight Batching: This is the recommended method of batching. A weighing platform is
used in the field to pick up correct proportion of sand and coarse aggregates. Large weigh
batching plants have automatic weighing equipment.
2. Mixing: To produce uniform and good concrete, it is necessary to mix cement, sand and
coarse aggregate, first in dry condition and then in wet condition after adding water.
The following methods are practiced:
(a) Hand Mixing
(b) Machine Mixing.
(a) Hand Mixing: Required amount of coarse aggregate for a batch is weighed and is spread
on an impervious platform. Then the sand required for the batch is spread over coarse
aggregate. They are mixed in dry condition by overturning the mix with shovels. Then the
cement required for the batch is spread over the dry mix and mixed by shovels. After uniform
texture is observed water is added gradually and mixing is continued. Full amount of water is
added and mixing is completed when uniform colour and consistency is observed. The process
of mixing is completed in 68 minutes of adding water. This method of mixing is not very good
but for small works it is commonly adopted.
(b) Machine Mixing: In large and important works machine mixing is preferred. Figure 1 shows
a typical concrete mixer. Required quantities if sand and coarse aggregates are placed in the
drum of the mixer. 4 to 5 rotations are made for dry mixing and then required quantity of cement
is added and dry mixing is made with another 4 to 5 rotations. Water is gradually added and
drum is rotated for 2 to 3 minutes during which period it makes about 50 rotations. At this stage
uniform and homogeneous mix is obtained.
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CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTUAL DESIGN 2016

Figure 4 concrete mixer

Spraying of water: Walls, columns, plastered surfaces are cured by sprinkling water.
Wet covering the surface: Columns and other vertical surfaces may be cured by
covering the surfaces with wet gunny bags or straw.
Ponding: The horizontal surfaces like slab and floors are cured by stagnating the water
to a height of 25 to 50 mm by providing temporary small hunts with mortar.
Steam curing: In the manufacture of pre-fabricated concrete units steam is passed over
the units kept in closed chambers. It accelerates curing process, resulting into the
reduction of curing period.
Application of curing compounds: Compounds like calcium chloride may be applied
on the curing surface. The compound shows affinity to the moisture and retains it on the
surface. It keeps the concrete surface wet for a long time.

Table 1 concrete ratio

Paints:Paints are applied on the surfaces of timber, metals and plastered surfaces as a protective layer
and at the same time to get pleasant appearance. Paints are applied in liquid form and after
sometime the volatile constituent evaporate and hardened coating acts as a protective layer.

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTUAL DESIGN 2016

Types of paint: Oil Paint: These paints are applied in three coats-primers, undercoat and finishing coat.
The presences of dampness while applying the primer adversely affect the life of oil
paint. This paint is cheap and easy to apply.
Enamel Paint: It contains white lead, oil, petroleum spirit and resinous material. The
surface provided by it resists acids, alkalis and water very well. It is desirable to apply a
coat of titanium white before the coat of enamel is applied. It can be used both for
external and internal walls.
Emulsion Paint: It contains binding materials such as polyvinyl acetate, synthetic resins
etc. It dries in 1 to 2 hours and it is easy to apply. It is more durable and can be cleaned

with water. For plastered surfaces, first a coat of cement paint should be applied and
then the emulsion point. Emulsion paint needs sound surfaces.
Cement Paint: It is available in powder form. It consists of white cement, pigment and
other additives. It is durable and exhibits excellent decorative appearance. It should be
applied on rough surfaces rather than on smooth surfaces. It is applied in two coats.
First coat is applied on wet surface but free from excess water and allowed to dry for 24
hours. The second coat is then applied which gives good appearance.
Bituminous Paints: This type of paint is manufactured by dissolving asphalt or
vegetable bitumen in oil or petroleum. It is black in colour. It is used for painting iron
works under water.
Synthetic Rubber Paint: This paint is prepared from resins. It dries quickly and is little
affected by weather and sunlight. It resists chemical attack well. This paint may be
applied even on fresh concrete. Its cost is moderate and it can be applied easily.
Aluminum Paint: It contains finely ground aluminum in spirit or oil varnish. It is visible in
darkness also. The surfaces of iron and steel are protected well with this paint. It is
widely used for painting gas tanks, water pipes and oil tanks.
Anti-corrosive Paint: It consists essentially of oil, a strong dire, lead or zinc chrome and
finely ground sand. It is cheap and resists corrosion well. It is black in colour.

