GENERAL CHEMISTRY

CHEM 105
LABORATORY MANUAL

Prepared for

Department of Chemistry
Faculty of Arts and Sciences
October 2014

Table of Contents
General Regulations in Laboratory..............................................................................2
Safety in the laboratory................................................................................................2
Separation Techniques................................................................................................6
Chemistry Laboratory Techniques and Measurments Skills...8
Some Glassware and Equipment Used in General Chemistry Laboratory................21
Instructions for Reports..............................................................................................22
Experiment1: FREEZING POINT OF A SUBSTANCE............................................23
Experiment2: DETERMINATION OF A CHEMICAL FORMULA.............................27
Experiment3: THE SYNTHESIS OF ASPIRIN.........................................................30
Experiment4: HEAT OF FUSION.............................................................................33
Experiment5: ACID-BASE TITRATION (NEUTRALISATION)................................36
Some Useful Conversion Factors..............................................................................39
Periodic Table of Elements........................................................................................40

GENERAL REGULATIONS
General Chemistry laboratory is compulsory that each student should attend laboratory sessions and
carry out the assigned experiments.
It is designed to accompany CHEM 105- General Chemistry course. There are five experiments.
Completion of these experiments provides an introduction into basic laboratory techniques, the
experimental method, and the presentation of scientific data, as well as direct experience with
chemical principles and the properties and reactions of substances. Missing three or more
experiments will result in failure in CHEM 105. Those with acceptable excuses can make-up at most
two experiments during the make-up week.
Each Lab session consists of:
a quiz, held during the first 15 minutes of the period and,
the practical which must be completed and the report handed in to the lab instructors during
the allowed time.
The total lab mark is composed of Quiz marks: 30%, Reports: 40% and Lab Final Exam 30%.
Repeating students holding a passing lab mark (8/10 or higher) do not have to repeat the lab work.
Lab coats are compulsory in the lab. Nobody is allowed in the lab without a lab coat. Lab coats may
be purchased from the University Bookstore.
Students must attend all laboratory sessions only on the appropriate days allocated for their groups.
Changing groups will not be permitted. You are provided with a copy of the lab schedule. ( Lab
timetables are posted in the Lab and on the Department of Chemistry Notice board as well.)
Students should leave the benches clean and tidy after the experiment.
Students are personally responsible for any equipment and glassware which they break.
No practical work shall be carried out in the absence of Instructors.
Students are expected to bring their calculators, rulers and graph papers whenever necessary. No
excuse is accepted.
Prepare your reports on the report pages supplied at the end of each experiment section. Tear of and
submit it to your assistant.

SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY

The chemistry laboratory is a place to experiment and learn. You must assume responsibility for your
own personal safety and that of people working near you.
Potentially, all chemicals are hazardous for your health. In other words, many of them are toxic and
carcinogenic. Constant and excessive exposure of your body to these chemicals by different means
such as inhalation, digestion, skin contact etc., may cause unfortunate health problems. Therefore,
minimize any direct exposure to chemicals during the experiment.
Equally important is the need to stress caution about fire. Because in chemistry laboratory chemicals
are heated by open flame of Bunsen-burner frequently, the danger of fire is always present.
Another potential hazard is the careless use of all-glass apparatus in the chemistry laboratory.
Remember that glass is fragile and very easily crushed. Improper handling of broken glassware may
result in severe injuries. Besides, a broken glass part containing a flammable chemical may initiate a
fire. Furthermore, possibly less important is that, you may repeat the whole experiment by a new
apparatus which means an unnecessary waste of time.
Avoiding accidents, injuries and keeping a good watch over your health is largely a matter of good
sense. Carelessness can lead to accidents and injuries to yourself and others. Throughout this
course, your assistant will state the specific hazards that may be encountered and must be kept in

mind in each experiment. The following are some important safety rules to help guide you in
protecting yourself and others from injury in a laboratory.
FORENSICS LABORATORY MANUAL
1. The chemistry laboratory is a place for serious work. Do not perform experiment without your
instructor's permission. Never work alone in the laboratory.
2. Study your lab activity before you come to the lab. If you are in doubt about any procedures, ask
your instructor for help.
3. Safety goggles and a laboratory apron must be worn whenever you work in the lab. Gloves should
be worn whenever you use chemicals that cause irritations or can be absorbed through the skin.
4. Contact lenses should not be worn in the lab, even if goggles are worn. Lenses can absorb vapors
and are difficult to remove in an emergency.
5. Long hair should be tied back to reduce the possibility of it catching fire.
6. Avoid wearing dangling jewelry or loose, draping clothing. The loose clothing may catch fire and
either the clothing or jewelry could catch on chemical apparatus.
7. Wear shoes that cover the feet at all times. Bare feet or sandals are not permitted in the lab.
8. Know the location of the fire extinguisher, safety shower, eyewash, fire blanket, and firstaid
kit. Know how to use the safety equipment provided for you.
9. Report any accident, injury, incorrect procedure, or damaged equipment immediately to your
instructor.
10. Handle chemicals carefully. Check the labels of all bottles before removing the contents. Read
the labels three times: before you pick up the container, when the container is in your hand, and when
you put the bottle back.
11. Do not return unused chemicals to reagent bottles.
12. Do not take reagent bottles to your work area unless specifically instructed to do so. Use test
tubes, paper, or beakers to obtain your chemicals. Take only small amounts. It is easier to get more
than to dispose of excess.
13. Do not insert droppers into reagent bottles. Pour a small amount of the chemical into a beaker.
14. Never taste any chemical substance. Never draw any chemicals into a pipette with your mouth.
Eating, drinking, chewing gum, and smoking are prohibited in the laboratory.
15. If chemicals come into contact with your eyes or skin, flush the area immediately with large
quantities of water. Immediately inform your teacher of the nature of the spill.
16. Keep combustible materials away from open flames. (Alcohol and acetone are combustible.)
17. Handle toxic and combustible gases only under the direction of your instructor. Use the fume hood
when such materials are present.
18. When heating a substance in a test tube, be careful not to point the mouth of the tube at another
person or yourself. Never look down the mouth of a test tube.
19. Use caution and the proper equipment when handling hot apparatus or glassware. Hot glass looks
the same as cool glass.
20. Dispose of broken glass, unused chemicals, and products of reactions only as directed by your
teacher.
21. Know the correct procedure for preparing acid solutions. Always add the acid slowly to the water.
22. Keep the balance area clean. Never weigh chemicals directly on the pan of the balance.
23. Do not heat graduated cylinders, burettes, or pipettes with a laboratory burner.
24. After completing an activity, clean and put away your equipment. Clean your work area. Make
sure the gas and water are turned off. Wash your hands with soap and water before you leave the lab.

