Sloan's Constructive Architecture

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SLOAN'S
CONSTRUCTIVE ARCHITECTURE;
GUIDE TO THE PRACTICAL BUILDER AND MECHANIC.
IN
WHICH
IS
CONTAINED
A SERIES OF DESIGNS FOE DOMES, ROOFS AND SPIRES,
A NUMBER OF PLATES SHOWING THE INTERIOR CONSTRUCTION AND FINISH OF BAYS, WINDOW
SHUTTERS, SLIDING DOORS, ETC., DESIGNED EXPRESSLY FOR THE JOINER'S USE;
CHOICE EXAMPLES OF
THE FIVE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE,

SELECTED FROM THE MOST CELEBRATED SPECIMENS OF ANTIQUITY, WITH THE FIGURED DIMENSIONS OF
THEIR HEIGHT, PROJECTION AND PROFILE, AND THEIR DIVISION INTO PARTS.
TO WHICH
IS
ADDED
A NUMBER OF USEFUL GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS,

EXAMPLES OF GROINS, CENTERING FOR ARCHES, DIAGRAMS OF STAIR
LINES,
WITH ARCHITRAVES, DOOR MOULDINGS,
THE WHOLE BEING
|Ihistrnti)
IriT
Siilg-si^ Car^fullg ^rcparcb plates,
ACCOMPANIED BY EXPLANATORY TEXT AND GENERAL ESSAYS, TO WHICH
IS
APPENDED A COPIOUS GLOSSARY.
BY
SAMUEL SLOAN, ARCHITECT,

AUTHOR OF THE "MODEL ARCHITECT," "CITY AND
STIBTTRBAN ARCHITECTURE," ETC.
PHILADELPHIA
J.
B.
LIPPINCOTT
1859.
k CO.
ETC.
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1859, by
SAMUEL SLOAN,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania.
PREFACE.
TnE
work on Constructive Architecture suggested
idea of publishing a practical
author while engaged
in the
suggestion was natural.
It
were teeming from the
press,
mechanic would prove no
Few works
might well be supposed
less
adapted
as
have hitherto been published
extent, local and peculiar.
short years
and
We
In
fact,
in
this
country
owing
of mechanics
and
still
fewer are pos-
have been generally accustomed to consider foreign publi-
though possessing many things valuable
these,
they were not designed
characterized this branch
The
works on every other branch of science
that, while
a volume specially designed to meet the wants of the practical builder or
sessed of any considerable degree of merit.
well
the
to
seasonable than useful.
of this character
cations as our standards;
itself
preparation of the material for a large volume of architectural designs.
themselves, are yet not
in
elucidate methods of practice which are, to a considerable
to
improvement and invention which has of
to the spirit of
among
us,
many even
ago have become obsolete, while numerous
of the
methods and appliances are
little
late
terms in general acceptance a few

in every-day use,
of which no mention can be found in the most recent of European authorities.

It will be seen that, in the classification of our subjects,
systematic
we have aimed
Commencing with domes, we have presented in
arrangement.
examples of forms generally esteemed the most useful

eminently practical.
and
illustrated solely
are of simple
contain
There has been no straining

on account of
its
yet reliable construction
creations of the ancients
the
Five Orders
have devoted much more space than
is
And
ideas.
on
which
intrinsic usefulness.
succession
numerous
These are original and
Our numerous roof examples
The examples
in Joinery,
to the illustration of those
all
some degree of
Everything presented has been selected
after effect.
and tested capability.
and are suggestive of many new
natural
Constructive Carpentry.
in
and
practicability
at preserving
which succeed,
beautiful
that pertains to the builder's art
is
and unique
founded,
usually given in works of similar character and pretension.
impressed with the importance of this subject to
all
connected with or engaged
in
we
Fully
the art of building,
we
have chosen our examples from the most celebrated and beautiful specimens of antiquity, and presented
them, we trust, in a style of art commensurate with the interest they possess, and the intrinsic beauty of
their several proportions.
Nor has
the
consideration of
building, been neglected.
works of
the
more important parts of geometrical construction, as applied
While we have omitted many of the comparatively
this description usually
useless problems with
to
which
abound, we have yet been careful to present such examples as were in
themselves important and really serviceable.
We
may
instance,
centering, and the carefully prepared diagrams of
stair-lines,
work concludes with
architraves,
some choice examples of
which
among
will
these,
the
plates of
groins
be found extremely valuable.
moulded panelings for doors,
etc.,
and
Our
specially
'y
2*7940
4
designed and adapted for the Joiner's
E FAC
11
Of
use.
E.
the whole of
our examirtes,
they are not only practical in themselves, but highly suggestive of ideas
tions
artisan
to the
who peruses them with
it
may
be remarked, that
new forms and combina-
as to
careful study.
In the arrangement of the text, we have, in every instance, for the convenience of the reader, placed
the
opposite the appropriate
plate
description, thus obviating
trated publications, when the example

as
we deemed would prove
be likely
still
will
be found
its
interesting, in connection with
we have
further to illustrate them,
interspersed with the descriptions
arrangement
separated from
is
and
much
annoyance often experienced
an
To
relevant matter.
the
several
in
we
subjects of which
treated,
uniformly devoted a certain portion of our space.
yet in such a
manner
as to render
own
distinct in its
it
illus-
such general information
and
Thus
particular
valuable matter, culled from the works of the most eminent masters, in
addition to the information bearing directly upon the subject-matter, which the experience gathered in the
course of a long and extensive professional practice has supplied.
Our work would be incomplete without a Glossary
that
which
is
appended
will
be found useful and
compendious.
We
have
and our aim
long been
in
the
aware of the urgent necessity which existed
present volume has been to
advanced principles of his
art.
These
principles
place within
for
the reach
a work
of
are illustrated by practical
of
this
every mechanic
At
examples.
time, a careful study of the details of classic design, as exhibited in the Orders, will teach
parison to
form a correct idea of the general proportions necessary to be observed
in
character
the
more
the same
him by comany proposed
work, while an attentive perusal of the different geometrical and isometrical drawings will enable him to
comprehend the best method of applying material
The
illustrations
have done.
satisfaction,
may be
safely left
They have been prepared
at
and are referred to with some
progress which our country
is
making
in
in
the more difficult parts of mechanical construction.
to speak their own merits
one word in regard to them and we
considerable expense, and

little
this
in
a manner calculated to afford
degree of pride and pleasure, as evidencing the rapid
important and beautiful department of the
fine arts.
CONTENTS.
Preface
List of Illustkations
DOMES.
9
Historical Notice
12
Descriptive of Plates
KOOF AND SPIRE CONSTRUCTION.

21
General Essay on Eoofs
22
39
Essay on Spires
52
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY.

General Essay
55
.
56
THE FIVE ORDERS,
(First Series.)
71
Introductory
72
Grecian Doric, Descriptive

"
Ionic,
"
"
Roman
Doric,
"
"
The Orders
75
Remarks
76
Descriptive
77
in General
Doric, Descriptive
Roman
Ionic,
"
Descriptive
"
78
79
Remarks
Corinthian,
'
74
Descriptive
Modern
"
73
Remarks
80
.
Remarks
81
.
82
Descriptive
......
THE ORDERS
IN PARTS, (Second
Series.)
83
....
....
Tuscan Order, Principal Parts

"
Pedestal and Base, Descriptive
"'
"
General Remarks
"
"
Entablature and Capital, Descriptive
84
85
86
(6)
CONTENTS.
Doric Order, Principal Parts
"
"
"
"
General Remarks
"
Entablature and Capital, Descriptive
Ionic Order, Principal Parts
....
"
"
"
"
General Remarks
"
Entablature, Descriptive
Corinthian Order, Principal Parts
"
"
"
"
General Remarks
"
"
Composite Order, Principal Parts

"
"
"
"
"
General Remarks
......
....
.....
.......
........
........
......
"
General Essay on the Orders
Details of Caps, Bases, Architraves,
etc., to
Classic Doors and 'Windows, Descriptive
Mouldings,
"
Definitions
Glossary
etc.,
General Essay
Descriptive
Geometrical Problems
the Orders, Descriptive
ILLUSTRATIONS.
DOME.
PAGE
Perspective
n. Plan and Section
in. Transverse Section
12
I.
IV.Plan
14
16
18
showing Principal Construction
KOOFS.
Example
VI. Example
of
Open Timber Eoof
VII.Example
of
Hip Boof
Roof
of Tie-beam
V.
22
(large span)
(Gothic)
24
26
.
Isometrical Perspective
Example of Framing
X. Isometrical Perspective
XI. Example of Collar-beam
XII. Isometrical Perspective
28
VIII.
a Hip Roof
for
IX.
32
Roof
Examples
34.
36
XIII XV. Examples of Collar-beam Roofs

XVI.
30
38
44-
of Tie-beam Roofs (two designs)
46
XVIL Examples of Open Timber Roof (Gothic)
48-
XVIII. Examples of King-post and Tie-beam Roof
Examples
XX. Examples
XXI. Examples
XIX.
of
50
Queen-posts and Tie-beam Roof
52-
of Truss-beams
54
of Spire

XXII.Designs
XXIII.Designs
XXIV. Designs
for
Bay Window
for
Twin Window
XXV. Designs
for Sliding
Window
XXVI.Designs
for Sliding
Doors
XXVII.
Designs
XXVIII.Designs
XXIX. Designs
for
....
.....
.....
....
.....
....
56
Framing, Bridgmg, and Trussing Joists
for
Folding Doors
for Single
for Interior
Doors
Doors
58
60
62
Shutters
64
66
68
70
(7)
ILLLUSTRATIONS.
FIVE ORDERS,
(First Series.)
PLATE
XXX. Grecian
Doric
72
XXXI. Grecian Ionic

XXXII. Roman Doric
74
7G
Modem Doric
XXXIV. Roman Ionic
XXXIII.
XXXV. Roman
78
80
Corinthian
82
THE ORDERS IN PARTS,

XXXVI.-VIL Tuscan Order
XXXVIU.-IX. Doric Order
XL.-XLI.
Ionic
Order
....
....
....
(Second Series.)
XLII.-III. Corinthian Order
Composite Order
Caps and Bases to the several
XLVn. Bases of the several Columns
XLVin. Architraves of the Orders
XLIX. Imposts of Arches
L.-LI. Classic Doors and Windows
LII.-III. Grecian and Roman Mouldings
XLIV.-V.
XLVI.
84
88
92
96
100
Pedestals
104
106
108
110
112
116
.......
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
LTV.
Problems
LV.The
The
LVI.
Ellipse
Parabola and Hyperbola
....
122
124
126
PRACTICAL CARPENTRY.
Arches
128
LVIII.-IX.-LX. Groins
130
LVII.
JOINERY.
Geometrical Stair-lines
LXIV. Moulded Architrave
LXI.-II.-III.
136
142
LXV. Designs
for
Door and Window Architraves
LXVI. Designs
144
for
Moulded Panelings
146
CONSTRUCTIVE ARCHITECTURE.
BRIEF HISTORICAL NOTICE

OF
CELEBRATED DOMES,
ANCIENT AND MODERN.
A
plan;
Dome
is
an arched or vaulted
roof,
springing from a polygonal, circular, or
ellij^tic
presenting a convex surface on the outside or a concavity within, so as that
every horizontal section
may
be of similar figure and have a
common
According to the plan from which they spring, domes are either
polygonal; of these the circular
The word dome
paraboloidal, etc.
polygonal
roof,
may
and cupola
is
are denominated surmounted domes;
axis.
circular, elliptical, or
be spherical, sjiheroidal, ellipsoidal, hyperboloidal,

applied to the external part of the spherical or
But the terms
to the internal.
mously, although perhaps incorrectly.
vertical
Such as
rise
are frequently used synony-
higher than the radius of the base
those that are of a less height than the radius
are called diminished or surhased; and such as have circular bases are termed cupolas.
The remains
numerous ones
of ancient
still
exist
in
domes are generally spherical in

the neighborhood of
Rome and
their form.
Naples.
Ruins of
They were
frequently used .among the Romans, after the accession of Augustus, in whose reign the
use of the arch, and consequently of domes, became common.