Bricks and Blocks:Brick

Burnt clay brickmaking technology was known to the Sri Lankans as early as the time of the
formal introduction of Buddhism to Sri lanka in the 3rd century B.C. the tallest brick edifice of
mankind the Jetawana stupa (400 ft.) constructed by king mahasen in the 3rd century A.D. still
stands in Anuradhapura. Quality framed brick structures that were arched, vaulted and domed
were also constructed by the ancient Sri Lankans.
Majority of the superstructure walls of the residential buildings in Sri lanka are constructed with
burnt clay bricks. The sizes of the bricks are of 90 mm 90 mm 90 mm and 190 mm 90 mm
40 mm. With mortar joints, the sizes of these bricks are taken as 200 mm 100 mm 100
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CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTUAL DESIGN 2016

mm and 200 mm 100 mm 50 mm. However the old size of 8
masonry size of 9 4

giving a

is still commonly used in India.

Types of Bricks
Bricks may be broadly classified as:
(i) Building Bricks: These bricks are used for the construction of walls.
(ii) Paving Bricks: These are vitrified bricks and are used as pavers.
(iii) Fire Bricks: These bricks are specially made to withstand furnace temperature. Silica bricks
belong to this category.
(iv) Special Bricks: These bricks are different from the commonly used building bricks with
respect to their shape and the purpose for which they are made. Some of such bricks are listed
below:
Specially Shaped Bricks: Bricks of special shapes are manufactured to meet the requirements
of different situations. Some of them are shown

Figure 5specially shaped brick

Facing Bricks: These bricks are used in the outer face of masonry. Once these bricks are
provided, plastering is not required. The standard sizes of these bricks are 190 90 90 mm or
190 90 40 mm.
Perforated Building Bricks: These bricks are manufactured with area of perforation of 30 to 45
per cent. The area of each perforation should not exceed 500 mm2. The perforation should be
uniformly distributed over the surface. They are manufactured in the size 190 190 90 mm
and 290 90 90 mm.
Burnt Clay Hollow Bricks: Figure 1.4 shows a burnt clay hollow brick. They are light in weight.
They are used for the construction of partition walls. They provide good thermal insulation to
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CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTUAL DESIGN 2016

buildings. They are manufactured in the sizes 190 190 90 mm, 290 90 90 mm and 290
140 90 mm. The thickness of any shell should not be less than 11 mm and that of any web not
less than 8 mm.

Figure 6

Sewer Bricks: These bricks are used for the construction of sewage lines. They are
manufactured from surface clay, fire clay shale or with the combination of these. They are
manufactured in the sizes 190 90 90 mm and 190 90 40 mm. The average strength of
these bricks should be a minimum of 17.5 N/mm2 . The water absorption should not be more
than 10 per cent.
Acid Resistant Bricks: These bricks are used for floorings likely to be subjected to acid
attacks, lining of chambers in chemical plants, lining of sewers carrying industrial wastes etc.
These bricks are made of clay or shale of suitable composition with low lime and iron content,
flint or sand and vitrified at high temperature in a ceramic kiln. Clays used in bricking in Sri lanka
may be divided broadly into two classes, viz.
Residual deposits formed by in-situ weathering of rocks
E.g: - Central highlands, particularly in Kandy area
Sedimentary deposits which are formed in tanks or transported and formed by
sedimentation along the courses of rivers.
E.g:- Polonnaruwa and Anuradhapura districts, Dankotuwa and
Hanwella areas.
Block
Aggregates commonly used for the manufacture of blocks in Sri lanka are river sand and
mineral waste (quarry dust). Blocks are manufactured by placing pre-mixed proportions of
aggregate and cement at optimum water cement ratio in a mould and subjecting it to
compaction by ramming or vibration. Subsequent curing is usually carried out in open yards.
Both wet mixing and semi dry mixing processes are employed.

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTUAL DESIGN 2016

Asphalt:Asphalt, bitumen and tar are referred as bituminous materials, which are essentially
hydrocarbon materials. The asphalt is a mixture of inert mineral matter lime alumina, lime, silica
etc. and a hydrocarbon known as asphaltic bitumen. In some places like Trinidad and
Bermudez, asphalt is available in nature at a depth of 3 to 60 meters. It is known as natural
asphalt. Common variety used all over the world is residual asphalt, which is obtained by
fractional distillation of crude petroleum oil. Bitumen is the binding material which is present in
asphalt. It is a hydrocarbon. It is obtained by partial distillation of crude oil. It contains 87 per
cent carbon, 11 per cent hydrogen and 2 per cent oxygen.
Tar is obtained in the destructive distillation of coal, wood or other organic materials.
When coal or wood is heated to redness in a closed chamber, it yields volatile product and
residue coke. After separating and cooling volatile product gives tar.