Glassware Safety
1. Do not use laboratory vessels for food or drink.
2. Do not use glassware when working with hydrofluoric acid, hot phosphoric, or strong hot
alkalis.
3. Do not use excessive force to tighten glassware to racks or ring stands. Use only coated
clamps.
4. Avoid direct metal to glass contact. Scratching the glass surface weakens it and failure can
occur. Replace worn brushes and check dishwashers for exposed metal spindles.
5. Use related safety equipment in the laboratory. Never grasp a beaker by the rim and use
beaker tongs to remove same from hotplates or ovens.
6. Identify and properly store reaction products and synthesized materials.
7. Support round bottom flasks with cork rings and stopper openings whenever possible.

8. Store glassware properly when not in use. Replace caps or stoppers on reagent bottles and
cover open vessels, especially when working with volatile solvents.
9. Avoid glass to glass contact when storing in laboratory bench drawers. Provide adequate
space or cushion the glassware with appropriate material.
10. Do not heat thick walled glassware such as filter flasks, cylinders, or battery jars on hot
plates.

Disposal of Chemicals
You will be instructed about the method of waste disposal specifically for each experiment.

First Aid
Keep always in mind that an injury, no matter how small, must be reported to your assistant as soon
as practicable.
Emergency Equipment: Learn the location of eye-wash bottles, fire blankets, and fire extinguishers,
and know how these equipments are used.
Chemical Spills on the Skin: Immediately flush with running water for several minutes; if the eyes or
face are involved, use an eye-wash bottle. For any severe chemical burn consult a physician as soon
as possible after the initial thorough water flushing.
Fire: If there is fire, the best advice is to get away from it and let the instructor, assistant or laboratory
technician to take care of it. DON'T PANIC!. Move quickly and carefully.
If it is a small fire in a flask, it usually can be extinguished quickly by placing a wire gauze or, possibly,
a watch glass, over the mouth of the flask. It is a good practice to have a wire screen or watch glass
handy whenever you are using a flame. If this method does not take care of the fire and if help from
an experienced person is not readily available, then extinguish the fire yourself with a fire
extinguisher.
If clothing is ignited, immediately extinguish it with a fire blanket or safety shower or, if necessary, a
coat or anything else available. DO NOT RUN. Walk purposefully toward the nearest fire blanket or
fire shower station. Running will fan the flames and intensify them. Wrapping yourself in the fire
blanket will smother the flames quickly. If the fire blanket is not readily available, lay down and revolve
around your body.

SEPARATION TECHNIQUES
1.
2.
3.
4.

Decanting
Distillation
Filtration
Chromatography

The substances in a mixture are separated by the differences in their physical properties, such as
their particle size. The more different the properties are, the easier it is to separate the substances.
Tea leaves do not dissolve in water, so you can use a strainer to FILTER them. The particles in other
mixtures can be far smaller; in CHROMATOGRAPHY, microscopic substances are separated by how
easily each sticks to another substance.

DECANTING
The lighter particles stay suspended in the water, and are decanted (poured off). Cream is separated
from milk by decanting the cream is less dense than the milk.

DISTILLATION
In distillation, a mixture of liquids is heated in a flask. The liquid with the lower boiling point evaporates
(changes to a vapour) first, and is condensed (changes back to a liquid) and collected. The liquid with
the higher boiling point and any solid particles are left behind in the flask. Fractional distillation
separates liquids one by one as they boil. The oil industry separates crude oil using this technique.

FILTRATION
When the substances in a mixture have different particle sizes, they are separated by filtration. The
mixture is poured through a sieve or filter. The smaller particles slip through the holes, but the larger
particles do not. Filtration is the first stage in water recycling. Chemists use filters called zeolites,
which have holes so tiny that they can remove microscopic particles from water.

You can turn dirty water into clear water using a filter. Place a container with a hole in the bottom
inside another container and line it with filter paper. Fill the container with layers of charcoal, sand,
and gravel. Pour dirty water into the container. The layers will filter out smaller and smaller particles of
dirt. The result is clearer (but not necessarily drinkable) water.

A centrifuge is like an extra-fast spin dryer. It spins a liquid so quickly that the particles separate out.
The heavier particles sink to the bottom and the lighter particles collect at the top. Doctors separate
blood samples for analysis (study) using a centrifuge.

CHROMATOGRAPHY
Scientists separate many liquid mixtures using chromatography. The mixture is dissolved in a liquid or
a gas to make a solution. The solution is put on a solid material and the substances that dissolved
most easily travel farthest up the solid material. The separated substances form bands of colour
called chromatograms. Food scientists study chromatograms to discover which colourings a food
contains.

Paper Chromatography
Food scientists separate food colouring for analysis using paper chromatography. A drop of colouring
is put onto filter paper. The edge of the filter paper is dipped in water. As the water flows up through
the paper, it carries the colours with it. Some colours travel faster than others, so the substances split
into different coloured bands.

Thin Layer Chromatography

Genetic scientists use thin layer chromatography (TLC) to study the substances that make up our
genes. In TLC, the solid material is a plate of glass or plastic coated with a chemical, usually
aluminium oxide or silicon oxide. When the liquid mixture travels up the plate, some of the substances
move farther up the plate than others. The substances appear as spots on the plate. Scientists study
genes to learn about inherited characteristics.

CHEMISTRY LABORATORY TECHNIQUES AND MEASURMENTS

SKILLS
GENERAL RULES FOR USE OF THE ANALYTICAL BALANCES
1. Keep the balance clean. Remove dust, etc. from the pans with a camelhair brush.
2. Learn the capacity of your balance, and never exceed this capacity.
3. Objects to be weighed should be at room temperature, and thereby avoid air convection currents.
Air currents will cause the balance to be unsteady.
4. Strategies must be developed to ensure that moisture is not transferred to the object being
weighed during handling.
5. Do not rub or polish objects before weighing.
6. Chemicals are never placed directly on the balance pan. Use a weighing bottle, beaker,
watchglass, etc.
7. After you have completed weighing, check the following:
a) You have recorded your results correctly.
b) The balance pan is clean.
c) There are no objects left on the pan.
8. Corrosive liquids and solids are always placed in a vapor tight, pre-weighed container before
weighing on an analytical balance.
9. Report and record anything unusual.

Digital analytical balance with 0.1 mg readability

Mechanical analytical balance

Analytical balances in most labs are capable of measuring to one thousandth of a gram or smaller.
Let's say the digital display says "14.300". It would be a mistake to write that down as 14.3 grams
because the analytical balance actually measured its mass to the nearest thousandth of a gram giving
us 5 significant digits of accuracy. A $15 balance can measure 14.3grams, but it takes a $2,000

balance to measure 14.300grams. Going from 14.3g (3 significant digits) to 14.300g (5 significant
figures) is increasing the accuracy 100 fold so don't drop these zeros.