of Grecian origin, though in
all
The arch indeed
the ancient edifices of that country
is
we do not meet
(9)
10
with a single instance of a built dome; that which covers the monument of Lysicrates,
being only a single stone, can be looked upon but as a lintel; and the invention of
seems justly attributed to the Komans or Etrurians.
this species of vault
Principal
among
the ruins of domes in and about Rome, are those of the temples
The
of Bacchus, Vesta, Romulus, Hercules, Cybele, Neptune, and Venus.
most magnificent
is
that of the Pantheon, built in the reign of Augustus.
and consists of a hemispherical concavity, enriched with
entire,
ing in an aperture called the eye.
The
exterior
coffers,
and
oldest
It is still
and terminat-
from several degrees, in a
rises
sloping direction, nearly tangent to the several internal quoins, and presenting to the
spectator the truncated segment of a sphere considerably less than a hemisphere.
The dome
without
of the
temple of Bacchus
Externally
coffers.
it
is
now covered with
been the original form; a similar roof

of Jupiter, in the Palace
The dome
also
is
is
internally
common
hemispherical, though
which
roof,
also to be seen over the
may have
dome of the temple
of Diocletian, at Spolatro.
of Santa Sophia, at Constantinople, built in the reign of Justinian,
is
the most remarkable constructed after those of the Romans, and ranks next to the
Pantheon
Anthemius had promised
the architects.
magnitude should
he erected four
other,
ally
On
Anthemius of
in point of antiquity.
and
filled
Tralles,
raise a
to
dome over
Roman
eclipse the magnificence of the
pillars,
and Isidorus of Miletus, were
shaped them into a complete

the ring thus formed the
circle, at
dome was
and
till
feet
whose
from each
he had gradu-
raised, being the first ever built
on pendentives.
resist the pressure of
by walls and abutting half domes, the superstructure gave way toward the
fell at
the end of a few months, taking with
it
the death of Anthemius, Isidorus strengthened

tain voids left
by
so great a load,
his predecessor;
view
this
the level of the extradoses of the arches.
Notwithstanding the precautions taken by the architect to

arches,
fifteen
up the angular spaces between the archi-vaults
edifice,
With
Pantheon.
one hundred and
at the distance of
this
but they
the half
dome on
that side.
the
east,
After
the eastern pillars by filling up cer-
still
proved too weak for the support of
and when the dome was turned upon them again gave way before
the work was completed.
To
counteract this thrust on the east, Isidorus
now
built
strong pillared buttresses against the eastern wall of a square cloister that ran round
the building, from which he threw flying buttresses over the void, and raised the
a third time, but with very

lessen
its
little
success;
for
dome
though every precaution was taken
weight, by using light materials and reducing
its
thickness, the arches
to
were
CELEBRATED DOMES.
H
I
SO
much
fractured that he
was under the necessity of
up the large arcades on
filling
the north and south sides with arches of less dimensions, in three
These circumstances are mentioned

this building
.as
those of
referred,
is
to
show that the
stories.
were not so well acquainted with the principles of dome-vaulting
more modern date;
would probably have hooped
for the latter
such a dome immediately over the arches and pendentives, so as to confine

to a perpendicular thrust, or nearly so, as
of the far more ponderous
Wren,
Sir Christopher
dome of
was done by Michael Angelo
Rome; and
St. Peter's, at
in the cupola of
Paul's, at
St.
still
London.
at
the
intersection of the arras of
pressure
more recently by
The
present dome,
The lower
on
It rests
is
sup-
part of the
of windows adorned with columns on the exterior, and the top
surmounted by a lantern, on which
The dome
its
the Greek cross, and
ported by corbellings placed in the angles of the square.
dome has a row
or chained
in the erection
however, of Santa Sophia, was reconstructed by the nephew of Isidorus.

the square formed
which
architects of the age to
is
is
a cross.
of St. Mark's, at Venice, erected about the year 973, and that of the
cathedral, at Pisa, built early in the eleventh century, are both similar in plan to the
preceding.
The dome
of San Vitale, at Ravenna,
of the lower part
is
by eight
that of an octagon, supported
is
piers at the angle of the
Above, the wall sustains a semi-spherical dome; the plan being a
dome.
The plan
of very curious construction.
circle
within
an octagon.
In 1298, the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Foire was begun at Pisa, by the
brated Arnolfo Lusii;
he died two years
dome upon the vast plan
cute the
unfinished for one hundred and
was permitted
Philip Brunelleschi
its
No
after.
projector
architect could be found to exe-
had designed;
it
consequently remained
twenty years, when, in a professional convocation,

to attempt
its
opposition and the sarcasms of his contemporaries,

ticable,
completion.
who
Notwithstanding the
held his scheme to be imprac-
he carried on the building, and completed the cupola in a manner worthy pf

This dome, which
his great reputation.
is
octangular and of great elevation,
is
is
wall, without
dimensions exceed those of
the
Roman
The
aid
of buttresses, though
its
domes, with the single exception of
cathedral church of
begun by Bramante
in
St. Peter's, at
Rome
formed
supported merely by the springing
of two vaults, with a vacancy between them, and
ancient
cele-
all
the
St. Peter's.
the
largest temple ever built
was
1513, and carried on successively by Raphael, San Gallo, and
PLATE
Is
a perspective view, sliowing the interior
apartment or
dome
hall,
may
dome, in
some
intended to convey in
of this description
of
I.
sort
connection with
and then proceed
be more particularly applied.
to give such simple
will serve to illustrate the design
mode
large
we
First,
is
shall
briefly notice a
few
most desirable and appro-
and concise explanations of the succeeding plates as

mechanic a clear idea of the intended
to the intelligent
of construction.
We
first
and give
design for
an illustration of the purposes to which a
of the structures in which the use of this peculiar form of covering

priate,
have elsewhere referred to domes as more exclusively applied to Pagan temples, at their
origin,
and afterwards by the great masters of the middle and succeeding ages
But the design here introduced
of Christian churches.
structures as the increasing wants of

It
may be
modern
civilization
is
intended
in the erection
more particularly
for such
render necessary.
described as hemispherical, and would form an attractive feature in designs intended
connected with the administration of the
for secular uses.
In buildings
whether judicial or
legislative; in those intended for post-office purposes, or the receipt of
in civic halls, in
which
in
crowded communities at
least
it
would form a
fitting
of government,
customs;
one noble apartment should be reserved for
the use of the people and occasions of public ceremonial;
amid the hum of business,
aflfairs
and
in
the great marts of commerce,
apex to the Exchange, "where merchants most
do congregate."
We
might also instance colleges and academies for literary,
a variety of similar institutions, in which

priate.
(12)
its
scientific, or artistic
purposes, and
introduction would be useful, ornamental, and appro-
CELEBRATED DOMES.
whom
Michael Angelo, the latter of
dome
designed the
impossible, in limits like the present, to give
13
as
now
it
more than a very
appears.
and
brief
double,
is
is
circular
The double
of corbellings.
consoles, instead
The
on the plan.
dome
internal
restricted
constructed on double
consoles are crowned with a small cor-
forming an impost for eight arches, from the upper part of which springs the
nice,
dome; on the top
Up
is
to this time
a lantern light, which
not apparent externally.
is
domes had been constructed on walls and
new plan was
Peter's a
adopted.
The dome
The
plinth.
plinth
is
diameter of the octagon

the plinth
construction
is
is
Upon
192
feet 9 inches,
and the internal

placed the
is
Externally the work
The drum
is
is
died;
The
The
pierced with sixteen windows.
built to the height of the entablature
external
134
drum
of the dome.
feet
8J inches.
interior
is
The
formed
thin slabs of travestine

walls are strengthened on
When
the outside, between the windows, with sixteen buttresses.
drum had been
this entablature is a
The
faced with
the arches
circle
formed of rubble and fragments of brick.
with bricks stuccoed.

stone.
From
externally an octagon, and internally a circle.
a circular stylobate, above which
is
corbellings; but in St.
stands upon four piers.
spring the corbellings, which are finished by an entablature.
On
is
is
The dome,
notice of the characteristic features of this magnificent effort of genius.
which
It
the base of the
of the dome, Michael Angelo
but some time before his death he had caused a model to be made, to which
he added drawings and instructions.

appointed
the architects.
Giacomo
After his death, Pirro Ligorio and Vignola were

della
Porta, the pupil of Vignola, followed
master as architect; but although the designs of Michael Angelo were

lowed, the
dome
itself
was constructed under the
gave Giacomo, as a colleague, Domeuico Fontana, by
On
attic is
strictly
pontificate
of Sixtus V.
whom
dome was
the
the construction of Michael Angelo, a circular attic was
first
his
fol-
Sixtus
constructed.
formed.
This
strengthened externally by sixteen projections, placed over the buttresses of
the dome; on the attic rises the double dome, the internal diameter of which at the
base
is
is
138
about 84
solid.
At
feet 5 inches.
feet.
the
divides the two
At
The curve
is
an arc of a
the height of 27 feet 8 inches
base the thickness
domes
externally
is
the opening of the lantern
is
feet
7 inches.
3 feet 2i inches wide;

is
83 feet 10 inches.
three rows of small windows, and
is
from the
The
circle,
attic
circular
whose radius
the
is
is
space which
and the height from the
The external dome
dome
attic
to
pierced with
joined to the internal by sixteen walls or spurs,
diminishing in thickness as they ascend to the lantern.
The
base of the lantern
is
PLATE
Fig. 1 represents
Is double.
the
ments, and the internal finish of the
showing also the plan of

in the entire framing
it
lightness
its
a most
facile
desirable light
The
showing a portion of the roof over pedi-
dome and tambour.
of segmental arch.
and
timber,
its
and the
Fig. 2
is
the finished plan of the above,
It will be seen that
it
is
proposed to use wood
facility
with which
it
can be procured in this country, as
adaptation, owing to the comparative dryness of the
and useful material
constructions
in
of this
internal finish
is
intended to be of plaster, laid
might be stained,
The tambour
oS"
in
and
if
structures.
is
perforations, filled
in with
glass,
which
preferred.
intended to be finished with an ornamental balustrade running around an aper-
ceiling
is
coved with
sunk panels, having
finished with an appropriate cornice.
which are designed to

(U)
is
sunk panels with enriched mould-
ture of considerable diameter, technically called the eye, just above the point of
The
economy
character, so that where
and handsome cornice running around the rim, just above the apex of segmental
The middle row of panels should have alternate
the dome.
atmosphere, render
and graceful forms may be put up over even comparatively small
ings, with a bold
arch.
section,
and construction.
The cheapness of
well
soffct
transverse
11.
The circumference
assist in lighting the hall
similar
is
its
enrichments
filled
separation from
to
those
below,
with eight circular windows,
through the aperture before mentioned.
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CELEBRATED DOMES.
15
Above the two domes
arched, and pierced with small windows.
In the centre
form, surrounded with an iron gallery.
rises
bate, broken into sixteen parts, forming projecting pedestals,
a circular plat-
is
the lantern on a stylo-
on which are buttresses
decorated externally with coupled Ionic columns, and having the space between
The
with arched openings which give light to the lantern.

the lantern
39
is
external diameter of
the height from the platform to the top of the cross 89 feet
feet;
dome
7i inches; and the whole height, from the external plinth of the
263
feet.
387
feet.
St.
The
the top of the
height internally, to
total
The dome
and finished in 1710.
dome of the
sides
too
much
They gather
as in similar constructions.
The height
from the pavement.

the
dome.
internal
stylobate,
on which
tween these are
same
By
size.
by
is
filled
The
drum
of the
of
interior
The
consoles.
the
an. order of Corinthian
cornice
98 feet 91 inches
is
62 feet 6^ inches to the springing
is
drum
decorated with a continuous
is
The
pilasters.
thirty-two
spaces be-
The drum
with twenty-four windows and eight niches.
by 51
Above the
eight sohd constructions in masonry.
rises the interior
this
and are surmounted
in a circle
internal order of the
dome, the diameter of which at the springing
feet in height.
The
dome
external
and decorated with projecting
ribs,
is
102
feet
is
to the
decorated externally with an order of thirty-two Corinthian columns, united

wall
1675,
in
are obtained instead of four, and the corbellings do not project
by a complete entablature, decorated with
of
is
being formed by the four
great arches of the naves, the other four by false arches of the
means eight supports
lantern,
placed over the intersection of the four naves.
is
a regular octagon, four of the
is
to the cross,
work of the great Wren, was begun
Paul's Cathedral, London, the
The ground plan
filled
drum
21 inches
constructed of wood, covered with lead
is
This dome
forming panels curved at the ends.
terminates with a finishing which joins the base of the lantern, which
is
supported
on a conical tower terminated by a spherical dome.
About the same time that Wren

sard, a
French
of this
dome
architect, constructed
a square, on which
is
square there are four chapels.

the cross from a springing which
octagonal figure.
outer
dome
is
The
built the
the
is
dome
dome
of the Invalides, at Paris.
inscribed a
The dome, which

is
common
of St. Paul's, Hardouin
Greek
is
to both.
cross;
in
the
centre of
base supporting
internal dome, constructed with masonry,
spheroidal, constructed of stone at the base
The plan
in the angles of the
double, rises
The
Man-
is
it
spherical.
and brick above.
is
an
The
It
is
PLATE
Is a transverse
section
this plate, as the
next
showing the timbers.

will
more
It
will
be
unnecessary to
fully elucidate the plan of construction.
the larger represents the plan of the tambour at