Table 2 asphalt details

Timber:Timber refers to wood used for construction works. In fact the word timber is derived
from an old English word Timbrian which means to build. A tree that yields good wood for
construction is called Standing Timber. After felling a tree, its branches are cut and its stem is
roughly converted into pieces of suitable length, so that it can be transported to timber yard.
This form of timber is known as rough timber. By sawing, rough timber is converted into various
commercial sizes like planks, battens, posts, beams etc. Such form of timber is known as
converted timber. Timber was used as building material even by primitive man. Many ancient
temples, palaces and bridges built with timber can be seen even today.
Bases are considered for the classification of timbers. The following are the important basis:
(i) Mode of growth
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CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTUAL DESIGN 2016

(ii) Modulus of elasticity
(iii) Durability
(iv) Grading
(v) Availability.
(i) Classification Based on Mode of Growth: On the basis of mode of growth trees are
classified
(a) Exogenous Trees: These trees grow outward by adding distinct consecutive ring every
year. These rings are known as annual rings. Hence it is possible to find the age of timber by
counting these annual rings. These trees may be further divided into (1) coniferrous and (2)
deciduous. Coniferous trees are having cone shaped leaves and fruits. The leaves do not fall till
new ones are grown. They yield soft wood.
Deciduous trees are having broad leaves. These leaves fall in autumn and new ones appear in
springs. They yield strong wood and hence they are commonly used in building construction.
The classification as soft wood and hard wood has commercial importance. The difference
between soft wood and hard wood is given below:
1. in soft wood annual rings are seen distinctly whereas in hard wood they are indistinct.
2. The colour of soft wood is light whereas the colour of hard wood is dark.
3. Soft woods have lesser strength in compression and shear compared to hard woods.
4. Soft woods are light and hard woods are heavy.
5. Fire resistance of soft wood is poor compared to that of hard wood.
6. The structure of soft wood is resinous while structure of hard wood is close grained.
The cross-section of a exogenous tree is as shown in the Fig. 1.7. The following components
are visible to the naked eye:

Figure 7

1. Pith: It is the inner most part of the tree and hence the oldest part of exogenous tree when the plant
becomes old, the pith dies and becomes fibrous and dark. It varies in size and shape.
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CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTUAL DESIGN 2016

2. Heart Wood: This is the portion surrounding pith. It is dark in colour and strong. This portion is useful
for various engineering purpose. This is the dead part of wood. It consists of several annular rings.
3. Sap Wood: It is the layer next to heart wood. It denotes recent growth and contains sap. It takes
active part in the growth of trees by allowing sap to move in upward direction. The annual rings of sap
wood are less sharply divided and are light in colour. The sap wood is also known as laburnum.
4. Cambium Layer: It is a thin layer of fresh sap lying between sap wood and the inner bark. It contains
sap which is not yet converted into sap wood. If the bark is removed and cambium layer is exposed to
atmosphere, cells cease to be active and tree dies.
5. Inner Bark: It is a inner skin of tree protecting the cambium layer. It gives protection to cambium
layer.
6. Outer Bark: It is the outer skin of the tree and consists of wood fibers. Sometimes it contains fissures
and cracks.
7. Medullary Rags: These are thin radial fibers extending from pith to cambium layer. They hold annular
rings together. In some of trees they are broken and some other they may not be prominent.
(b) Endogenous Trees: These trees grow inwards. Fresh fibrous mass is in the inner most portion.
Examples of endogenous trees are bamboo and cane. They are not useful for structural works

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1.2 Compare the alternative materials available for construction and evaluate
their applications.
Brick vs. Block
Cost
Workability
Durability
Strength
Availability
Suitability
Thermal
Electrical
Sound
Eco-Friendly and safety

Advantage

Disadvantage

Brick cheapest cost

Block easy
Brick long time
Brick high
Block short time
Block
Brick low

Block highest cost

Brick hard
Block short time
Block average
Brick more time
Brick
Block high

Table 3 brick vs block advantage & disadvantage

Conclusion
Brick smooth wall typical construct but smooth finish. Concrete block wall easy construct in a
smooth finish, brick not in construct in Jaffna but all Jaffna site in easy to construct concrete
blocks. Anyway Jaffna is availability for concrete block. Concrete block accepts any color very
well. You can also install siding over a concrete block home with the proper tools, so the exterior
of a concrete block home can look modern, trendy, or traditional.