Weighing a liquid, powder, or granular substance

These substances must always be weighed using an appropriate weighing container.
1. Place the weighing container on the balance pan and close the doors.
2. Tare the container by briefly pressing the control bar. The readout will read zero with the
container sitting on the pan. This allows the mass of your sample to be read directly.
3. Add the substance to be weighed. Be careful not to spill chemicals on the balance. If need be,
you can remove the container from the weighing chamber while you add the sample provided
that noone presses the control bar before you weigh your sample.
4. With the sample and its container sitting on the pan, close the chamber doors and read the
display to find the mass of your sample.

HOW TO USE THERMOMETER IN CHEMISTRY LAB

Laboratory Thermometer
A laboratory thermometer is an instrument used to measure temperatures or temperature changes
with a high degree of precision. Some of these thermometers have temperature divisions of 1 C and
are usually filled with red spirit rather than mercury. Examples of commercial laboratory thermometers
are; BS593 thermometers and IP thermometers.

Rules for Using Thermometers

1. Never use a thermometer as a stirring device.
2. Never swing or shake down a thermometer.
3. Never use an open flame on a thermometer bulb.
4. Use extreme care when inserting or removing a thermometer from a rubber stopper.
5. Mercury thermometers should not be used in heated ovens where breakage might easily occur.
6. Dont place thermometers where they are likely to roll or be knocked off a table. All thermometers
should have anti-roll devices.
Make sure you choose a thermometer with an appropriate temperature range. Overheating a
thermometer can cause breakage of its reservoir.

Precision, accuracy, and reproducibility

The "Boyce MotoMeter" radiator cap on a 1913 Car-Nation automobile, used to measure temperature
of vapor in 1910s and 1920s cars.
The precision or resolution of a thermometer is simply to what fraction of a degree it is possible to
make a reading. For high temperature work it may only be possible to measure to the nearest 10 C
or more. Clinical thermometers and many electronic thermometers are usually readable to 0.1 C.
Special instruments can give readings to one thousandth of a degree. However, this precision does
not mean the reading is true or accurate, it only means that very small changes can be observed.
A thermometer calibrated to a known fixed point is accurate (i.e. gives a true reading) at that point.
Most thermometers are originally calibrated to a constant-volume gas thermometer. In between fixed
calibration points, interpolation is used, usually linear. This may give significant differences between
different types of thermometer at points far away from the fixed points. For example the expansion of
mercury in a glass thermometer is slightly different from the change in resistance of a platinum
resistance thermometer, so these two will disagree slightly at around 50 C. There may be other
causes due to imperfections in the instrument, e.g. in a liquid-in-glass thermometer if the capillary
tube varies in diameter.
For many purposes reproducibility is important. That is, does the same thermometer give the same
reading for the same temperature (or do replacement or multiple thermometers give the same

10

reading)? Reproducible temperature measurement means that comparisons are valid in scientific
experiments and industrial processes are consistent. Thus if the same type of thermometer is
calibrated in the same way its readings will be valid even if it is slightly inaccurate compared to the
absolute scale.
An example of a reference thermometer used to check others to industrial standards would be a
platinum resistance thermometer with a digital display to 0.1 C (its precision) which has been
calibrated at 5 points against national standards (18, 0, 40, 70, 100 C) and which is certified to an
accuracy of 0.2 C.
According to British Standards, correctly calibrated, used and maintained liquid-in-glass thermometers
can achieve a measurement uncertainty of 0.01 C in the range 0 to 100 C, and a larger uncertainty
outside this range: 0.05 C up to 200 or down to 40 C, 0.2 C up to 450 or down to 80 C.

Mercury
Mercury and its compounds, both organic and inorganic, are health hazards. Metallic mercury has a
measurable vapor pressure, and the production of vapor is accentuated by heating the mercury or
subdividing as occurs in a spill. Laboratory sources of mercury include, among others, thermometers,
manometers (barometers), and batteries. Not only is the vapor harmful, but the metal itself is
absorbable through the intact skin.
1. Mercury and its compounds should never be found in the elementary or middle school.
2. In high schools, mercury should be used only under special circumstances. Mercury is acceptable
in high school only if all four of these criteria are met:
i.

No substitute is available that will provide the degree of accuracy required for the
operation.

ii.

The teacher has obtained prior approval from the science supervisor.

iii.

All persons in the laboratory working with mercury or an instrument containing mercury
wear chemical splash safety goggles, full face shields, aprons, and adequate clothing to
prevent skin contact.

iv.

Access to mercury or any instrument containing the element is restricted by keeping

source and instrument under lock and key except when in use.

11

HEATING

Heat Sources
Where possible, use electric hot plates in place of gas burners (Bunsen, portable propane, and
butane). Alcohol burners should never be used as a heat source.

A- Safety Rules for Using Gas Burners

i.

Make sure you know the location of the master gas shut-off valve.

ii.

Match the type of burner to the type of gas available.

iii.

Make sure all students know how to operate the burner safely.

iv.

Make sure there are no leaks in rubber hoses connecting the source to the burner.

v.

Keep rubber hoses away from the flame

vi.

A soft rubber hose connection from a gas burner to the gas outlet is better than a semirigid, woven cover type connector, as this lessens the danger of tipping.

vii.

Use a ceramic-centered (not asbestos-centered) wire gauze under the object to be

heated to distribute the heat evenly.

viii.

Use matches or lighters instead of strikers for lighting burners. Light matches or lighter
before turning on the gas. Bring flame to the side of the top opening of the barrel while
slowly turning on the gas.

ix.

Turn off the gas if the gas flashes back or burns at the burner base.

x.

Do not lean toward or reach across a flame.

xi.

Never leave anything unattended while it is being heated or is reacting rapidly.

xii.

Remember that the gas burner barrel remains hot long after use.

xiii.

If wing tops (flame spreaders) are used, allow time for these to cool before removing
them from the gas burner.

xiv.

Turn off gas valves before leaving work area.

B- Safety Rules for Using Electric Hot Plates

i.

Use a hot plate with a smooth, clean surface.

ii.

Hot plates appear exactly the same whether hot or at room temperature. Always
assume they are hot and act accordingly.

iii.

Keep the electrical cord of a hot plate away from water and the heating surface.

iv.

The cord of the hot plate should be checked periodically for frays and faults. Any hot
plate with faulty wiring should not be used. It should be repaired or replaced
immediately.