(10)
III
its
give
Of
description
of
the two diagrams,
base; the lesser that of the ribs and apex.
piuaaa
5 aTti^
Slo ail At cK*
3.osTLtkaTs XrOi Tliil*
CELEBRATED DOMES.
framed of wood and covered with
of the
The modern Pantheon,

by
is
The
lead, like St. Paul's.
which surmounts the lantern
ci'oss
17
330
is
at Paris, formerly the
feet.
Church of
by four
sustained
lofty, is
some respects
pillars,
was
St. Genevicive,
XV.
a distinguished architect, in the reign of Louis
Soufflot;
total height to the top
built
The dome, which
arched over the cross parts.
similar in
It is
to St. Paul's.
Of wooden domes, that
du Bled,
of the Halle
also at Paris, is
an excellent ex-
ample, being more than 200 feet in diameter and only one foot in thickness.
The Chevalier de Montferrand has

struction of the
dome of the Church
may
of the construction
employed a new material in the con-
lately
of St. Isaac, at St. Petersburg.
be interesting.
brief account
series of twenty-four cast-iron ribs, rest-
ing on a plate of similar material 7 feet wide, runs quite round the circumference of
the top of the cornice of the colonnade, which girds the drum.
All these ribs are
attached at their heads to a horizontal plate or curb, 6 feet 3 inches wide, which
At
lows the periphery of the dome.
height the rib
this
is
fol-
divided into two parts,
one of which, 12 feet 6 inches deep, follows the sweep of the inner dome for a
height of 20
21
feet in
and
feet,
is
bolted at
its
summit
perforated
to a
cylinder of
cast-iron
diameter and 7 feet high, which forms the centre aperture at the summit
The
of the inner dome.
other part follows the line of an intermediate cone, with
a catenary outline, similar to the one in

6 inches deep, with
perforations to
another length of 21
feet,
St.
render
Paul's.
it
It
also 21 feet long, 2 feet
is
The
lighter.
conical ribs
and are again connected by another
dome
spring the circular ribs, about 16 feet long, forming a
plate,
have then
from which
to the intermediate cone,
with their heads also bolted to a cylinder 8 feet 6 inches in diameter and 18 inches
The upper
high.
portions of these ribs diverge at the top, so as to form a base for the
octagonal cupolino, which consists of a series of

ings, including the
The
dome, with
its ball
story posts, ribs, and bracket-
cross at the apex,
which
last are of brass gilt.
spaces between the ribs are filled in with pots, rendered on their surfaces with
plaster
and painted with sacred
bronze
gilt.
of the
drum
with
and
cast>-iron
plates
The whole
subjects.
entablature and
of the cupola likewise

of
pedestals of this
copper,
of a single casting.
The
outer
flat,
and the balustrade over the
consist of cast
which form the
balustrade
The
profiles
dome
is
covered externally with

peristyle
and wrought-iron framing, faced
and
mouldings.
The twenty-four
carry winged angels of bronze, above 9 feet high, each
roofing
is
wholly of
c
iron,
covered with copper.
The
skele-
PLATE
Is
the plan.
It will
be
seen
the
that
base
IV.
two
a square, having
is
of
sides
its
formed of
the walls and pilasters; the other two being framed of trussed girders, placed immediately over the
crown of the arches, of which they
Within the square, struts are placed
form the support.
also
These angle-struts
diagonally at the four corners, so as to form the angles of a perfect octagon.

are also trussed, and
securely bolted to the tie-beams or girders at one end, having their opposite
extremities resting upon the walls.
Over these
the ends of which converge toward
the centre, and
is
placed a horizontal course of look-out joists,
thereby forming the circle upon which the rim or base of the dome
spring
These
the ribs of the superstructure.
all
ribs
lean
portion to
it
is
is
therefrom,
From
supported.
rim
this
have a strut or foot-brace securely toed into
By
each, as also into the corresponding joist beneath.
of the greater portion of the weight, as
lengths
arc cut off at equidistant
these
means the look-out
joists are relieved
necessarily distributed so as to cause the largest pro-
upon the walls and trussed beams.
The pendentives are worked up from the
spring of the lower arches to the base or rim, from which point starts the regular formation of the
dome.
The lower rim of a dome of
this diameter
and construction can be most readily formed of
hree thicknesses of two-inch plank, cut in sections of the circle and bolted together with overlap-
The upper rim may be
ping joints.
however, two thicknesses
will
similarly constructed,
and
These should be put together in
suffice.
For these
also the ribs.
pairs,
latter,
each pair forming
stile.
The
cross-ties are to
Two
be placed so as to leave openings for the panels.

a dome of this dimension.
sufficient thickness for these in
inches will be a
Cleats can be nailed on for the sink-
ing of the panelling.

Fig. 1, on
Plate
The ground plan; one
Fig. 2.
bearings, and the
dome
IV., shows the elevation of the girders
manner
in
A.
portion showing the connection of the angle pieces with their
which they are trussed.
The other half shows
all
add, in conclusion, that in a
gilding, with other
upon the walls and

the coup
d'ooil
streaming
dome
of this description the use of fresco painting and
modes of decorative embellishment, can be introduced with admirable

ceiling.
would be
still
If to these were added the
further heightened,
European domes which the author has
and a beautiful
seen, as that of
effect
produced.
to
both
tiles,
In some of the
the Invalides, at Paris, the rays of light
from above, and equally distributed throughout the
and golden hues as almost insensibly
effect,
laying of the floor with encaustic
interior,
blend the variegated colors
one harmonious whole, heightening their brilliancy, and flooding over the
rich
the timbers of the
in their relative positions.
We may
in
floor
and walls such
remind one of the legendary visions of fairy-land.
pa., ^y
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CELEBRATED DOMES.
ton of the entablature of the peristyle
affixed to the
columns by wrought-iron pins
The frame work
is
templates.
The
to
also
of cast and wrought iron, resting on and

let into
the shafts to a considerable depth.
also let into the cylindrical wall of the
dome, and securely affixed
cornice rests on cast-iron corbels, and
on cast-iron
rest
is
19
The
girders.
total
the caissons and rosettes
weight of metals of
em-
descriptions
all
ployed in this great work, amounts to the enormous quantity of nearly 19G7 tons.
The
careful skill with
which the
architect has fulfilled
and the
his part,
fine
taste
and discrimination which he has displayed in the decorative embellishment of the
Church of
St. Isaac's,
render
it
one of the most beautiful and striking edifices of the
century.
Square turrets, surmounted with domes, bearing resemblance to a
bell
in their
outhne, were frequently used in the reign of Elizabeth, and her successor, the First
James.
Domes
are sometimes
made convex below and concave
up a much greater proportion of the
side
than the
above, the former taking
latter;
these
may
be variously
denominated Moresque, Turkish, or Hindoo.

All the ancient
Roman domes
are,
on the convex
side,
much
less
portion of
a sphere than a hemisphere; but these, from the completion of the Church of Santa
Sophia to the finishing of
St.
Paul's cupola, are of the
surmounted kind, approach-
ing gradually nearer and nearer to the proportion of those beautiful
were
so universally adopted
Paul's, the sides of the
and admired in the middle
section are struck
ages.
Grecian architecture, the contour of the old

cially in cases
Roman dome
which
In the dome of
from centres in the base
continued, would meet in an angle in the axis of the dome.
spires
line,
which,
St.
if
Since the revival of
has also been revived, espe-
where other parts of the building are decorated with any of the
orders.
Exterior domes should never be applied to buildings in the pointed style of architecture.
The
Europe
following are the admeasurements of some of the most celebrated domes of
20
TABLE OF ADMEASUREMENTS OF SOME OF THE MOST CELEBRATED DOMES OF EUROPE.
DOMES OF ANTIQUITY.
Dome
Feet in
Height from
diameter externally,
the ground line.
142
143
of the Pantheon
"
Jlincrva ^leilica, at llorac
Baths of Caracalla
"
Baths of Diocletian
Temple of Diana
"
Proserpine and "Venus
78
9T
112
116
74
83
98
78
87
77
115
201
DOMES COMPARATIVELY MODERN.

Santa Sophia, at Constantinople
Mosque
of Achraet
San Vitale, at Rarenna
92
120
55
91
139
310
91
199
139
330
FROM THE TIME OF BRUNELLESCHI.

Santa Maria
del Fiore, at Florence
The Chapel of
St. Peter's, at
the Medici
Rome
Chapel of the Superga, at Turin

"
64
128
Invalides, at Paris
80
173
Val de Grace, Paris
55
133
Genevi6ve, Paris
67
190
London
112
215
Pantheon, or
St. Paul's
St.
Cathedral,
ON THE
PRINCIPLES
AND CONSTRIJCTION OF
WITH
ROOFS,
GENERAL DEFINITION OF THE TERMS EMPLOYED.
The
have
some place of
necessity of
been experienced
shelter from the
mankind
bj''
in
the very earliest stages of barbarism;
origin, therefore, of covered habitations, is lost in the

first
inclemency of the weather must
remote obscurity of time.
When
must have been very rude indeed.
shelter of the savage
abodes, such as caverns, or the hollows of trees, failed him,
it
is
the
The
ready formed
probable that his
untutored ingenuity devised no better refuge than could be derived from the boughs
of trees, covered with moss and twigs, or the rough skins of animals.
Did our
limits
permit,
it
might be curious
gradual development of a perfect roof,

the
Red Indian
or the
more
this
this
rude origin the
Sylvan abode to the
and more enlightened
simplest and earliest description of roof

against each other;
pitching
from
from
finished tenement of the South Sea Islander,
at the elaborate constructions of later
The
till
to trace
wigwam
we
of
arrived
races.
was doubtless formed by two
rafters
but the objection, that the rafters had a tendency to
must soon have become appa-
spread,
and thrust out the walls on which they
rent.
This led to the introduction of the tie-beam, which, in conjunction with the
rafters, gives
records,
The
rested,
us that simple form of roof of which mention
and which
is
still
in general use
among
first
who made them with
made
in the earliest
us.
ancient Eastern nations had their roofs quite
have been the
is
flat.
The Greeks appear
to
a declination each way, from the middle to

(21)
PLATE
V.
Fig. 1
a design for a roof whose span
is
here shown, the tie-heam
and where the
also introduced at the apex,
points where
used at the
may
extend from 100 to 110
and braces
In
butt.
example the tie-beam has
this
shoes which extend from the heel to the principal truss-bolt on either side, and are
beam through
wood two inches
pieces of hard
thick
the foot of the truss-bolts, with a straining-sill
is
story can easily be fitted up in a roof of this description,
can easily be procured for
the plate
it
this purpose,
The camber
beam should be 2
Fig. 2
is
from
The camber-beam
The
required,
if
by placing
joists
By
and camber-beams.
tie
heels are secured
in the tie-beam should be
inches;
by
upon the
reference to
stirrups, in addition to the necessary
5 inches in a span of 100
the connections with the
all
construction for gutter.
Fig. 5
the tie-beam;
to
spur-brace and straining-sill.

the truss-rafters.
Fig. 7
is
be rule-jointed.
will
of the centre of the tie-beam, with
the
and the form of
iron stirrup;
the apex, showing the
is
iron
head and
its
connection with
the suspension-rod
tlie
head of the
and braces.
and
the con-
Fig. 8 represents a part
truss.
TABLE GIYING DIMENSIONS OF TIMBERS.

Tie-beam
principal-rafters
Lower
"
Camber-beam
Spur-brace to do. do
Straining-piece to do. do.
Straining-sill
(22)
10X16
10X14
"....10X12
10 XH
Tmss-rafter above do. do.
inches.
"
Braces to
straining-sill
....
Upper braces
Shoe beneath tie-beam
6x10
G
8X10
"
rnrlins
14
"
Common-rafters
3x5
10- 12
"
Look-out
10x10
"
X 10
"
10
is
the
Fig. 4 shows the heel of the rafter
the position of
a portion of the camber-beam, showing the iron head,
is
Fig. 3
joints.
the straining-sill;
a section of the camber-beam, showing the connection of the
Fig. 6
by means of
nection with the rafters
that in the camber-
show the
shoe;
the cast-iron
and the butt joint of the truss in centre of beam.

it
feet
heads and shoes
iron
the cast-iron head drawn to a large scale, so as clearly to
and the mode of bolting
Upper
is
In a span of 100 feet a height of 10
between the
a section showing the tie-beam with the shoe beneath;

brace;
springing
pieces
will be seen that the purlins are intended to be notched into the principals, and the
common-rafters into the purlins.

bolts.
to the
suspended from the principals by iron rods.
tie-beam between the truss-bolts, and flooring them over.