Timber vs. Plastic

Cost
Workability
Durability
Strength
Availability
Suitability
Thermal
Electrical
Sound
Eco-Friendly and safety

Advantage

Disadvantage

Timber lowest cost

Plastic easy
Plastic long time
Timber high
Timber short time
Plastic more suitable for work
Timber low

Plastic highest cost

Timber high
Timber short time
Plastic low
Plastic more time
Timber low suitable time
Plastic high
Timber easy to transfer

Table 4 timber vs plastic advantage & disadvantage

Conclusion
Plastic is reworking ability but not in Jaffna. But timber is availability in Jaffna then any type of
timber material available in Jaffna. Than Jaffna suitable material timber.

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Tiles vs. Terrazzo
Cost
Workability
Durability
Strength
Availability
Suitability
Thermal
Electrical
Sound
Eco-Friendly and safety

Advantage

Disadvantage

Tile cost lowest

Terrazzo shortly construct
Terrazzo long time
Terrazzo high strength
Tile availability high
All area suitable tiles

Terrazzo cost high

Tiles Longley construct
Tiles short time
Tile short term
Terrazzo availability low
All area dont suitable terrazzo

Table 5 tiles vs terrazzo advantage & disadvantage

Conclusion
Jaffna is suitable tile. Reason lowest cost, high availability but terrazzo highest cost and low
availability.

Concrete vs. Asphalt

Cost
Workability
Durability
Strength
Availability
Suitability
Thermal
Electrical
Sound
Eco-Friendly and safety

Advantage

Disadvantage

Low cost to asphalt road

Asphalt short time
40 years use concrete road
Concrete high strength
Concrete availability high

High cost to Concrete road

Concrete long time
10 years use asphalt road
Asphalt short term
Asphalt availability low

Table 6 concrete vs asphal advantage & disadvantage

Conclusion
Concrete roads are highly durable and more environmentally friendly as compared to asphalt
roads. However asphalt paving costs far less than concrete paving. Also, asphalt road provides
a little better safety of the vehicle against snow and skidding

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LO 2Demonstrate the knowledge in quality testing method, way of
improving properties, and protective /preventive methods of distortion
and storage requirements of construction materials.
Cube test
Purpose: - To check the compressive strength of concrete

Experimental setup
Three 150mm * 150mm * 150mm cubes were made.
Concrete was poured as three layers and each layer was beaten thirty five times by
standard rod.
The top surface was leveled then.
Curing was done 24 hours (the cubes are immersed into the water and temperature
must be 180c 220c)
Cubes were crushed after 7 days or after 28 days buy compressing machines (the 75%
of total strength will be attained within 7 days after curing and after 28 days, nearly 99%
of strength will be achieved).

Figure 8 steel rod put in concrete

Figure 9 removed mould

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CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTUAL DESIGN 2016

Figure 10 specimen base plate of machine

Observation:
28 days cube for compressive strength percentage 100%
Cube test
Sample 1 compressive strength =24.354MPa
Sample 2 compressive strength =23.658MPa
Sample 3 compressive strength =24.869MPa

Average compressive strength =

=25.037MPa.

Conclusion
The expected compressive strength is 25Mpa but the test result 25.037Mpa. The
average compressive strength of cube test is greater than the expected compressive strength.
So this concrete will accept the 25MPa strength.

C10 / C15 can be used as foundation or footing mixes for non-load bearing walls up to 900mm
high and footing mixes for some house construction.
C20 may be used as slab foundation for houses. It is also used in framing as a general mix as it
is strong enough to support light machinery and livestock usage.

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CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTUAL DESIGN 2016

C25 is used for footing for house construction. The ground is soft or unstable. Also as a base for
hard standing and pathways.
C30 / 35 structural concrete mixes for roadways. Durable mixes to withstand heavy wear to
strong enough to with stand the ever changing climate to continuous heavy rain, forest snow
and prolonged and dry periods.
C40 used widely for pre-stressed precast concrete.