12

C- Safety Rules for All Heating Processes

i.

Never heat a closed container.

ii.

Never point the open end of a test tube toward anyone.

iii.

Never look into the open end of a heated test tube.

iv.

Test tubes should be held with a test tube holder and heated gently along the side, not
at the bottom, to minimize superheating.

v.

Any set-up should be designed to allow for fast removal of the heat source.

Do not clamp test tubes or flasks more tightly than necessary to hold them in place when heating.
Expanding glass may break if clamped too tightly.

Using a Gas Burner

Laboratory gas burners produce various kinds of flames when different mixtures of gas and air are
burned. The two most common models are the Bunsen burner and the Tirrell burner. Both have
adjustable air vents; the Tirrell burner has a gas control valve in its base.
1. Examine your laboratory burner. Determine which model you have.
2. Connect the burner to the gas supply with rubber tubing.
3. Close the air vents. If your model is a Tirrell burner, also close the gas control valve at the base of
the burner.
4. Hold a lighted match at the top of the burner tube and turn on the gas supply. Do this by opening
the main gas supply valve located on top of the nozzle to which you attached the rubber tubing. (If
your model is a Tirrell burner, first open the main gas supply valve, then open the gas control valve at
the base approximately onehalf- turn.) You should get a yellow, or luminous, flame. When a Tirrell
burner is used, the main gas supply valve should be opened fully and the gas flow regulated by the
gas control valve. Gas supply to a Bunsen burner is controlled by the main gas valve.
5. Open the air vents slowly, to admit more air into the flame, to produce a light blue (nonluminous)
cone-shaped flame. If the flame blows out after lighting, the gas supply should be reduced.
6. Adjust the air vents and gas supply to produce the desired size of flame. For most laboratory work,
the blue inner cone of the flame should be about 1 inch high and free of yellow color. If you want a
smaller flame, close the air vent slightly and reduce the gas supply. You will learn how to control the
burner flame by trial and error.
7. Turn the burner off at the main gas supply valve when done. CAUTION: Confine long hair and
loose clothing when using a gas burner. Do not reach over a burner. Ensure that flammables are not
being used when a burner is lit. Never leave a lit burner unattended. Know the location of fire
extinguishers, the fire blanket, and safety
shower.

13

Heating Liquids
Heating a Liquid in a Test Tube
The correct procedure for heating liquids in the laboratory is important to laboratory safety.
1. Adjust your gas burner to produce a gentle blue flame.
2. Fill a test tube one-third full with the liquid to be heated.
3. Grasp the test tube with a test-tube holder, near the upper end of the tube.
4. Hold the test tube in a slanting position in the flame, and gently heat the tube a short distance
below the surface of the liquid.
5. Shake the tube gently as it is being heated, until the liquid boils or reaches the desired temperature.
CAUTION: Never point the open end of a test tube you are heating either toward yourself or anyone
working nearby. Never heat the bottom of the test tube.

14

Heating a Liquid in a Beaker

Many laboratory experiments require the use of a hot water or boiling water bath. This procedure
describes how to assemble a water bath.
1. Fasten an iron ring securely to a ring stand so that it is 24 cm above the top of a gas burner
placed on the ring stand base.
2. Place a 250-mL beaker one-half-filled with water on a wire gauze resting on the iron ring.
3. Light your gas burner and adjust it to produce a hot flame.
4. Place the burner beneath the wire gauze. For a slower rate of heating, reduce the intensity of the
burner flame.
CAUTION: Never heat plastic beakers or graduated glassware in a burner flame. Never let a boiling
water bath boil dry; add water to it as necessary.

MEASURING VOLUME
Volume measurements are important in many experimental procedures. Sometimes volume
measurements must be accurate; other times they can be approximate. Most volume measures in the
laboratory are made using equipment calibrated in milliliters. Although some beakers have graduation
marks, these marks are designed only for quick, rough estimates of volume. Accurate volumes must
be measured with pipets, burets, or volumetric flasks.

Using a Graduated Cylinder

Half-fill a 100-mL graduated cylinder with water, and set the cylinder on your laboratory bench.
Examine the surface of the water. Notice how the surface curves upward where the water contacts
the cylinder walls. This curved surface is called a meniscus.

15

A volume measurement is always read at the bottom of the meniscus, with your eye at the same level
as the liquid surface. To make the meniscus more visible, you can place your finger or a dark piece of
paper behind and just below the meniscus while making the reading.
Graduated cylinders are available in many capacities. The 100-mL cylinder is marked in 1-mL
divisions, and volumes can be estimated to the nearest 0.1 mL. The last digit in these measurements
is therefore significant but uncertain.

Using a Pipet
A pipet is used to accurately measure and deliver volumes of liquids. Two types are in common use:
volumetric pipets and graduated, or measuring, pipets. The use of a volumetric pipet will be
described. A volumetric pipet has a single calibration mark and delivers the volume printed on the
bulb of the pipet at the temperature specified. (A graduated pipet has calibrations along the length of
the pipet.) Volumes can be measured more accurately with a volumetric pipet than with a graduated
pipet.
1. Place the tip of the pipet below the surface of the liquid to be dispensed.
2. Compress a pipet bulb and press the hole in the bulb against the upper end of the pipet. CAUTION:
Never fill a pipet by applying suction with your mouth. Never push the pipet bulb over the end of the
pipet.
3. Slowly release pressure on the bulb so that liquid is drawn into the pipet to a level about 2 cm
above the calibration mark.
4. Remove the bulb and simultaneously place your index finger over the end of the pipet. If you are
right-handed, you should hold the pipet in your right hand and the pipet bulb in your left.
5. Keep your index finger pressed firmly against the end. Withdraw the pipet from the liquid, and
carefully wipe the outside of the stem with a paper towel.

16

6. Slowly reduce the pressure on your finger to allow the excess liquid to drain into a waste receiver,
until the bottom of the meniscus is at the calibration mark.
7. Now, deliver the remaining liquid in the pipet into the designated receiver. When releasing liquid
from a volumetric pipet, let it drain completely. Wait 20 seconds, then touch the pipet tip to the side of
the flask or surface of the liquid. This action will remove some, but not all, of the liquid in the tip. The
pipet delivers the stated volume when this procedure is followed. A small amount of liquid remains in
the tip. Do not blow this out into your receiver.