feet
by
trussed
is
bolted
which are equally notched
secured to the upper side.
trussed with spui'-braces and straining-pieces, and
by
six inches wide,
The centre of the tic-beam
both at regular distances.
into
the method
Cast-iron heads are
and camber-beams unite; and iron shoes are
rafters
the straining-sills
By
feet.
suspended by iron rods instead of queen-posts.
is
5X
joists
Ceiling joists
10
10
3X8
inches.
iu.o \y
Sar.i4-
Sloan. Axcr.
J-Lns^-.ati.aaE tiih
Thil
PRINCIPLES AND CONSTRUCTION OF ROOFS.
This was but gentle, the height from the ridge to the level of the wall
the edges.
not exceeding one-ninth or one-eighth of the span, as
many
of their ancient
what
decline of
the
was
called true
2)if<-h;
The
to the sqttare.
third,
being
rafters
and from that
made
three-fourths
as
private edifices of
The
of the
ridge
the
till
was then somewhat lowThis
breadth of the building.
but subsequently the designation seems to have been applied
heights of roofs were further depressed from the square to one-
but with us they are frequently executed
to the fourth;
lower, the pitch being regulated
When
be seen by the remains of
have been considered the standard,
termed Gothic architecture.
is
may
In most of the old public and
temples.
Britain, the equilateral triangle seems to
ered;
23
by a variety of
executed with judgment, a roof
is
much
causes.
one of the principal
ties
of a building,
binds the exterior walls to the interior, and to the partitions, which act like
it
strong counterforts against them.
Eoofs are of various forms, according to the nature of the plan, and the law
The most simple form
the horizontal and vertical sections.
is
of
that which has only
one row of timbers, arranged in an inclined plane, which throws the roof entirely to
one
The
is
called a sJied roof, or Jean
best form for a rectangular
breadth, equally inclined, and
equal
This
This
side.
is
sometimes called a pent
Roofs
flat
to.
building consists of two rectangular planes of
terminating in a line
parallel
to
the horizon.
roof.
on the top are said to be trimcated.
These are frequently employed
with a view to diminish the height, so as not to predominate over that of the walls.
When
all
the four sides of the roof are formed by inclined planes,
it
is
said to
UpiMd
roof; the inclined ridge sprmging from the
angle of the walls being called the Mix
Roofs of this description are frequently
be hipjied, and
is
therefore called a
truncated.
Roofs upon circular bases, with

of the
circles
all
their horizontal sections circular, the centres
being in a straight line drawn from the centre of the base perpen-
dicular to the horizon, are called revolved roofs, or roofs of revolution.
When
the plan of the roof
is
a regular polygon, or a
horizontal sections being all similar to the base,
any curve convex
and the
circle, or
an
ellipsis,
the
vertical section a portion of
to the outside, the roof is called a dome.
For the convenience of the reader

are used in roof construction,
it
by way of
will be necessary to explain such terms as

definitions.
an example of
Is
an open
termed perpendicular;
a style which
roofs of large buildings,
60 to 80
later
has
of
as
to
mechanic, but
make
little
Gothic
style
pointed
use
extensive
rather
into
or
more particularly adapts
in cases
this
in
it
for
where the span extends from
shows the construction across the entire span, one half of which exhibits
is
displayed in a finished state, with
The tracery and spandrels are
The roof being drawn
separately from the timbers.
filled in,
come
of such construction as
is
of which are planted on the framing.
all
form of the
years
late
The corresponding half
the naked framing.
manner
that
in
and may be used with perfect safety
Fig. 1
feet.
VI.
roof,
The example here presented
country.
etc.,
timber
PLATE
the
all
constructive
features
and
by way of
further need be added
mouldings,
its
also
formed and
correctly to a scale, and in
such a
perfectly intelligible to an ordinary
detail
description.
roof of such considerable
span, having no tic-beam, must necessarily have two collar-beams, as well as hammer-beams, which
are a mai'ked peculiarity of the style.

the lower, to
principal-rafters;
make
it
Of
the tie-beams, the upper
may
bolt
into the
principal-rafters
be used in each of the latter.
this
description
are
usually constructed
drels, etc., finished of the
In
this design, the
side with
this
mode
further tightened
same
material,
clearly
of
and the lining of the
more
clearly to
together,
and have
ceiling.
is
jibs
their ends
thought necessary, a small joint-
joints.
in imitation of oak, or stained
They
collar
Roofs
and varnished.
are intended to be lined on the lower
For these yellow pine
is
preferable.
By
obtained within the space formed by the sheathing

Figs. 2 and 3 are portions of
show the form of the
detail
and
finish,
the roof
drawn
to a
and the mode of con-
struction.
v
TABLE SHOWING THE DIMENSIONS OF THE TIMBERS.
and across
by the introduction of
shown and explained by the drawing.
and grained
of finish a free circulation of air
large scale, so as
If
the
pine timber, having the various mouldings, span-
common-rafters are not exposed.
narrow worked boards with beaded
for the roof
and pinned.
side
into
The form and framing of the hammer-beams, the
braces, and the footing of the rafters, are
of
still
The upper collar-beam and king-post may be halved
and keys.
slightly tenoned
perfectly secure, requires straps on either
the back of the rafter, and will require to be
and braces tenoned
is
LKi/rj
S am^ SI o aj\ JVx ch*
:B.ofien.Oial' sXitli yXil*.
25
Pieces of timber laid on the walls, in order to distribute the pres-
WaU-jyJates.
sure of the roof equally, and to bind the walls together.
Strong frames of carpentry, generally of a triangular form, supporting
Triisses.
They
the covering.
of the walls
are disposed at equal distances, and are used
too great to admit of common-rafters alone,
is
of being bent or broken by the weight of the covering, for
when
the expansion
which would be
in danger
want of some intermediate
support.
Any
Tie.
by opposite pressures, which have a tendency from each
Straining-piece.
by opposite
acted upon
tie
former, but the latter
pressures,
Two
other.
its
extremities to two
pieces
flexible
inflexible,
of timber
substance
may
others,
Hence,
other.
be used for the
being in a state of compression.
in
the
sides
of a truss, supporting a
work over them, on which the covering
grated frame of timber
rests.
Horizontal pieces of timber, fixed upon the principal-rafters.
Purlins.
Tie-beam.
It
at
upon
others, acted
which have a tendency toward each
must always be
P)-incipal-rafters.
rafters.
piece of timber connected
contrary to a straining -piece.
acts
two
piece of timber connected at its extremities to
horizontal
piece
of timber, connected
to
two
oj)posite
principal-
answers to prevent the walls from being pushed outward by the weight
When
of the covering; and to support the ceiling of the rooms below.
the bottom of the rafters

Commoii-rafters.
it is
Pieces
called a collar-beam.
of timber
of small
the purlins, and parallel to the principal-rafters.

Pole-plates.
placed above
section, placed
They
equidistantly
upon
sujjport the covering.
Pieces of timber resting on the ends of the tie-beams, and supporting
the lower ends of the common-rafters.
An
King-post.
upright piece of timber in the middle of a truss, framed at the
upper end into the principal -rafters, and at the lower end into the tie-beam;
this
prevents the tie-beam from sinking in the middle.

Queen^posts.
Two
upright pieces of timber framed below into the tie-beam, and
above into the principal -rafters, placed equidistantly from the middle of the
its
truss, or
extremities.
Struts.
Oblique straining -pieces, framed below into the king or queen-posts, and
above into the principal -rafters, which are supported by them; or sometimes they
have their upper ends framed into beams, which are too long
without bending.
They
are often called braces.
to support
themselves
PLATE
VII.
The angle and
Fig. 1 exhibits a hip-roof, designed to cover a large span.

cripple-rafters, as
tral
They
is
sustained
by an
keys
iron bolt, which passes through a cast-iron
head
The tie-beam
inserted between the upper rafters at the ape.x.
which supports the hip and
camber-beam and
is
suspended to the truss-beam,
appendages, by iron bolts proceeding from cast heads between the
its
trussed-rafter.
In addition to
this,
the camber-beam
thoroughly braced and bolted in the manner described, this roof

with safety over a span extending from 70 to 85
porting
beam
Fig. 3 shows the ends of the upper
or truss.
Fig. 4
iron head.
is
is
well
and
constructed,
perfectly adequate to sustain
Fig. 2
the elevation of the sup-
is
rafters
at their junction with the
a section showing the connection of the tie-beam with the queen-post, the
iron stiiTup, and
the foot of
upper section of
this roof, lest
brace.
It will
The
in the tie-beam should
be at least three inches.
is
pitch
purlins are notched into the principals as on
over which the joists should be notched;
1X2
be seen that provision
the carrying out of the regular
objectionable height.
be cross lathed with
feet.
braced by three pieces
is
When
on each side of the centre, which butt against a straining-piece.
itself
made
fast with
are secured to the tic-beam with iron stirrups, which are
The camber-beam
jibs.
bearing cen-
its
In this design, the queen-posts are intended to be of
heel and the principal-rafter.
to the
hard wood.
and
they are usually termed, are sustained by a truss which takes
intermediate, or
and
made
line
for flattening
should
give to
Plate V.
It should also be cleated with
an
The camber
1X3
to prevent cracks in the plastering, the
inch laths, placed 16 inches apart from the centres.
it
the
inch cleats,
whole should
By
this
means
the plastering will be preserved from the cracks so frequently occasioned by the shrinkage of the
By
timbers.
intelligibly
reference
to
the
succeeding
displays the disposition of
plate will
the several
framed for the reception of the common-rafters.

(26)
be
seen
an
isometrical view,
timbers, showing a portion
which more
of the roof
ready
[p[Lo\yaa
j ajo.'r
'z,
loan. AfCtV^
Short transverse pieces of timber, fixed between two others for sup-
Puncheons.
porting
it
them
equally, so that
when any
These are sometimes called
equally.
27
Straining-heam.
on the one, the other
force operates
resists
studs.
piece of timber placed
between two queen-posts at the upper
ends, in order to withstand the thrust of the principal-rafters.
Straining-sill.
piece of timber placed at the bottom of two queen-posts,
upon
the tie-beam, in order to withstand the force of the braces, which are acted upon by
the weight of the covering.
Horizontal pieces of timber, made, on the
Camber-heams.
from the middle toward each end, in an obtuse angle,

above the straining-beam, in a truncated
are placed
which the lead
under
They
cipal-rafters, etc.;
method
is
by
parallel
the best form

particular
is
that which
manner of
dove-tailing, the other
is
same
them, for giving
to
joints at the meeting of struts
The
Cogging.
and
are sometimes called principal-braces,
The
Joggles.
roof, for fixing
Pieces of timber framed in the
Auxiliary-rafters.
I'equired.
for discharging the water.
They
the boarding on
laid.
is
principal -rafters,
upper edge, sloping
is
plane with the
vertical
additional
and sometimes
support,
when
cushion-rafters.
with king-posts, queen-posts, or prin-
at right-angles to the struts.
One
fixing the tie-beams to the wall-plates.
by notching the under
cutting the wall-plate in a reverse form to
fit
side of the tie-beam,
This last method
it.
is
and
the most pre-
ferable.
Ridge-tree.
rafters
piece of timber fixed in the vertex of a roof,
meet on each
Thin
Straps.
side of
pieces of
The upper edge
it.
is
where the common-
higher than the
rafters.
iron running across the junction of two or
more parts
of a truss, or frame of carpentry, branching out from the intersection in the direction of the several pieces, for the purpose of securing
ought always to be double,
viz.,
one strap on each
side,
them
and
to each other.
They
their ends strongly bolted
to each of the pieces.
To
these
may
be added the
was sometimes moulded; afterwards
this
and became of main importance in the

Eammer-beam.
of timber
principal
lying
rafter
in early roofs the inner wall-plate, which
Cornice;
feature
was greatly enlarged and enriched,
roofs.
Principally apphed in Gothic architecture.
on the wall-plates, at
and strut are tenoned;
right-angles with
in
some
roofs,
the wall
horizontal piece
into
which
the
two ranges of hammer-beams
PLATE
Fig. 1
is
an isomctrical view of the roof presented on the preceding
the wall-plate upon which the timbers bear
angle braces arc notched and bolted.

angle-rafters.
On
this
is
4 inches thick
l)y
plate.
In
this
14 inches wide, and into
design
it
the
Into these are framed the angle pieces which support the
diagram are shown the relative positions and connections of the several
Fig. 2 shows, on a large scale, the heel of the principal-rafter or truss-beam under the
timbers.
hip,
VIII.
and describes the method of
the nifter at the point of
its
its
'
Fig. 3
construction.
connection with the iron hcnd;
and a part of the common-rafter, with the sheathing.