Slump test

Figure 11 slump test

Purpose: - Check the workability of concrete.

Experimental setup
The concrete was put in 3 layers (as 100mm per layer) and was beaten 25 times with
the metal rod 16mm diameter and 600mm height.
The metal plate was pulled up by using the handle and was kept near to the sample.
A level was placed over the slump cone and the height difference between slump cone
and slump was measured by meter ruler.
The procedure was repeated again for one more time (altogether the test has to be done
twice to get conclusion).

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CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTUAL DESIGN 2016

Figure 12 slump test procedure

Observation
First sample has a slump of 110mm while the second sample has the slump of 115mm.
Result : The average of the two samples were 113mm and the slump is true slump. Not shear
slump.

Slump Value Observation:

The slump (Vertical settlement) measured shall be recorded in terms of millimeters of
subsidence of the specimen during the test.

Figure 13

True Slump

True slump is the only slump that can be measured in the test. The measurement is taken
between the top of the cone and the top of the concrete after the cone has been removed as
shown in figure 11.

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Zero Slump

Zero slumps are the indication of very low water-cement ratio, which results in dry mixes. This
type of concrete is generally used for road construction. (Figure 11)

Collapsed Slump

This is an indication that the water-cement ratio is too high, i.e. concrete mix is too wet or it is a
high workability mix, for which a slump test is not appropriate. (Figure 11)

Shear Slump

The shear slump indicates that the result is incomplete, and concrete to be retested. (Figure 08)

Figure 14

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AIV
The resistance to crushing under impact will be measured by the aggregate impact value (AIV)
test; basically AIV is the percentage of fines produced from the aggregate sample after
subjecting it to a standard amount of impact. The standard amount of impact is produced by a
known weight. For the AIV test, a standard size of aggregate should be taken, according to
British standard, the aggregates of range which pass through 12, 70mm sieve and remains in 9,
52mm sieve cylinder of for experiment. It should be clean and dry. The aggregates are placed
into the steel cylinder of diameter 102mm and height 50mm and the initial weight (W 1) was
taken, then the aggregates were place in three layers and blown 25 times each by standard
tamping rod (230mm height and 10mm diameter rod).

Figure 15 aggregate impact value

Then a hammer of 14kg weight is dropped from the free fall distance of 381mm over the
aggregates and repeated 15 times.
After doing this finally the sample is passed through 2.36mm sieve and the weight of the
particles passing through the 2.36mm sieve (W 2) is taken.

Aggregate impact value =

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The lower percentage of AIV will give very strong aggregate,
AIV in Percentage
Greater than 35%
20 30%
10 20%
Less than 10%

Weak
satisfactory
strong
Very strong

Table 7 Figure 16 AIV value strength

Generally aggregate of AIV value less than 40%is used for building construction and the
aggregate with AIV value less than 30% is used for road construction.

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2.2 Evaluate the methods of improving the properties of construction
materials.
Concrete
A CO2 curing process was adopted to cure concrete blocks made with recycled aggregates.
Non-load- and load-bearing blocks were prepared with 0%, 50% and 100% recycled aggregate
to replace natural aggregate. The blocks were then placed in a pressurized 100% CO2 curing
chamber for 6, 12 and 24 h. The temperature and relative humidity inside the chamber were
monitored, and the moisture loss and CO2 curing degree were determined by a weighing
method. After the curing process, the strength and drying shrinkage of the CO2 and moist cured
blocks were measured. The CO2 cured blocks attained higher compressive strength and lower
drying shrinkage than the corresponding moist cured blocks. However, curing time and amount
of recycled aggregate present in the blocks had insignificant effects on the strength gain and
CO2curing degree.

Brick
Both compressive strength and absorption are affected by properties of the clay, method of
manufacture and degree of firing. For a given clay and method of manufacture, higher
compressive strength values and lower absorption values are associated with higher firing
temperatures. Although absorption and compressive strength can be controlled by
manufacturing and firing methods, these properties depend largely upon the properties of the
raw materials.