17

POURING LIQUIDS
1. Use the back of your fingers to remove the stopper from a reagent bottle. Hold the stopper between
your fingers until the transfer of liquid is complete. Do not place the stopper on your workbench.
2. Grasp the container from which you are pouring with the palm of your hand covering the label.
3a. When you are transferring a liquid to a test tube or measuring cylinder, the container should be
held at eye level. Pour the liquid slowly, until the correct volume has been transferred.
3b. When you are pouring a liquid from a reagent bottle into a beaker, the reagent should be poured
slowly down a glass stirring rod. When you are transferring a liquid from one beaker to another, you
can hold the stirring rod and beaker in one hand.

18

FILTERING A MIXTURE
Sometimes it is necessary to separate a solid from a liquid. The most common method of separating
such a mixture is filtration.
1. Fold a filter paper circle in half and then quarters. Open the folded paper to form a cone, with one
thickness of paper on one side and three thicknesses on the other.
2. Put the paper cone in a filter funnel. Place the funnel in an iron ring clamped to a ring stand.
Moisten the filter paper with a small volume of distilled water, and gently press the paper against the
sides of the funnel to achieve a good fit. (If the correct size of filter paper has been used, the top edge
of the cone will be just below the rim of the filter funnel.)
3. Place a beaker beneath the funnel to collect the filtrate. The tip of the funnel should touch the inside
surface of the beaker and extend about one inch below the rim. Guide flow of liquid with a glass rod
Mixture being filtered Filtrate Solid collects on filter paper Stem touches side of beaker.
4. Decant the liquid from the solid by pouring it down a glass stirring rod into the funnel. Be careful to
keep the liquid below the top edge of the cone of filter paper at all times; the liquid must not overflow.
Finally, use a jet of distilled water from a wash bottle to wash the solid into the filter.
5. When the filtration is complete, wash the solid residue on the filter paper with distilled water to
remove traces of solvent. Dry the solid.
6. If the filtrate contains a dissolved salt, it may be recovered by evaporation if desired.

19

20

Some Glassware and Equipment Used in General Chemistry Laboratory

Beaker

Round Bottom Flask

Funnel

Erlenmayer Flask

Filtering Flask

10

Pestle

Trap

20

30

Seperatory Funnels

Condensers

Mortar
40

50
4
3
2

7
8
11

4
3
2

7
8
9

1
0

Hot Plate

Burette

Distillation Apparatus

Clamp
Crusible

Tripod

Bunsen Burner
Stand
Thermometer

21

INSTRUCTIONS FOR REPORTS

Title of Experiment
Abstract
Abstracts (80200 words) are required for all manuscripts and should describe briefly and clearly the
purpose of the experiment, the principal results, and the major conclusions. Remember that the
abstract will be the most widely read portion of the paper and will be used by abstracting services.
Experimental section. Use complete sentences (i.e., do not use outline form). Be consistent in voice
and tense. For apparatus, list only devices of a specialized nature. List and describe preparation of
special reagents only.
Safety considerations. Describe all safety considerations, including any procedures that are
hazardous, any reagents that are toxic, and any procedures requiring special precautions, in enough
detail so that workers in the laboratory repeating the experiments can take appropriate safety
measures.
Results and discussion. The results may be presented in tables or figures; however, many simple
findings can be presented directly in the text with no need for tables or figures. The discussion should
be concise and deal with the interpretation of the results.
Conclusions. Use the conclusion section only for interpretation and not to summarize information
already presented in the text or abstract.
References. References to notes/comments and to the permanent literature should be numbered in
one consecutive series by order of mention in the text.

22

EXPERIMENT 1
FREEZING POINT OF A SUBSTANCE
Purpose:
To determine the freezing point of acetic acid.
To observe the effect of impurities on freezing point.

Theory:
Freezing point is a characteristic physical property of a substance. It is the
temperature at which a substance changes its physical state from liquid to solid. For a pure
substance, temperature stays constant during melting or freezing. Presence of impurities
causes a drop in the melting point.
The freezing point can be obtained from the cooling curve of a substance. A cooling curve is
obtained by heating the solid under study above its melting point, and then following the drop
in temperature at equal time intervals during cooling. Plotting temperature versus time gives
us the "cooling curve. Theoretically, a cooling curve has a plateau at freezing point as shown in figure
1(a):
(a)

(b)

(1)

T (oC)

T (oC)

End of Solidification
(2)
(3)

Tf

Beginning of Solidification

time (s)

time (s)

Figure 1. Cooling curve for a liquid.

Line (1) shows the cooling of the liquid, line (2) shows the freezing of the liquid and line (3)
shows the cooling of the solid. A curve similar to the one shown in Fig. 1(b) is obtained
experimentally since cooling cannot be achieved slow enough i.e when the apparatus used is
not well insulated. Points falling on straight lines are joined to each other at regions 1 and 2 as in Fig.
1. The intersection point is extrapolated to the ordinate. The temperature corresponding
to the point of intersection is the freezing point of the solid.

Procedure:
1)

Half-fill a 250-ml beaker with crushed ice and some water.

2)

Measure out 5.0 ml of acetic acid and fill this in a test tube.

23

3)

Place the thermometer in the test tube containing acetic acid to read the temperature and
record as initial temperature (temperature at zero second).

4)

Immerse the test tube containing acetic acid and thermometer in the beaker containing icewater.

5)

Start reading the temperature every 5 seconds and record your results.

6)

You may stop taking data after taking 10 more constant readings following the solidification of
the acetic acid.

7)

Plot the cooling curve of acetic acid, presenting time along the horizontal axis (abscissa) and
temperature along the vertical axis (ordinate).

8)

Determine the freezing point of acetic acid from the cooling curve you obtained.

9)

Weigh about 0.3 g of salicylic acid (as impurity) into the same test tube after you concluded
the first experiment. Mix them well using a stirring rod.

10) Repeat the procedure using the mixture.

11) Draw a cooling curve for the mixture. Obtain the new freezing point.
12) Compare the two cooling curves.

IMPORTANT:
Make sure that you bring your ruler and a few pages of graph paper to the laboratory.

24

CHEM-105
Student Report for
EXPERIMENT - 1
Name

Student No

Date of the Experiment: / / 20

Group No

Lab. Instructor : .
(Assistant)

DATA
Pure Naphtaline
Time (s)

Mixture

Temperature (0)

Time (s)

10

10

11

11

12

12

13

13

14

14

15

15

16

16

17

17

18

18

19

19

20

20

21

21

22

22

23

23

24

24

25

25

Temperature (0)

25

Freezing point of Naphtaline: C

Freezing point of the mixture: C

Explanation of the difference

(Attach the cooling curves to this report)

26

EXPERIMENT 2
DETERMINATION OF A CHEMICAL FORMULA
Purpose :
In this experiment, you will determine the chemical formula of magnesium oxide.