at its junction with the principal-rafter
of the purlin;
is
a section showing the upper end of

a portion of the brace;
the purlin;
Fig. 4 shows the head of the queen-post
and cambcr-bcam; the heel of the truss-raftor
and a portion of the common-rafter and sheathing.
Fig. 5 explains the
a section
mode
bolting the heads of the braces to the camber-beam.
DIMENSIONS OF THE TIMBERS.
....
9X16
9X1G
inches.
Common-rafters
3X5 inches.
Principal-rafters
"
Look-out
Queen-posts, (oak)
9Xl(i
"
Angle-rafters
Camber-beam
"
Upper-rafter
9X10
8X12
Siiort studs
^xlO
6X12
6X12
6X12
Braces
7X7
Ceiling-joists
3X8
Purlins
4X10
Tie-beam of Principal
(28)
"
joists
Intermediate-rafters
of
iPQ-^juao
3!.oStnthal's
"Litii.
Hula
29
occur, in wliich case the upper range differs from the lower, inasmuch, that instead
of the principals being tenoned into them, the reverse
Of
at
first
many
late years
is
have been constructed of
roofs
iron, a material
members, such as
to be introduced for particular
the case.
tie
which began
and suspension
but
rods,
afterwards became employed for the entire truss, and sometimes for the covering like-
Iron roofs
wise.
are
described of timber, those
most
the
for
part of
members which
similar
construction
those
to
already
and
are subjected to tension, such as ties
suspending rods, being of wrought-iron rods; and those which suffer compression, such
as principals
and
in railway works,
and such
Having advanced
of the middle
now
those
roofs
have been very extensively employed
like.
roofs generally, the
in our notice of
so far
ages, differing
open Gothic roofs
they do in essential matters of construction from
as
in use, claim a portion of our attention.
may
These
rafter,
Such
struts, of cast-iron.
be classed in four divisions, namely:
or single-framed
roofs;
framed with
Eoofs
Roofs with tie-beams, trussed
hammer-beams
and
and
braces;
Roofs constructed with collars and braces, or with the latter only.
Of the
discarded
first,
or
earliest
by the mediaeval
kind,
it
may
be observed that they were never entirely
mth
they are to be met
architects;
English, decorated and perpendicular structures.
In the
first
in
Norman, early
named, they were pro-
The tie-beam was sometimes used
bably the only description of roofs in use.
in
medigeval roofs, independently of the other timbers, being simply laid across the walls,
and pinned down to the

to
by the
Many
wall-plates.
builders, in order to retain
expedients were subsequently had recourse
and make
an ornamental feature in the design.
it
In some instances the tie-beams are beautifully moulded; in others they are
plain,
even when the roof
at a very early period, the
it
will generally be
The
enriched with panelling and moulded
beam was made
perfectly horizontal tie-beam
generally find
is
and
ribs,
In roofs of low pitch, which appear to have been in use
elaborately carved bosses.
itself
left quite
is
to
bear the whole weight of the
of rare occurrence;
cambered, as are also
the
where a tie-beam
collar-beams;
even
the
is
roof.
used
we
hammer-beams
found to incline upward from the walls.
disagreeable effect of a straight tie-beam
having curved braces framed from

thus forming an arched support for
endeavored, with varied
success
as
its
it.
under
side,
was
often
connecting
further counteracted
it
with the wall-pieces,
In roofs of higher pitch, the builders
to effect, to
by
still
retain the arched shape in conjunc-
PLATE
method of framing commonly employed
Fi". 1 exhibits a
tie-beam and queen-posts are used;
and
flattened
which often occurs

the span
in
addition to which the
In
These
rafters.
may
pitch
is
By
example a
be broken at
height -which would
this
may
objectionable,
this
the
means a
be
difficulty
obviated.
easily
description, the
are
camber-beam
supported, where they connect with the queen-
both horizontally and vertically with
shoes, firmly bolted
a thorough
introduction of
serves
bolt
firmly to
joint
this design, all
the joints of
bolts;
in
secure the upper end of
All these connections are fully explained by Figs. 1,
the plate to the queen-post.
on Plate X.
this
of the queen-posts form three sides of an octagon, to which are united
right-angle
by wrought-iron
lessen
regular line of pitch be continued.
situations where a high
Each
should be trussed.
posts,
so as to
of the greatest extent advisable in roofs of
is
the angle, and
In
hip-roofs.
readily be adapted to a span of from 50 to 70 feet.
any degree necessary,
to
should the
otherwise be attained
When
may
it
in
roof of this description to a given pitch, the upper portion
To accommodate a
the queen-posts
IX.
3, 4, 5,
and
6,
the timbers butting against the queen-posts are
curved or rule-jointed, so that the settlings usually occasioned by the shrinkage of the timbers
equal bearings, whereas by the method generally pursued in
may
retain
this
character, the
joints,
their
downward tendency
no matter how perfect they
for a roof
of
this
embedded upon the
description
walls,
is
calculated
may have been
should
in
to
in
no case be
which adds much to their
destroy, in all
their
less
original
cases,
making
joints
the firmness of
positions.
The
These should
the
wall-plates
than four inches in thickness;
stability.
of
solidly
also be firmly dove-
tailed together at the angles; in addition to this an angle brace should cross each of the corners
at a distance of
plate.
The
from four to
joints of
should be notched
their position
six
feet
from the angle each way, with
the wall-plate should in
into the
plate.
on the plan of
Figs. 2
all
cases be
its
ends dove-tailed into the
made under
the tie-beams, and these
and 3 show the angle and right-angle
with
hip.
For the further elucidation of
this design,
we
refer the reader to the succeeding plate,
contains an isometrical view, and the principal connections in detail.

(80
rafters,
which

This, however,
tion with the tie-heams.
In
many
rising
from
of an unbroken arch.
omitted, a
springing
Icing-post,
therefi'om
to
the
not at
is
be compared with the
all to
tie-beam roofs the form of
and
principals
ridge,
tlie
being
efifect
arch was entirely
tie-beam, with
of the
centre
the
31
curved
Of
substituted.
braces
this
form
there are various adaptations.
This form of roof was in
Triissed-rafter roof.
pose of giving headway;
likelihood chosen for the pur-
all
and having once been employed,
its
beam, both in regard to construction and general appearance, led
and substituted
and was
collar,
by
also further stiffened
under
and
at others
ing,
each separate pair of rafters
its
is
at
times
above the
collar,
In good examples of this form of cover-
trussed, so that,
is
kind of roof
of this
braces, crossing
side.
somewhat the appearance of an arched

so termed)
to its being preferred
In roofs of a wide span, each pair of rafters had a
for the latter.
tenoned into
superiority to the tie-
ceiling;
the
pentagonal, the
viewed from below,
it
presents
of the arch
it
may
soffit
(if
two lower inclined
sides
be
being
formed by the lower part of the rafters themselves, the two next by braces passing
obliquely from
which
collar
one rafter to
its
oj^posite,
and the upper or horizontal
side
by the
In roofs of this character, the rafters generally
intersects the braces.
extended to the outside of the walls and formed the eaves; consequently, the walls
being of great thickness, and never carried up higher than the wall-plates, a con-
and the under-
siderable space intervened on the inside between the top of the wall
Instead of allowing the rafter to pitch upon a plate laying near the
side of the rafter.
outside of the wall,
made
of old
on a
struts
which would have afforded but a very insecure hold, the builders
use of the entire thickness of the wall, by filling up this space with
line
with the wall, which were framed into the under side of the
and by connecting these with the

into
which each was framed,
foot of
so as to
each rafter by a horizontal piece of timber,
assume the form of a triangle whose base was
equal to the thickness of the wall, they contrived to obtain an excellent hold.
perhaps, gave the
many
first
idea of the beautiful
hammer-beam
roofs
that
still
This,
adorn so
sacred and other edifices.
Hammer-heam
roofs
description of roof,
come next
we may
notice,
in succession.
first,
is
at the
Among
the
many
varieties of this
those formed of hammer-beams, collars, and
connected together with curved braces.
struts,
beam
rafters;
Secondly, those in which the collar-
omitted and the curved braces are carried up almost to the ridge, and framed
apex of the arch into wedge-framed
struts, into
which the
principals are also
PLATE
X.
Fig. 1 presents an isometrical view of the roof contained
tie-beams are
joint bolts
and
attached to
the queen-posts by stirrups, with jibs and
head of the queen-post.

the
queen-post at right-angles with the pitch of

rafters
roof.
with the braces at the foot of the queen-post.
Each
sides of
tie-beams
the
and
their
of
Fig. 3
keys, instead
of
the
these
are
bolted
through the
shows the connection of
these
Fig. 4 displays a section of the tie-beam
and queen-post, as secured together by an iron plate and joint

ing the under
which are
Fig. 2 explains the connection of the angle
employed to sustain those at either end.
principal-rafters with the
easily under-
The interme-
dimension than those of that which supports the hip or angle-rafters.
lighter
diate
more
principal -rafters, the timbers of
one of the intermediate
This view embraces
stood.
of
relative positions of the timbers, with their connections, etc., can be
and
sition
on Plate IX., by wliich the dispo-
bolts.
connections below the
Fig. 5
is
the plan, show-
queen-post.
Fig. G
is
transverse section of Fig. 4.
The
purlins are 'notched into the principal -rafters,
The thickness of the
various
bolts will
of
course
be
and the common -rafters

regulated
into
the purlins.
by the extent of the span of
the roof.
The
following table gives the dimensions necessaiy for the several timbers in a roof of seventy
feet span:
Tie-beam, (supporting angle-rafters)

Principal-rafter to do.
9X16
inches.
l'^.^'^.
Sam^
SIcELD. Jorcti^
PRINCIPLES AND CONSTHrCTION OF ROOFS.

Thirdly,
tenoned.
hammer-beam
having collar-beams and no struts; and
roofs
The
those which have neither collar-beams nor struts.

this description, in
which the arched brace
thickness, one
three inches in
and reaching up as
principal
33
on either
following
lastly,
an example of
is
formed of three pieces of timj^r, about
is
tenoned
side,
the
into
hammer-laeam and
far as the purlin, the centre piece forming the
the arch, being tenoned into each principal, and
itself
apex of
acting as a brace, and to a
certain extent as a collar-beam.
These are the most usual varieties of

are
many
other minor diflferences to be
this beautiful
met
form of
although there
roof,
with.
In roofs with complete collar-beams, the arched braces were usually made in four
two uniting the hammer-beams with the lower half of the
pieces,
other two
connecting
the
upper
halves with
the
was further
ranges, with their braces and struts,
what
might be on them
strain there
the wall;
The
of a
single
to stiffen the principals,
and thence
to the lower range,
usually of less pitch than
hammer-beam
when one
roof.
These
down on
generally less
is
is
a natural simpli-
braces, besides bringing the different

First,
they convey the
the walls, where they can offer a greater resistance
and in the next
lateral pressure;
is
on to
also include roofs braced
timbers together, serve two other more important purposes.
any
directly
they occur the roof
This style of roof
The curved
hammer-beam roof
thrust of the roof lower
and bring
the braces, which are usually curved, simply connect-
ing the wall pieces and principals together.

fication of the
When
many
set is used.
CoUar-hraced roofs constitute the last division.

together without collar-beams;
are
object of these second
the effect produced by these two series of hammer-beams
pleasing than that
to
There
collar-beam.
examples of roofs having two ranges of hammer-beams.
and the
principals,
place, they serve as a great steadiment to
the walls, the latter being by far the most important of their uses.
We
will
conclude this description by stating, that
specimens of mediseval
roofs,
found among the old palatial
as applied
edifices
to other
than
there
ecclesiastical
and interesting public
of these are in excellent preservation, and form
are
several
beautiful
purposes, to be
halls of England.
Some
magnificent and striking evidences
of the taste and skill of the architects of the olden time.
Having given these

place to append
bers,
some
descriptions of various kinds of roofs,
rules for finding
it
may
not be out of
the proper scantlings of the different
and the manner in which each member

E
is
affected.
mem-
PLATE XL
Fig. 1
represents
collar-beam
employed
for securing
the tension-rods.
by
them
are
to tie-beams;
the
At
this
opposite tie
tension-rods
and secured thereto by
joint
in
and the halvings of the
tie
locked into the wall-plate, and
manner
in
centre, tenoned
the
is
the iron stirrups to
and keys, as
fully explained
is
Fig. 7
we have previously
into
is
ties
by
this
the under
mode
side of
to.
the
are
halved
the principal-
of double thickness, notched one
Fig. 2
represents the
Fig. 3 shows the extension of the heel, which
connected with the principal-rafter.
referred
collar-
placed, heading immediately under
The
of sufficient length to admit of four heel bolts.
Fig. 6 shows the connection of the tie with
(34)
jibs
back to each of the halvings.
or
and collar-beam.
which the collar-beam
is
The collar-beam
apex, and gives the detail of the stirrups, and the
bolt.
side, to receive
through iron shoes, to each of which they
principal-rafters.
bolts.
inch in depth each way, with a tongue
is
pass
manner usually
apex they butt with a rule joint against a
point an upright brace
and the
together at their point of crossing
the
at the
These are secured to the rods by means of
the tie-rafters.
the junction of
shoe,
and
in the
tie
to
be introduced for a
by a nut; these shoes are placed immediately beneath the connection of the
secui'ed
rafters,
bolted into the
principal-rafters are
usually adopted
is
may
roof of this character
an iron saddle bolted over the upper
The lower ends of the
Fig. 7.
beam with
The
feet.
cast-iron head, which has
a curved ceiling.
facilitate the construction of
span of from 50 to 60
method of construction
This
roof.
mode
Fig. 4 shows
Fig. 5 represents the
of then* connection with the tension-rods.
principal-rafter,
where
it
is
secured by the joint
iPQ.c.aa
rietnx^
SLoarLArctLc
Ko>?enT,hai sXiliiJPhiU