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2.3 Justify how the protective / preventive methods of distortion effectively
useful for construction materials and explain in the detail the storage
requirements of different construction materials.
Cement storage site
Store cement in a building which is dry, leak proof and as moisture proof as possible.
There should be minimum number of windows in the storage building.
Stack the cement bags off the floor on wooden planks in such a way, so that it is
about 150 mm to 200 mm above the floor.
The floor may comprise of lean cement concrete or two layers of dry bricks lay on
well consolidated earth.
Maintain a space of 600 mm all-round between the exterior walls and the stacks
Stack the cement bags close to each other to reduce circulation of air.
The height of stack should not be more than 10 bags to prevent the possibility of
lumping under pressure.
The width of the stack should not be more than four bags length or 3 meters.
In stacks more than 8 bags high, the cement bags should be arranged alternately
length-wise and cross-wise, so as to tie the stacks together and minimize the danger
of toppling over.
Stack the cement bags in such a manner so as to facilitate their removal and use in
the order in which they are received.
Put label showing date of receipt of cement on each stack of cement bags to know
the age of cement.
When it is required to store cement for a long period of time or during the monsoon;
completely enclose the stack by a water proofing membrane such as polyethylene.
Different types of cement must be stacked and stored separately.

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Figure 17 cement storage method

A:-polythene
B:-wooden paten
C:-150 dry brick two layers
D:-150 consolidated earth

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Brick storage in site

Stack the bricks on dry firm ground.

Stack should be 50 bricks long, 10 bricks high and not more than 4 bricks in width.
Clear distance between adjacent stacks should not be less than 0.8m.
Put bricks of each truck load in one stack.

Figure 18 brick storage

Timber storage in site

Seasoning is the controlled process of reducing the moisture content (MC) of the timber so that
it is suitable for the environment and intended use. We need to reduce the MC of timber for the
following reasons:

Every time the MC reduces the timber shrinks especially tangentially.

Consequently it will show fewer tendencies to warp, split or shake.
Seasoned timber although lighter will be stronger and more reliable.
The sap in timber is a food for fungi and wood parasites. Remove the sap and the wood
will be less attractive to these dangers.
For construction grade timber the timber must be below 20% MC to reduce the chances
of Dry Rot and other fungi infestations.
Dry well seasoned timber is stronger.
Dry well seasoned timber is easier to work with and consequently safer especially
machine working.
Timber with higher moisture content is difficult to finish i.e. paint, varnish, etc.

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CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTUAL DESIGN 2016

Figure 19 timber storage

Timber Preservative Treatment Effect

Preservation of timber means protecting timber from fungi and insects attack so that its life is
increased. Timber is to be seasoned well before application of preservatives. The following are
the widely used preservatives.
1. Tar: Hot coal tar is applied to timber with brush. The coating of tar protects the timber from
the attack of fungi and insects. It is a cheapest way of protecting timber. Main disadvantage of
this method of preservation is that appearance is not good after tar is applied it is not possible to
apply other attractive paints. Hence tarring is made only for the unimportant structures like fence
poles.
2. Paints: Two to three coats of oil paints are applied on clean surface of wood. The paint
protects the timber from moisture. The paint is to be applied from time to time. Paint improves
the appearance of the timber. So lignum paint is a special paint which protects the timber from
the attack of termites.
3. Chemical salt: These are the preservatives made by dissolving salts in water. The salts used
are copper sulphate, masonry chloride, zinc chloride and sodium fluoride. After treating the
timber with these chemical salt paints and varnishes can be applied to get good appearance.
4. Creosote: Creosote oil is obtained by distillation of coal tar. The seasoned timber is kept in
an air tight chamber and air is exhausted. Then creosote oil is pumped into the chamber at a
pressure of 0.8 to 1.0 N/mm2 at a temperature of 50C. After 1 to 2 hours timber is taken out of
the chamber.
5. ASCO: This preservative is developed by the Forest Research Institute, Dehradun. It consists
of 1 part by weight of hydrated arsenic pent oxide (As2O5, 2 H2O), 3 parts by weight of copper
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CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTUAL DESIGN 2016

sulphate (CuSO45 H2O) and 4 parts by weight of potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) or sodium
dichromate
(Na2Cr2O72 H2O). This preservative is available in powder form. By mixing six parts of this
powder with 100 parts of water, the solution is prepared. The solution is then sprayed over the
surface of timber. This treatment prevents attack from termites. The surface may be painted to
get desired appearance.