Theory :
The Law of Constant Composition tells us that a compound always contains the same elements in the
same proportions by mass. If the atom ratio of the elements in a compound is fixed, their proportions
by mass must also be fixed. When atoms of one element combine with those of another, the
combining atom ratio is an integer or a simple fraction such as 1:2, 1:1, 2:1, 2:3, etc. The simplest
formula of a substance expresses that atom ratio. Some compounds with the ratios given above are
CaCl2, KBr, Ag2O and Fe2O3. If more than two elements are present in a compound, the formula still
indicates the atom ratio, e.g. Na2SO4 contains sodium, sulfur and oxygen atoms in the ratio 2:1:4.
Chemical formula of pure substances can be obtained by determining the masses of each element
present in a known mass of sample. From those masses and the atomic masses we can find the
number of moles of each element in the sample- The mole ratios will equal the atom ratios, and from
those we can find the formula.

Procedure:
1. Heat a clean crucible and lid over a burner flame. Allow the crucible and lid to cool to room
temperature and weigh them on the analytical balance. Record the weight.
2. Place a piece of magnesium ribbon (0.2 0.3 g) in the crucible. Weigh the crucible containing the
magnesium ribbon and the lid.
3. Place the crucible on a clay triangle. Adjust the lid to allow a small amount of ventilation. Heat the
magnesium ribbon. This will cause the magnesium ribbon to oxidize:
4Mg(s) + Air MgO (s) + Mg3N2 (s)
4. Heat until nearly all magnesium present in the crucible is oxidized. When the oxidation is
complete, the sample will not glow brightly.
5. At this stage, remove the lid and continue heating strongly for 5 minutes. This will complete the
oxidation process.
6. Cool the crucible. Crush the product that has been formed into powder, using a stirring rod.
7. Moisten the product with 10-15 drops of water using a dropper. Magnesium nitride which has
been formed together with magnesium oxide, will be converted into ammonia and magnesium
hydroxide:
Mg3N2 (s) + 6H2O (l) Mg(OH)2 (s) + 2NH3 (g)
8. Place the crucible back on the triangle, put the lid in place and heat gently to evaporate excess
water. Take care not to allow any splattering.
9. Then heat the crucible until the bottom turns red for at least 10 min. Mg(OH) 2 will be converted
into magnesium oxide.
10. Cool the crucible, lid and contents to room temperature. Weigh and record the weight of the
product obtained, together with the crucible and lid. Calculate the weight of the product.
11. Calculate the weights of the elements Mg and O present in the sample.

27

Weight of O = weight of the product - weight of Mg

(Assuming that all the Mg is incorporated into the product, MgO)
12. Calculate the number of moles and mole ratios of the atoms constituting the compound. (Atomic
weight of Mg = 24.0 g/mole, O = 16.0 g/mole)

IMPORTANT:
Please dont forget to bring your scientific calculator to the laboratory.

28

CHEM-105
Student Report for
EXPERIMENT - 2
Name

Student No

Date of the Experiment: / / 20

Group No

Lab. Instructor : .
(Assistant)

DATA:
Mass of the crucible + lid

Mass of the crucible + lid + magnesium ribbon

Mass of the product + crucible + lid

Mass of the product

CALCULATIONS:
Mass of magnesium

Mass of oxygen

Number of moles of Mg

Number of moles of O

Mole ratio of Mg to 0 in the compound

Simplest formula of the compound

29

EXPERIMENT 3
THE SYNTHESIS OF ASPIRIN
Introduction:
Aspirin is the common name for the organic compound acetylsalicylic acid, which is widely used to
relieve pain and reduce fever.
The compound of actual medicinal value is salicylic acid.
Unfortunately, salicylic acid is irritating to the mouth and stomach linings. Acetylsalicylic acid is less
irritating and is readily hydrolyzed by the alkaline fluids of the intestines to produce the effective
salicylic acid.
Derivatives of salicylic acid occur widely in nature in roots, bark, leaves, and fruit of a variety of plants.
Given the physiological effects of this family of compounds and their widespread occurrence in nature,
it is not surprising that they were the basis of many ancient remedies. Acetylsalicylic acid was first
prepared synthetically in France (1853). It was introduced commercially in Germany in 1899 and in
the U.S. in 1900. Today several tens of millions of tons of aspirin are manufactured in the world every
year.
Even though aspirin has been a very valuable drug for nearly a century, its mode of action was not
understood until the 1970s. Aspirin appears to produce many of its effects by interfering with the
body's production of prostaglandins, a group of hormone-like compounds that have roles in the
sensitization of pain receptors, elevation of body temperature, and the production of inflammation.

Purpose:
To synthesize aspirin and to determine the yield or fraction of the theoretical amount which can be
made. The synthesis is confirmed by measuring the melting point of the product.

OH

O
H3C

C
OH

O
H3C

O
C
O

CH3
O

OH

O
H3C

OH

Salicylic Acid

Acetic Anhydride

Acetylsalicylic Acid
(ASPIRIN)

Acetic acid

Safety Considerations:
This experiment uses salicylic acid, acetic anhydride and phosphoric acid. The salicylic acid and
aspirin may cause irritation to your skin or eyes, but are basically not hazardous. An excess of these
compounds can be disposed of in the sink or if packaged, in the trash. If you spill some, wipe it up
with a wet paper towel and throw the towel in the trash. The acetic anhydride and phosphoric acid can
cause serious burns. Use them in the hood. Be sure to wear gloves and safety goggles when using
these chemicals. Excess chemicals must be disposed of in the plastic tub of water. This will convert
the acetic anhydride to vinegar and dilute the phosphoric acid. If you spill a lot of either of these, notify
your instructor.

30

Procedure:
- Synthesis
1. Weigh out 3.0 g of salicylic acid and place in a 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask,
2. Measure out 6.0 ml of acetic anhydride and add this to your flask. Be sure to do this in the hood
and wear your goggles.
Don't let the acetic anhydride contact your skin and don't get the vapors in your eyes.
3. Carefully add 5 to 10 drops of 85% phosphoric acid, a catalyst, to the flask and swirl to mix
everything thoroughly.
4. Still in the hood, heat the mixture for about 10 min. in a beaker of warm water (70-80 C).

5. After heating, cautiously add 20 drops of distilled water.

6. Next add 20 ml of distilled water and cool in an ice bath. You can do this at your bench. If crystals
do not appear, you can scratch the walls of the flask with a stirring rod to induce crystallization.
7. Filter the solid aspirin through a piece of pre-weighed filter paper using a Buchner funnel and the
aspirator. Wash the crystals with 2-3 ml of chilled water. The liquid is mostly water and can be
washed down the sink. Allow the air to be drawn through the solid and filter paper for 15 minutes.