The
35
intended
to support the ceiling, and,
by means of
the braces, part of the weight of the roof.
The weight suspended by
the king-post
King-post.
king-post
is
will be proportional to the span of the roof;
Rule.
therefore, to find the scantling:
Multiply the length of the post in
by the span
feet,
in
Then
feet.
multiply this product by the decimal 0"12 for pine or by O'lo for oak, which will give
and
the area of section of the king-post in inches;

will give the thickness;
by the
or
thickness, will give the breadth.
upon them
to king-posts, but the load
of the tie-beam suspended by each
the part suspended by each
is
by the decimal 0-27
of the
first
in inches;
for pine or
and
of the queen-post or suspending-piece,
feet,
by 0-32
is
affected
for oak, will give the area of the section
by the
by two
the one in the direction of
the other
a cross strain, from
is
In estimating the strength, the thrust of the rafters need
the weight of the ceiling.
The
pressure of the weight supported
proportional to the length of the longest part of
To
thickness, will give the breadth.
strains:
the length, from the thrust of the principal-rafters
not be considered.
by
This product, mul-
supports, also in feet.
it
this area, divided
tie-beam
In queen-posts,
suspending-piece or queen-post.
that part of the length of the tie-beam

tiplied
only proportional to that part of the length
is
generally half the span.
Multiply the length, in
Tie-beams.
by the breadth,
Queen-posts and suspending-pieces are strained in a similar manner
Qiieerirposts.
Rule.
this area, divided
it
that
is
by the tie-beams
will be
unsupported.
find the scantling of a tie-beam that has only to support a ceiling, the length
of the longest unsuj^ported part being given:
Divide the length of the longest unsupported part by the cube root of
Rule.
the breadth, and the quotient, multiplied by 1-47, will be the depth required for pine
or multiplied
in inches;
Principal-rafters.
them supported by
The
rest.
by
1'52, will give the depth for oak, in inches.
In estimating the strength of principal-rafters,

struts,
either
at or very near
pressure on a principal-rafter
is
all
the
suppose
where the purlins
points
in the direction of
we may
its
length, and
is
in
proportion to the magnitude of the roof; but the effect of this pressure does not bear
the same proportion to the weight
posts;
therefore the
Case
To
1.
when
there
same constant number
is
a king-post, as Avhen there are queen-
will not
answer
find the scantling of the principal-rafter,
for both cases.
when
there
is
a king-post
in the middle:
Rule.
Multiply the square of the length of the rafter in
feet,
by the span
in
PLATE
On
Fig. 1
we
It is represented
exliibit
in
isometrical
XII.
perspective a portion of the roof shown
as prepared for the reception of
principal-rafters are intended to be notched to a depth of

lins,
which
will
The distance
other, between centres, depends entirely
3X4
may
ceiling
by
inch
3X4
centres;
tering,
1 inch on the sides, to receive the pur-
scantling
it
should
not
at which the purlins
upon the
exceed 7
should be placed from each
size of the timbers
intended for common-rafters;
The
form
feet.
ribs
necessary to
be made of plank, cut to the required line of curvature.
inch cross-scantlings, placed not more than 2 feet apart.
cleated with
Plate XI.
be notched to 6 inches of their depth downward on the rafters, leaving a thickness
of 4 inches on the upper side.
for
in
In the present instance, the
the jack -rafters.
1X3
the
curved
These should be secured
These again should be cross-
inch strips, following the line of curve, at a distance of about 16 inches between
to these the plastering
laths can be nailed,
and thus those unseemly cracks
which so frequently occur, owing to the shrinkage of the
timbci-s,
may
in
the plas-
be avoided.
DIMENSIONS OF THE TIMBERS.

Principul-rafters
Tie-rafters
Collar-beams
(30)
8X14
8X14
6X12
X 10
Purlins
"
Common-rafters
"
Ridge-pole
3X4
3X8
inches.
inches.
"
(PQ^ÔB
6 amS- Slo'aii._A^ ch:t
B.OS an-QiaTeXitb
YJlil^

-^
and divide the product by the cube of the thickness in inches.
feet,
by
tiply the quotient
Case
To
2.
0"96,
which
Straining-beams.
That
queen-posts.
its
this
thickness as 10
to
is
when
straining-beam
a horizontal piece between the heads of the
is
beam may be the
strongest possible,
which
Struts
feet,
least;
and
Multiply the root by 0-9 for
find the thickness, multiply the depth
That part of a roof that
Braces.
when
it
and when
is
but the
efiect of
is
roof, the
principal-rafter as is borne
same
by the
Multiply the square root of the length supported in
of the brace or strut in

for pine will
feet,
is
easily
a load must depend on the position of
has the same inclination on the
it
supported by a strut
square from the back of the rafter, the strain upon
thrown on the lower part of the

Rule.
by the length of the beam
0-7.
ascertained from the design;
a brace;
To
will give the depth in inches.
by the decimal
depth should be to
its
7.
in feet, and extract the square root of the product.

pine,
there are two queen-posts,
multiplying the quotient by 0-155, instead of 0-96.
1,
Multiply the square root of the span in
Rule.
For pine, mul-
will give the depth in inches.
find the scantling of the rafter,
use the same rule as in Case
37
it
will be
strain will
be
strut.
feet,
by the length
and the square root of the product multiplied by 0-8
give the depth in inches;
and the depth multiplied by
0-6, will
give
the breadth in inches.

Purlins.
The
stress
upon purlins
and the weight being uniformly
is
proportionable to the distance they are apart,
diffused, the stiffness is reciprocally as the
cube of the
length.
Rule.
Multiply the cube of the length of the purlin in
the purlins are set apart in
the depth in inches;

depth, multiplied
feet,
Gommonrrafters.
and the fourth root of the product
or multiplied
by the decimal
by
1-04, will
0-6, will give
by the distance
for pine will give
give the depth for oak;
and the
the breadth.
Common-rafters are uniformly loaded, and the breadth need not
be more than from 2h inches to 3 inches.
by the
feet,
The usual depth
for slate
may
be found
following rule:
Rule.
in inches,
Divide the length of the bearing in feet by the cube root of the breadth
and the quotient, multiplied by 0-72
depth in inches.
for pine or 0-74
for oak, will give the
PLATE XIII
Fig. 1
an example of a roof with collar-beam rafters and tension-rods, adapted for a span
is
The
of from 40 to 50 feet.
collar-beam,
and secured by two
principal-rafters,
bolts
be seen,
will
it
locked
is
The
each connection.
at
into
the under
extended
are
tension-rods
of the
side
from the heel of the rafters to the apex, in a single bar, passing each through an iron shoe
placed on the under side of collar-beam and
by a nut
secured
at
Immediately over
either end.
each of the shoes, near to the point where the bar intersects the collar-beam,
post
extending
shoe
at
the
head
intended
for
planks.
The
with
curved
ribs
rule
ceiling.
thus
is
formed
which
As
it
by three
secured
joint.
be
will
is
The
bolts.
by reference
seen,
is
under
notched just
placed a strut or
the
may
cleating against the sides of the ribs
upper ends butt against
roof
is
to
the
plate, this
be
cross-cleated
the whole
and
may
scantlings.
2X4
with
be
The
scantling, notched
inch
further
still
in detail the
at the apex;
principal;
of
the
in
the
of the camber-rod
collar-beam
is
in
Fig. 2
which the principal and common rafters butt against the cast-iron head
in
which the collar-beam
is
secured and bolted to the under side of the
principal rafters, showing the construction of the
manner
which the heel-piece
intersects
the
rafter
is
and
cornice
bolted to the principal;

is
secured.
Fig. 3 represents the heels
and
by
aid
also
Fig. 4 shows the
of the
how
look-out
the lower end
manner
in
which the
connected with the lower side of the principal-rafter.
TABLE OF SCANTLINGS.
Tie-beams
tX 14
inches.
Common-rafters
3X4 inches.
Collar-beams
7X14
"
Look-out
Purlins
4X 10
"
Ridge-pole
3X10
3X10
(38)
so
distance of the cross-scantling should
and the form and position of the iron shoe and camber-rod.
common and
joists;
mode
manner
in
secured by planting vertical
not exceed IG inches between centres, so as to insure firm nailing to the plastering laths.
shows
The
purlin.
The curvature of the arc may be readily formed of 2 inch
convenient nailing, and
as to afford
into
principal-rafter,
each rafter
of
foot
cast-iron
the
to
joists
"
^_.;i'jja
~a-
LcazL
i-~r.*-
J^.oserr^.AL s"!ii's^^}ul^
SPIRES;
THEIR PROBABLE ORIGIN AND PECULIARITIES OF STYLE.
Having reviewed Domes and

and giving such
be deemed
interesting,
we
shall
now
style
mystery, and which seems to
which mark the
different
features,
and progress as might
historical information in regard to their origin
proceed to offer some observations on
having reference more particularly to their probable
much
most remarkable
Eoofs, briefly noticing their
be
little
origin,
understood
erections of this
subject
and those
character, in
the
Spires,
enveloped in
peculiarities of
several
periods of
ecclesiastical architecture.
It
seems very unaccountable, that neither history nor tradition should have pre-
served the least remembrance of the origin of spires.

ever,
must have had some
Their original builders, how-
special motive in their erection, for
we can hardly
conceive
that appendages so expensive and difficult of execution should be merely the result of
caprice.
About the twelfth century the custom of burying
in churches appears to
have become general throughout Europe, consequently the same
The
cemetery and a church.

use,
would naturally desire
architects of the structures
to engraft
upon
their
style
fabric
The
some
characteristic
denoting
What more
of the
soul,
to
erect
all
lofty
pro-
turn back for precedent to the nations of antiquity?
history and antiquities of these nations would at once inform them, that
the invariable practice of
May
at once a
intended for this two-fold
the double purpose for which these early churches were intended.
bable than that they should
was
civilized
pyramids
it
was
communities who believed in the immortality

over
their
cemeteries
or places of sepulture.
not the Gothic architect in like manner have adopted the pyramidal form to
(39)
PLATE
A
Fig. 1.
rafter constructed
and strengthened by bolts
Plate XIII.
upon the principle shown
extending from 40 to 50
safety in a span
This
XIV.
at the several
example also
connections,
in
substituted
is
all
the joints, excepting those at the heels
former are secured with
the instances previously referred
to.
for
The timbers
sustained
tie-rafter,
camber-rod used in
the
intended for
are to be halved and locked
and upper ends of the principal-rafters; the
shown; the
bolts, shoes, etc., as
be used with perfect
particulars from either of those
other
curved ceihngs, vrhich are given in the preceding plates.

together at
may
In the present instance a
feet.
differs
in this plate
latter
butt against a cast-iron head, as in
The halvings are each one-fourth
in
depth, with the ends
reversed.
It ought here to be remarked, that all the timbers used in the construction of a roof on this
principle should be thoroughly seasoned, as
much depends upon
roof of this description be executed with care,
it
will
prove perfectly reliable, and
with confidence to the greater of the spans above mentioned.
If a
the joints remaining perfect.
The
ceiling
may
may
be applied
be, in this case,
constructed and prepared for the plaster in the manner mentioned in the example preceding.
common
rafters; the cornice
as secured to the look-out joists; and the sheathing as prepared for the metal.
Fig. 3 shows the
Fig. 2 represents, on a large scale, the heels of the principal and
junction of the tops of the principals with the
cast-iron
head;
and Fig. 4 shows the crossings of
the lower timbers.
X 14 inches.
Principal-rafters
Tie-rafters
6X12
7X12
Collar-beam
(40)
"
"
Purlins
4X10
Common-rafters
3X4
"
3X10
"
Look-out
joists
inches.
iPioixav
Soservthalis L.tS\ .Ihil'*
SPIRES; THEIR ORIGIN AND STYLE.
41
cemetery, at the same time that they preserved the figure of the
characterize the
ground plans, the better to denote the Christian temple?
cross in then-
Hence, per-
haps, the origin of spires, and the subsequent introduction of pinnacles, pointed arches,
angular ornaments,
etc.
The probable reason here
assigned for the origin of spires
applied to those curious constructions, the round
towers,
may
be also similarly
to be
still
ence near the ruins of some of the old churches in Ireland; for
it
found in exist-
may
be remarked
that at the time these towers were built the architects of that country were unac-
quainted with the art of raising a spire over the pillars at the intersection of the
They may have had
nave and transepts.

entific expedient,
by constructing upon
examples of which
many
learned
pyramids,
think
solid bases those
which
may
it
have
been
hazarded
And
their
Notwithstanding the
respecting
not unreasonably be concluded
intended to denote cemeteries.
sci-
round pyramids, the existing
terminate like the Egyptian obelisk.
all
conjectures
we
recourse then to an easier but less
the use
of these
that they were
simply
proximity to churches strengthens this
supposition.
It
has also been remarked, "that spires owe their origin and use to the peculiar
nature of the Christian worship, which invites
and partake of
gious
systems.
its
all
persons to join in
benefits, differing in this respect essentially
From
from
its
all
ceremonies
previous
reli-
this arose the use of bells to notify the time of meeting,
also the appropriate buildings to contain
them; which, in order
to diffuse
the sounds, were elevated above the contiguous ordinary dwellings.
and
more widely
These buildings
were called Campaniles, and in the early Christian churches were often detached from
the edifice and placed in a corner of the surrounding
Christian religion extended the use of such towers,
to
buildings
erected
for
its
With the
area.
use of the
which became necessary adjuncts
In these, therefore, they have always formed
service.
conspicuous features, and are to be met with in almost every variety of form and
situation consistent with their essential quality of loftiness.
tecture gradually improved in lightness
and
lofty,
and elegance, the
As
steeples
the mediaeval archi-
became more slender
and, to assimilate their outhne more completely with the leading lines of
the style, spires were added, which, from the stability of the pyramidal form, could
be carried to a greater height than would otherwise have been practicable.
Hence
originated the Christian steeple."
Having discussed the probable
origin
of the
spire,
and the uses to which
its
PLATE
Fig. 1
an example
is
applicable
also
At
designed for a curved ceiling.
to a
XV.
span of from 40 to 50
the heel the principal-rafter
by butting against
at the centre of the collar-beam
its
fellow,
bolted to a
is
This
feet.
tie,
is
likewise
which terminates
which proceeds from the opposite
Both of these are notched between the collar-beam, and a tension-bar passing through
direction.
at the notch on either side, intersects the principal close to the head and
It will be seen that in this example the collar-beam
the outer edge.
is
secured by a nut on
is
halved, having
locked into the principal, and being further secured by bolts at the connection.
its
ends
The upper ends
of the principal-rafters butt to a cast-u-on head, and the heels require shoes, which have then- bear-
ing on the wall-plates.

posts or struts arc
At
inserted,
points where
the
the
collar-beam
intersected
is
by the
which extend to the under side of the upper purlin.
tension-bars,
These are
intended to equalize the camber produced in the principals by the tightening of the tension-bars.
The manner
Plates XIII. and XIV.

explains the
common
ceiUng
is
formed
may
readily be
ties
with collar-beam.
Fig. 4 shows the heels of
the lower purlin, and the formation of the cornice.
ties cross the collar-beam.
the collar-beam crosses.
Fig. 8
is
Figs. 9
end of the collar-beam.
where they are intended
seen
by reference
Fig. 2 shows the connection of the rafters with the cast-iron head.
mode of halving
rafters
where the
of the
curve
in wliich the
to
Fig. T
is
Figs. 5
a section of the
tie
the principal and
and 6 show the notchings
showing the notchings where
a section showing the notchings on the principal-rafter for the
and 10 show the notchings
at
the
ends
of
the collar-beam,
be joined into the principal-rafters.
DIMENSIONS OP THE TIMBERS.