Reinforcement steel
Preservatives- Seven different wood preservatives were used in this study: four waterborne and three
oil type. Each preservative complied with American Wood Preservers Association (AWPA) Standard C14
(AWPA 1992). The four waterborne preservatives were variations of the CCA formulation as determined
by American Wood Preservers Association Standard P5 (AWPA 1990). In an effort to curb the
movement of moisture in and out of the wood, three of the CCA treatments included proprietary waterrepellent additives, designated as Type 1, Type 2, and Type 3. The oil-type preservatives were
penda/heavy oil, creosote, and CCA in an oil emulsion. The CCA in oil is a proprietary formulation of
standard CCA and is generally not considered an oil type preservative because it only has 10- to 20percent oil. However, it was grouped with the oil-type preservatives for this study.

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CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTUAL DESIGN 2016

LO 3 Demonstrate knowledge in understanding the principles of
reinforced concrete design.
3.1 Analyze the limit state principles and identify the load acting on a structure and
find the design load. Demonstrate the sign conventions and range of method using to
calculate shear force and bending moment.
Limit state design
Limit states are the acceptable limits for the safety and serviceability
requirements of the structure before failure occurs. The design of structures by this method will
thus ensure that they will not reach limit states and will not become unfit for the use for which
they are intended. It is worth mentioning that structures will not just fail or collapse by violating
the limit states. Failure, therefore, implies that clearly defined limit states of structural usefulness
has been exceeded.
Limit state of collapse was found / detailed in several countries in continent fifty
years ago. In 1960 soviet code recognized three limits states:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Live load /impose load occupancies

Dead load self weight of the structure
Wind load
Earth quake load
Design load =1.4Gk + 1.6Qk

Sign convention for bending movement and shear force

Positive notation
M

M
V

L.H.S

R.H.S

Figure 20 positive notation

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CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTUAL DESIGN 2016

M- Bending moment
V- Shear force
(X = 15)
a)
Ultimate design load (udl)

=1.4*5kN/m +1.6*4kN/m
=7 + 6.4
=13.4kN/m

Ultimate design load (point load)

=1.4*10kN + 1.6*8kN
=14 + 12.8
=26.8kN

Maximum bending movement

=94.21875 + 50.25
=144.46875
=144.469kNm

Maximum shear force

=
=

+
+

=13.4 + 50.25
=63.65kN

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CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTUAL DESIGN 2016

BMD

63.65

50.25
SFD

Figure 21 shear force

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CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTUAL DESIGN 2016

3.2 Evaluate the section requirements of designing simple load bearing
elements with reference to BS8110-1997 code of practice. Asses the section of
reinforced concrete beam regarding the limit of allowable deflection and
calculate the proper steel diameter and spacing of shear link of the column
a)
Tension r/f calculation BS8110-1997

Cover calculation
Cover 40mm

Effective depth
d

link diameter

= h - cover =600 40 -

10

=537.5
=537.5mm

Ultimate design moment

Gk =120 + 2(15)kN (udl)
=120 + 30
=150kN

Qk =60 +(15)kN (udl)

=75kN

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CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTUAL DESIGN 2016

F

=1.4Gk +1.6Qk
=1.4 * 150 +1.6 *75
=210 + 120
=330kN

Mu =
=
=
=309.375kNm

Clause 3.4.4.4
k

=
=0.1072844168
=0.1073 < 0.156

0.1073 < 0.156 singly reinforced section. Not required to provide compression bar.

]
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CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTUAL DESIGN 2016

[

Adopt

Deflection check
From table
Basic (

Clause

From table

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CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTUAL DESIGN 2016

Basic (

Actual (

So deflection check is ok

Shear link
Assume, 2 legged 6mm dia mild steel link

From Table 3.7

Space = 125mm c/c. It is minimum requirement of links.

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CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTUAL DESIGN 2016

b)

mm2

Adopt
Shear link diameter 25 =6.25
8mm 6.25mm
Link space 1212 =144
Link space = 125mm

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CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS & STRUCTUAL DESIGN 2016

Conclusion
Objective of working on Construction material assignment was to present all basic concepts of
Construction material in depth.
In this assignment it is described about properties of material, testing methods of the materials,
storing methods for the materials.
In this assignment have find out the suitable material for the given elements and the alternative
material also identified. And also conclusions have been arrived at through synthesis of ideas
and have been justified by selecting the appropriate materials for the given propose. Have
explained the testing methods for the selected materials. And also identified how we can
improve the property of the materials. Finally identify the storing method for the selected
materials.
It is believed that all set of goals were achieved efficiently by computing this assignment.

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Reference
Building materials Sri Lanka
Basic civil engineering
Google image.

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