Be sure to record the filter paper weight in your notebook.

8. Place the filter paper with the product in a pre-weighed watch glass and put it in the oven at 100
C for about 30 min. until dry.
9. Weigh the watch glass again.
10. Measure the melting point with the Meltemp Apparatus (your instructor will demonstrate) and
compare to the value for pure aspirin of 138-140 C.
11. Turn in your product to the Stockroom.
B- Iron Test For Purity
The formation of a colored complex between phenols and the ferric ion, Fe (3+), is a classic test for
the presence of a phenol. The more intense the color, the more phenol is present. In separate 2 mL
portions of water, dissolve several crystals of each:
the synthesized aspirin
the commercial aspirin tablet
the salicylic acid
Add two to three drops of 1% FeCI3 to each solution and record your observations.

31

CHEM-105
Student Report for
EXPERIMENT - 3
Name

Student No

Date of the Experiment: / / 20

Group No

Lab. Instructor : .
(Assistant)

DATA AND OBSERVATION:

Mass of salicylic acid sample

:..

Mass of watch glass

:..

Mass of watch glass + filter paper with the synthesized aspirin :..
Mass of just the aspirin

:..

Observed melting point range

:..

Iron test observations:

Observation
Synthesized aspirin
Commercial aspirin
Salicylic acid

CALCULATIONS AND RESULTS:

1. Verify that the following equation is balanced and calculate the theoretical yield of aspirin.
C7H6O3

Salicylic acid

C4H6O3

Acetic anhydride

C9H8O4

C2H4

Acetylsalicylic acid
(ASPIRIN)

Acetic Acid

2. Using the mass of your synthesized aspirin as your actual yield, calculate the percent yield.
Theoratical Yield :..
Actual yield :..
% yield = (actual yield / theoretical yield) * 100 =
Answer the following questions:
1. Explain why your percent yield is not exactly 100% by describing at least three sources of
possible experimental error. Would these possible errors tend to make your yield larger or smaller
than expected?
2. Explain the variation in color and intensity observed in the iron test in terms of functional groups
present and the purity of your product.

32

EXPERIMENT 4
HEAT OF FUSION
Purpose:
In this experiment, the molar heat of fusion of ice will be determined.

Theory:
The magnitude of heat flow when a system undergoes a temperature change, is determined by its
heat capacity (C). Heat capacity of a system can be described as the amount of heat (q) required to
raise the temperature of a system by one degree centigrade (t).
C = q / t
The amount of heat required to raise temperature of one gram of a substance is defined as its
specific heat (SH).
SH = q / m t
The heat absorbed when a solid melts at constant temperature (at its melting temperature) is called
the heat of fusion. For example, when one mole of ice melts at 0C the amount of heat absorbed is
6.00 kJ, This is the heat effusion of ice.
H2O (s) H2O (l)

at 0C

H = +6.00 kJ

When two substances or objects are brought together, flow of heat takes place from the hotter one
towards the cooler one, until a thermal equilibrium is reached.
For example, when ice at 0C is put in liquid water at a certain temperature, flow of heat occurs from
the liquid to the ice, Ice absorbed some heat from water to fuse into liquid water at 0C. Heat flow
continues until a thermal equilibrium is reached between water and ice-water, i.e the temperature of
ice increases and the temperature of water decreases and the system attains a final temperature.
Although the initial temperatures of ice and water are different, they reach the same final temperature.

Water at 50 C

Ice at 50 C

Ice-water mixture at a final

temperature 0 C < t < 50 C

In this process,
heat given by water = heat gained by ice for fusion + heat gained by ice-water
to reach the final temp, meaning:
-qwater = (qfusion of ice + qice-water) (SH*m*t)water = [qfusion of ice + SH*m*t)ice]

33

Procedure:
1. Weigh a clean and dry 400-ml beaker to nearest gram on the electrical balance.
2. Half-fill it with water and weigh again. Calculate the weight of water in the beaker.
3. Heat the water to about 50C.
4. Meanwhile, half-fill your 250-ml beaker with crushed ice.
5. Measure the temperature of the water in the 400-ml beaker. Record this as the initial temperature
of water.
6. Quickly damp the ice in water. Stir rapidly. Read the temperature again as shown as the last
piece of ice disappears. Record this as the final temperature of the ice-water mixture,
7. Weigh the beaker again. Calculate the weigh of ice added to water.
8. Calculate the heat lost by water. Specific heat of water (ice) is 4.18 j/gC.
9. Calculate the heat gained by ice after being fused.
i-

Calculate the heat of fusion for the weight of ice you studied.

ii-

Calculate the specific heat of fusion of ice (heat of fusion per gram).

iii- Calculate the molar heat of fusion of ice.

Molar heat of fusion of ice = specific heat of ice x molar mass
10. Compare the value you calculated with the real value (6.00 Ij/mole). Estimate your experimental
error.
% Error = (Real value - Experimental value) / Real value x 100

34

CHEM-105
Student Report for
EXPERIMENT - 4
Name

Student No

Date of the Experiment: / / 20

Group No

Lab. Instructor : .
(Assistant)

DATA:
Weight of empty beaker + water

:...................................

Weight of water

:...................................

Initial temperature of water

:...................................

Initial temperature of ice

:...................................

Weight of beaker + water after adding ice :...................................

Final temp. of ice-water mixture

:...................................

Weight of ice

:...................................

CALCULATIONS:
Temperature change in water

=...................................

Temperature change in ice

=...................................

Heat lost by water

=...................................

Heat gained by ice

=...................................

Heat of fusion of ice

=...................................

Specific heat of fusion of ice =.........................

Molar heat of fusion of ice =......................

Theoretical value =......................

%Error =.........................

35

EXPERIMENT 5
ACID-BASE TITRATION (NEUTRALISATION)

Introduction and Purpose:

Aqueous solutions can be of three types, depending on their pH values. They can be acidic, when
their pH value is less than 7, they can be basic (or alkaline) when their pH value is greater than 7 or
they can be neutral if their pH value is just 7. Human gastric juice is acidic because it contains some
hydrochloric acid, HCl. Under normal conditions the pH value of the liquid in our stomach varies
between 1 and 2. Sometimes the pH value of this liquid in our stomach drops to a value less than 1.0.
When this happens we have an upset stomach and start feeling some pain or burning in our stomach.
We relieve ourselves from this bad feeling by taking an antacid tablet which increases the pH value of
the liquid in our stomach. Antacid tablets contain some basic substances and these neutralize the
excess acidity of the gastric fluid. Such antacid tablets contain at least one of the following materials;
magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2, sodium hydrogen carbonate NaHCO3 or calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2.
Neutralization reaction is represented by the following equation:
+

H (aq) + OH (aq) H2O (l)

+

The acidity of a solution which is caused by H ions produced by the ionization of an acidic substance
is neutralized by OH ions which are produced by basic substances. Acid-base reactions do not occur
in the stomachs only. They are widely applied in many areas of chemical industry.