Principal-rafters
Ties
Collar-beams
(42)
to
Fig. 3
7X14
7X14
6X12
Purlins
4X10
inches.
"
Common-rafters
3X4
"
"
Ridge-piece
3X10
"
inches.
(F-U.\y
F,_y
/;,/
^Sf/
Sairinir.u;
jj
^.J
IRoser.tlial s
Rtn
pjv"^;*

earlier prototypes
may have
term
to define the
spire, as
possibly been dedicated,
we
more particularly applied
will
now
in pointed
43
proceed more fully
architecture, taking
occasion to notice the peculiarities of the difierent styles, and concluding with a few
short practical remarks.
Spire
is
an acutely pointed termination or covering, most usually found on

Spires are constructed either of stone or wood, the
towers of churches, or turrets.

description
latter
usually carried to a great height, and terminated

or vane.
cross,
made
building was
Norman
the
as
It
is
doubtful whether
at
the
apex
any very decided
mth
approach
are
finial,
metal
toward
spire
in English ecclesiastical architecture for a considerable time after
In the earliest examples they are usually of the same plan
conquest.
the tower,
They
generally covered with lead, slate, or shingles.
being
either
square,
circular,
and
or octagonal,
are
of
very great
height.
Thus, in some of the early churches of Britain and Normandy, circular turrets
ter-
minate in circular spires; in another an octagonal turret has an octagonal spire; while
in others square towers are surmounted by square
commonly of very low

little
spires
or
pjrramids.
proportions compared with later structures, and in truth were
more than pyramidal
roofs;
the whole of the remaining specimens of this date
are of stone, and rise from the outer surface of the walls, so as to leave
or gutter around the base.

of spires, and have
These were
therefore
These high pyramidal
roofs
no parapet
were clearly the harbinger
that term generally applied to them, though scarcely
deserving of the name.
As
spires,
the early English style arose, a considerably greater elevation was given to
although they were
still
With the exception of a few

octagonal, and
when
very frequently
rare
less acute
than they afterwards became.
examples, the spires of this period were always
placed on square towers the angles of the tower not covered by
the base of the spire were occupied by pinnacles, or by semi-pyramidal
masonry sloping back against the
spire.
The
outline
masses of
was generally broken by one
or more tiers of small open windows, termed spire lights, the faces of which were
vertical,
and therefore projected out at the top from the sloping
These were
usually covered with gablets or sharp pediments, and were
what
are termed hroach spires; that
is
sometimes
tiers.
Early English spires were
to say, they
were usually made to spring
placed on the alternate faces of the spire in alternate

usually
sides of the tower.
directly from the exterior of the tower walls without the intervention of a parapet,
whereas in the later styles gutters and parapets around the bases were seldom omitted.
PLATE
XVI.
DESIGN
Fig. 3
is
iron
the
Figs. 4
licad.
whereby the tenons used
manner
Fig. 1 shows
a principal-rafter, designed to span an extent of from 30 to 40 feet.
Fig. 2 shows the ends of the rafters at their con-
the footing of the braces upon the tie-beams.
nection with
I.
in the rafters
in which the heel
is
and 5 show a
slight
change in the mode of construction,
on Figs. 1 and 2 are dispensed with.
Fig. G explains the
connected with the tie-beam, and the construction of the gutter.
TABLE OP SCANTLINGS.
Principal-rafter
6X12
"
Braces
4X
"
Look-out
inches.
Purlins
6X12
4X 8
Common-rafters
3X4
Tie-beam
DESIGN
Fig. 9
is
manner almost
similar at
butt
2J
II.
to 3 inches of
In
this
The tic-beam
the foot of the braces.
When
and those on either
side
the span
is
The mode
camber when tightened up.
is
of the widest
IJ inches in diameter.
sustained
by three
bolts, the
advisable extent, the centre-
The tie-beam should have from
of construction employed in this roof
very simple, and well adapted for either of the given spans.
It is also perfectly reliable,
sustain itself without danger of deflection, provided the timbers are thoroughly seasoned.
explains the connection at the apex, showing the centre-bolt;
common-rafter with the sheathing.
Fig. 11
and the iron shoe over which the braces

nection with
tlio
tie-beam;
example
together in connection with an iron plate at the apex, and in a
central one serving as a king-post.

bolt should be IJ,
"
3X8
joists
a description of roof applicable for a span of from 60 to 60 feet.
the joints are square, and
inches.
is
butt.
a section of the ridge-pole;
and
Fig. 10
and the
a section of the tie-beam, showing the centre-bolt,

Fig. 12 shows the heel of the rafter, and
its
con-
the purlin; the gutter, etc.
DIMENSIONS OF TIMBERS.
Tie-beam
8X14
Braces
CX
3X
Common-rafters
(44)
inches.
Principal-rafter
Purlins
6
"
is
will
Look-out
joists
8X14
4X10
inches.
3X9
"
"
â-m^ SToam. Ait"S*

Daring the prevalence of the Decorated
acute
style,
spires
45
were almost always very
they generally had gutters or parapets, though broach spires of this date are
They
by no means uncommon.
in the character of the details
be introduced in profusion
did not differ materially from the early spires except
and the amount of enrichments, which now began
crockets were often carved at the angles,
of panelling or other ornaments formed around
them
nacles were
also
enlarged, and
Many
flying buttresses.
fine
shallow Vandykes,
little
the open-
the angular pin-
not unfrequently connected with the spire by small
examples of
this style
and date remain in England and
In the latter country they are generally ornamented
Normandy.
and small bands
at different heights
ings were also often enriched Avith crockets, finials, and pinnacles
to
arches, or other
externally with
patterns cut on the surface
similar
are sometimes arranged in bands, and sometimes spread over the whole spire.
are also frequently pierced with a
number of small
these
They
openings.
In the Perpendicular style the same general arrangement was continued, although
the character of the details and enrichments was altered in
features of Gothic
At
architecture.
this
period broach
common with
spires
seem
the other
have been
to
abandoned.
In the Flamboyant style of the continent of Europe, spires somewhat partook of

the same redundancy of ornament as the rest of the buildings.
examples of
There are many rich
this date of beautiful design still in existence.
Before concluding this part of our subject
we may
instance a few of the
more
remarkable of these constructions.
The
It
was
spire of old St. Paul's is
finished in the year 1222,
one of the earliest of which we have any account.
and was in height 534
feet,
being 39 feet higher
than the Great Pyramid.
That of Strasburgh,
built
by the famous Irwin de Steinbach,
It is noticeable for its curious construction, being
is
474
feet high.
formed so entirely of open work as
to resemble a pile of scaffolding.
Some
spires,
instead of having the sides straight, are formed with an entasis or
swelling outwards, as
places;
No
this
at
kind of construction
settled proportion
in general.
Caythorp, Lincolnshire, Northamptonshire, and

is
some other
found in the Decorated and Perpendicular
styles.
seems to have been observed in the dimensions of spires
Sometimes the height did not exceed four times the diameter of the
base, while at other times the ratio of the
height to the breadth taken at the base
PLATE
Fig. 1
is
a design for an open timber roof in the Gothic stylo, suited to a span extending
from GO to 70
strict
XVII.
This form of roof
feet.
accordance
-with
judiciously introduced
the spirit
is
possessed of striking and beautiful features.
of media;val
in any considerable
architecture,
structure which
It
is
in
and may be very advantageously and

partakes of
this
character.
In this
example the rafters are notched together, except at the apex, where they butt against an iron-head,
The
through which passes an iron rod which' serves as a king-post.

over the connections by which the truss
is
foi-med.
One
purlins have their bearings
half of the elevation of the rafter shows
the framing, displaying the several connections of the timbers at the heel, and with the
beam,
side-post, perdent-post,
and curved brace.
the complete finish of the roof, with

tering for ceiling
is
its
The
hammer-
corresponding half of the elevation shows
The
mouldings, tracery, spandrels, etc.
seen on the upper side of the moulded rib.
the preceding, drawn to a larger scale, so as to be rendered
line of
the plas-
Figs. 2 and 3 are portions of
more perspicuous.
Figs.
4 and 5
are sections of the moulded rib.
TABLE OP DIMENSIONS OF THE TIMBERS IN A SPAN OP SIXTY PEET.
Tie-rafter
9X14
9X14
Hammer-beam
Principal-rafters
Collar-beams, (each double)

(46)
X 14
..5X12
inches.
"
Purlins
5X12
X 9
4X10
inches.
Common-rafters
3X5
"
Side-posts, (each double)
"
Pendent-posts, (single)
"
"
....
"
iio^v'ja
Sajn-^ SluajL^rcK^

was
We
as eight to one.
spire built
were 50
high upon a base of 6
feet
St. Nicase,
we
constructed so exceedingly shght that
that
many
spires
carried,
own
reasoning
from
That of
weight.
but seven inches thick, and that of Batalha
is
they were
is
Salis-
of no greater
independent of the embossed work, with which almost a fourth of
thickness, taken
its superficies is
were
should be apt to conclude
they would be inadequate to sustain their
bury, for instance,
the two largest of which
feet.
Notwithstanding the amazing height to which
theory
last- mentioned proportion in the
have an example of the
by Hugh Sibergin upon the towers of
47
perforated.
Great care must consequently have been taken in
select-
ing the materials of which such slight fabrics were constructed, especially as they are
generally supposed
be connected without the aid of iron cramps, for this metal,
to
to air or moisture, is liable to contract rust, which, in time, will shiver
when exposed
in pieces that portion of

is
the block with which
comes in immediate contact.
said that the stones of the spire of Batalha are keyed together
tail
wedges of pine wood.
adopted this expedient.
Roman
and
buildings,
It is pretty certain that the ancients
There are many
to
at
used by the ancients in their buildings,
also
fine spires in
Normandy, of which a considerable number appear

from the early French to the Decorated
Ifs-les-Alemague, near Caen,
Caen and Bayeux,
and
Bretteville
character at
rises
Harfleur and
I'Orqueilleuse,
style,
of
between
Beautiful examples of the Flamboyant exist
are good examples.
Chartres Cathedral, the Church of St. Jean, Soissons,
plainer
on similar occasions
an exceeding hardness.
to belong to the period of transition
which those
by means of dove-
Wedges, or cramps of wood, have been found in ancient
Cramps of copper were
Sicily.
It
and in several instances among the ruins of old temples in Athens
which were tempered
at
it
Lillebonne, in
etc.
there
The
Normandy.
of
are others
of these
latter
from an octagonal lantern on the top of the tower, an arrangement which
is
not
unusual on the continent; the lantern almost always consists of open work.
The
foregoing observations refer to spires of stone
timber and covered either with lead or shingles.

spires,
covered with shingles, are
still
to be
but spires were often
Many
met with
in
made
specimens of these old timber
England; a curious example
of one covered with lead remains at Chesterfield, Derbyshire, in which the lead
disposed
as to give the appearance of
are so devoid
of architectural features
the spire being twisted;

as to afford
them may be decorated, but the majority
of
no clue
is
so
most of these spires
to their date
are probably perpendicular.
some of
PLATE
Fig. 1
beam
Is
an example of a roof formed
a king-post, braces, and
witli
and the heads of the
iron stirrup,
and braces butt against the king-post with curved
adapted, and with perfect safety, to a span of 50 feet.
For
should be formed of hard wood.