36

During this Lab session you will come across acids and bases. You will prepare a solution of sodium
hydroxide of desired concentration and then titrate it with standard acid solution to determine its actual
concentration. Then you will use this standardized base solution to neutralize an acid of unknown
concentration and determine the concentration (molarity) of the acid supplied to you.
When a titration experiment is carried out an "indicator" is used. The indicator shows the so called
+
"End-point" or "Equivalence point". This is the point when equivalent amounts of acid (i.e. H ions)
and base (OH ions) have been mixed. When equivalence point is reached, the indicator changes
color. When this color change is observed no more acid should be added to the base (or no more
base should be added to the acid). In strong acid-base titrations the indicator used is usually
Phenolphthalein. It is colorless in acidic medium and changes to a nice pink color when the pH is ~9.

Materials Required:
Standardized 0.100 M HC1 solution,
~ 0.1 M NaOH solution,
H2S04 solution of unknown concentration,
Burette,
Pipette,
50-100 ml Erlenmeyer flask,
Phenolphthalein indicator.

Procedure:
1. Using a pipette, take 25 ml of 0.100 M HC1 into an Erlenmeyer flask. Fill a burette with ~ 0.1 M
NaOH solution up to the zero mark. Add one or two drops of Phenolphthalein into the acid
solution and shake the flask. Place it under the burette and open the tap of the burette. Let the
NaOH solution run into the acid solution while shaking the flask. When the color or the acid
solution where the acid drops starts changing, close the tap of the burette, and add the base
drop-wise very carefully. The pink color will disappear by shaking the flask. When the pink color in
the flask persists, it means the end point is reached. Read carefully the volume of NaOH added
and note it down. Knowing the volume of the acid, the molarity of the acid and the volume of the
base added, you can calculate the molarity (M) of NaOH solution.
2. Repeat the same procedure using this time another acid, probably H 2S04 or HN03 of unknown
molarity, in the erlenmeyer flask. Fill your burette with NaOH solution, and titrate the acid with
NaOH solution whose molarity you have determined in part (1) above.

37

CHEM-105
Student Report for
EXPERIMENT - 5
Name

Student No

Date of the Experiment: / / 20

Group No

Lab. Instructor : .
(Assistant)

MEASUREMENTS AND CALCULATIONS:

A)

Calculation of the molarity of NaOH Solution

Volume of standard HCl solutuion

=............ ml

Molarity of standard HCl solution

= 0.100 M

Volume of NaOH solution

=............ ml

Given that:
Volume of HCl x Molaritv of HCl = Volume of NaOH x Molarity of NaOH
(V1)

(M1)

(V2)

(Mz)

Calculate the molarity of NaOH solution (M2):

B)

Calculation of the molarity of the the acid solution

Volume of acid solution

=............ ml

Volume of NaOH solution used

= ........... ml

Molarity of NaOH solution

=............ ml

Calculate the molarity of the the acid solution:

38

Some Useful Conversion Factors:

Mass Conversion
Factors
1 g = 1 x 10-3 kg
1 g = 1 x 10+9 ng
1 g = 1 x 10+12 pg
1 g = 0.035274 oz
1 mg = 1 x 10-6 kg
1 mg = 1 x 10-3 g
1 lb = 0.453592 kg
1 lb = 453.592 g
1 oz = 28.3495 g
1 oz = 0.00625 lb
1 u = 1.66057 x 10-27
kg
1 metric ton = 1000 kg
1 metric ton = 2204.6
lb

Length
Conversion
Factors

Energy
Conversion
Factors

Pressure
Conversion
Factors

1 cm
= 1 x 10-2
m
1 mm
= 1 x 10-3
m
1 nm
= 1 x 10-9
m
1 micrometer = 1 x
10-6 m
1 angstrom = 1 x 1010
m
1 in
= 2.54 cm
1 in
= 0.0833 ft
1 in
= 0.02778
yd
1 cm
= 10 mm
1 cm
= 1 x 10-2
m
1 mi
= 1.609 km
1 mi
= 5280 ft
1 yd
= 0.9144 m
1 yd
= 36 in
1m
= 39.37 in

1 J = 0.23901 cal
1 J = 0.001 kJ
1 J = 1 x 10+7 erg
1 J = 0.0098692 L
atm
1 cal = 4.184 J
1 cal = 2.612 x 10+19
eV
1 cal = 4.129 x 10-2 L
atm
1 erg = 1 x 10-7 J
1 erg = 2.3901 x 10-8
cal
1 L atm = 24.217 cal
1 L atm = 101.32 J
1 eV = 96.485
kJ/mol
1 MeV = 1.6022 x 1013
J
1 BTU = 1055.06 J
1 BTU = 252.2 cal

1 atm = 101,325 Pa
1 atm = 101.325 kPa
1 atm = 760 torr
1 atm = 760 mm Hg
1 atm = 29.9213 in Hg
1 atm = 14.70 lb/in2
1 atm = 1.01325 bar
1 atm = 1013.25 mbar
1 torr = 1 mm Hg
1 torr = 133.322 Pa
1 torr = 1.33322 mbar
1 bar = 1 x 10+5 Pa
1 bar = 1000 mbar
1 bar = 0.986923 atm
1 bar = 750.062 torr

Volume
Conversion
Factors
1 L = 1 x 10-3 m3
1 L = 1.057 qt
1 L = 1000 mL
1 L = 1000 cm3
1 L = 1 dm3
1 L = 1.0567 qt
1 L = 0.26417 gal
1 qt = 0.9463 L
1 qt = 946.3 mL
1 qt = 57.75 in3
1 qt = 32 fl oz
1 cm3 = 1 mL
1 cm3 = 1 x 10-6 m3
1 cm3 = 0.001 dm3
1 cm3 = 3.531 x 10-5
ft3
1 cm3 = 1000 mm3

Some Useful Fundamental Constants

Avogadros Number
Plancks Constant
Ideal gas constant
Speed of light

NA
h
R

23

-1

6.02 X 10 mol
-34
6.626 X 10 J s
8.3143510 J/(K mol) or 0.082314 L Atm/K Mol
8
c
2.9979X 10 m/s

39

Periodic Table (adapted from: http://www.ptable.com/?lang=en)

40

Eastern Mediterranean University

Department of Chemistry
Printed in 2014

41