the
resisting
rafters
pressure
and tie-beams.
scale.
at
the
this
connections
Fig. 2 shows
the
purpose
joints.
When
oak
and the footing of the braces.

the lower purlin
the
mode
The ends
may
of the
readily be
king or queen posts are used they
than the softer material
heads of the king-post
it
is
more capable of
commonly employed
and
rafters,
Fig. 3 shov.s the connection of the brace with the principal-rafter.
tions of the tie-beam and king-post
tie-
rafters are secured in
This rafter
preferable, as
is
The
side-bolts.
Both of these are fastened with jibs and keys.
a similar manner at the apex.

rafters
by an
sustained to the king-post
is
XVIII.
drawn
for
the
to a large
Fig. 4 displays por-
shows the mode of their connection by means of the stirrup
Fig. 5 shows a portion of the tie-beam
of forming the gutter
the
heel of the rafter
and the common-rafter, with the sheathing,
etc.
Tie-beam
Principal-rafter
King-post
Braces
Purlins
(48)
7X12
7X12
7X16
6X 6
4X 9
inches.
Ridge-piece
3X10
inches.
Common-rafters
3X5
"
Look-out
3X10
4X12
"
joists
Wall-plate
i'
S3Tn"*'
Sica'n ^:ri"*-
i-
'-
E-oserrOiall^ftli 3*iula

On
continent there are some timber spires, apparently of Flamboyant con-
the
ornamented, with portions formed of open work entirely cased
struction, considerably
in lead
49
small light spires of similar chai'acter are also to be seen frequently, rising
from the roofs of churches, especially over the east end of the
numerous plain
also
with small
spires
Flanders,
many
of which are covered
probably modern substitutes for lead or shingles.
slates,
Having noticed the
peculiar form and characteristics of spires, during the preva-
lence of the Gothic styles,
we
will briefly refer to those of later construction.
remarked, that this species of composition owes
It is apparent, as before
and use
Normandy and
in
There are
choir.
When,
to the Christian worship.
its
therefore, during the seventeenth century,
influenced principally by the compositions of Inigo Jones and Sir Christopher
a great change was effected in the
was not
steeples
Of the many
early spires.
Wren
The
discarded.
architecture of
ecclesiastical
which then came
classic
into use
structures with
nothing
but the
general
with which
spires
which the
finished
in
is
receding
Some
and
taste
towers,
their
form a conspicuous feature
of these are constructed
columns and a regular entablature.
compartments
are
architects,
substituted,
and the superstructure
least the lower of these, being
gradations, each, at
genius of
For the slender and acutely pointed
preserved.
they terminated
classic orders
England, this form
Of the form, however, used by the mediajval

idea
Wren,
were in imitation of the
which the
embellished London, the majority have steeples.
wholly or in part of wood.
origin
is
in
generally
composed of
Urns, pyramidal, and other ornaments are also
employed, and the apex generally terminates in a small and slender adaptation of the
In some instances different orders are employed in the several
spire.
same
stories of the
steeple.
few concluding remarks
construction
Our
among
large
may now
be
make
While churches are urgently required
no
progress.
less
less
this a matter of
in our large
much
to spire
in
their
erection
imjDortance to
towns and teeming
needed in small villages and sparsely populated
than the school-house
Economy
indispensable.
more particularly
and rapidly increasing population, and the consequent necessity which
they are scarcely
church
in regard
ourselves.
exists for enlarged church accommodation,

all.
made
districts.
cities,
The
is
the inseparable accompaniment of American
is
generally desirable, and in
many
instances
Thus, those immediately interested in these constructions are often
compelled, contrary to their
own immediate wishes and

G
preferences, to dispense with
PLATE
Fig. 1
is
a roof constructed with queen-posts, to which the tie-beam
iron stirrups, fastened with jibs and
may
XIX.
be applied to a 60 or 65 feet span.
the queen-posts
are
and
Plate XVIII.
notched into the tie-beam to
resist
the
thrust of
Where, as
the
in this instance,
braces, the straining-
Fig. 2
Fig. 3 shows the head of the side-
the connection of the brace with the principal-rafter.
between the head of the queen-post, the camber-beam, and the
Fig. 4 describes the connection

rafters,
showing the position of
the bolt, the section of the purlin, and a portion of
the sheathing.
the bottom of the queen-post
and the iron stirrup which sustains the
beam.
Fig. G
beam, look-out
is
It
In the larger span the camber-beam should be sus-
shows the head of the small king-post over the camber-beam.

bolt,
by means of
In a span of this extent the camber of the tie-beam should be 3J inches.
omitted.
is
sustained
keys, as in the preceding example on
tained to the small king-post by a joint-bolt, as shown on the plate.
piece
is
the foot of the brace
Fig. 5 shows the notch at
explanatory of the several connections at the heels of the rafters with the
tietie-
joists, gutter, etc.
9X16
9X14
9X14
9X10
Tie-beam
Principal-rafter
Camber-beam
Queen-post
'
.
Braces
King-post, over camber-beam

(60)
6X8
inches.
Upper
truss-rafters
6X8 inches.
4X10
Burlins
"
Common-rafters
3X
"
Look-out
X
4X
10
"
joists
Raising-plate
IPa...5S!ES
arrt?-
Sio amAr cIl"
_tlr:.
se-nfc.&i'^
Tvfbî^l,
SPIRES; TUEIll ORIGIN AND STYLE.

the spire, solely on account of the increased outlay which
Heavy and
fore
in
timber
its
51
erection
would involve.
costly spires of stone, similar to those of the mediaeval times, are there-
most cases too expensive, and in many altogether inapplicable.

is
abundant.
almost always a suitable and desirable material.

Spires of
wood can be
ordinary cases their framing
is
erected on
It
is
With
us,
cheap, light, and
comparatively slight foundations;
in
of easy construction, and
they are capable of being
They
are also susceptible of easy
carried to a great altitude at a moderate expense.
adaptation to any style, and can be formed as
much
in keeping with the character
of the simple and unpretending village fane, as that of the more costly and magnifi-
Of
cent temple of the great city.
been erected in our
cities,
late years,
spires of this description
and throughout the country generally.
And whether
it
"points
Some
have
of these are
There can be no more pleasing feature
of beautiful proportion and amazing height.

in a landscape.
many
its
airy finger toward
heaven" from amid
the trees, which in sylvan districts cluster around the humble sanctuary and
embower
the homes of rustic worshij)pers, or rises in towering magnificence far above the roofs
and domes of the populous and busy
city,
priate appendage to the house of God.
the spire
is
always a beautiful and appro-
PLATE
We
here give six designs for truss-beams,
Fig. 1
ness
suitable for a
is
span of 75
each thickness of the tie-beam
all
6X16
to a uniform scale of 8 feet to
drawn
The
feet.
is
XX.
and straining beams are of double thick-
tie
several thicknesses of which the straining-piece and
wood
pieces of hard
tie-beam
7X7
they are
The
The
inches.
are composed, are bolted
being notched in the space between each bolt.
6X14
straining-piece are
of the
those
inches;
All of the truss-pieces are single and of hard wood
inches each.
inch.
tlie
together,
vertical bolts are placed
and when tightened up should produce a camber of 3J inches.

In this example we have employed the camberintended for a span of GO feet.
at equal distances apart,
Fif. 2
is
The timbers in this

The rods are tightened by means of keys.
tie-beams
arc
The
5 X 14 inches in
than those in the design preceding.
rod, in addition to the struts.
much
truss are
each thickness
6X6
the pieces for the straining-sill are 5
inches, formed of oak or other hard wood.
Fig. 3
lighter
X 14
is
an example
inches
thick,
the
produced should not be

Fig. 4
is
X 12
The camber
camber-beam 7
X 12
inches,
the
present figure
for a
beams 1
inch,
iron
If
and
still
shorter span.
is
X 10
a single truss,
For a span of 40
be as follow
timbers will
and butting with
is
in this span should be 3 inches.
50
strut's
6X6
feet.
inches
The tie-beam
and
the
is
camber
inches
each
may, however, be
It
by increasing the thickness of the

feet
the
Tie-beam, which
struts,
rule-joints against iron
5X8
tim-
distance contemplated in the
is
double,
is
X 12
each
inches,
notched
into
the
Camber, 2 inches.
heads and shoes.
each of the thicknesses
oak,
of
inches,
composed of two thicknesses, between which
intended for a span of 35 feet
easily constructed
inserted
is
X 16
inches.
another of
Camber,
inches.
Fig. 6
may
4
the trusses.
camber-beams, 5
thickness
Fig. 5
the
struts are
than 2| inches.
less
for a span equal to that mentioned in the preceding figure,
bers and the
and the several
of a single thickness, adapted for a span of
an example intended
heights of
inches each
is
intended to be constructed on the same principle as the truss shown on Fig. 4
be applied to a span of 30 feet.
X 10
inches
of hard wood.
(52)
and the struts
4X6
Camber, IJ inches.
The tie-beams
arc each
X 12
inches, notched into the timbers 1
inches
and
the camber-beams,
inch each way, and
made
^'O^JSi.
ha
^1
I
LJ*T_1
llo5>rat3ial sTaSi.
TKaa
TABLE OF ALTITUDES OF CELEBRATED SPIRES.
Tower.
Old
St. Paul's
260
Salisbury
207
Norwich
140
Lichfield
114
Chichester
St. Mary's,
Oxford
86
Louth
148
Bloxham
101
St. Michael's,
Coventry
136
Cologne, (as designed)
330
Strasburg
364
St. Stephen's,
Vienna
285
TJlm, (as designed)
320
Freyburg
221
Marburg
184
Antwerp
184
Bayeux
142
St. Stephen's,
Caen
155
"
St. Peter's,
I34
Batalha
Glasgow
113
.
.*
115
Spire.
53
PLATE
We
tained
close
in
tlie
tliis
department of our
XXI.
by appending
-vrork
the various examples of roofs con-
to
preceding plates the accompanying plan and elevation of a spire of considerable
by the author
altitude, recently erected
attracted a considerable
degree
of
in
the
attention.
northern portion of Philadelphia, and -which has
Being of wood,
or a similar
this
construction
is
capable of being easily adapted to almost any locality, and can be erected at a comparatively moderate expense.
It will be seen
by reference
to the plate that one-half of the elevation displays the
framing and mode of construction, while on the other

base
is
supported on
sills,
together.
The
exhibited
whose bearings rest partly on the
built specially to receive them.
bolted
is
eight
whence they extend vertically
the finished
solid masoni-y
principal
posts which form
to receive-
the
angles
are
and support those which form the
braces will be easily comprehended by reference to
by
bolts.
the
plan,
The
morticed into the
sills,
spire.
All these pieces
position of
the cross-ties and
on which they are accurately and
with such care as to render further description unnecessary.
TABLE OF THE SEVERAL SCANTLINGS.

Tie-beam, (of principal-rafter)
Principal-rafter
Camber-beam
Braces to do
braces to do
and partly upon piers
All the different timbers and their connections are minutely drawn, and
perspicuously described.
Long
The
These, where they cross, are locked into each other and securely
are locked where they connect, and firmly secured
Principal-posts to spire
exterior.
10X16
inches.
INSERT FOLDOUT HERE
The term Carpentry
is
generally applied to the art of employing timbers in the
construction of buildings.
This art
Is
of such general and important use that there can be no doubt of
being of the highest antiquity;
little
of
its
history, however, has
its
been transmitted to
Pliny and Vitruvius are almost the only authors whose writ-
us from the ancients.
modern times; but
ings on the subject have reached
merely
as their observations are
confined to the choice and felling of timber, they are of no use as to the constructive
part,
and only demonstrate that such an
The
art existed.
practice of carpentry in its rudest form
must of
necessity
have commenced
in the very earliest ages; for in the first attempts at the construction of the primitive
buildings of those days carpentry
must have been brought
into exercise.
bable that the necessity of introducing the pediment roof occasioned the
timber frames, and consequently the art of carpentry in building.

the pediment roof
is
for other purposes, as in the
warm
was an
The invention
of
framing of
floors,
they also appear to have used timber
and the construction of
countries furnishing stone or marble,
was not very
use of
first
justly attributed to the Greeks, as the oldest buildings of this
description are to be found in their country;
Tn
It is pro-
frequent,
essential quality
and that
;
we
it
was confined
it is
to
rustic buildings.
probable that the use of timber
movable
articles
where lightness
must, therefore, not look to these climates for any traces
of the art.
The next
who seem
to
great
have employed timber
are acquainted with.
timber
people in succession of time to the Greeks, were the Romans,
in Vitruvius
for all, or nearly all, the purposes that the
They not only
we have a
moderns
constructed their roofs, but whole buildings of
description of their
manner of constructing the

(55)
archi-
PLATE
On
given a variety of designs for framing, bridging, and trussing
this plate are
represents a girder
section of girder
the method of splicing the
is
5. 5.
notched into the binding-joists
13
and
laid
upon
joists;
12
a section of the binding-joists
is
The former
is
floor
is
of the
tail-joists.
the counter-flooring;
is
formed of the several parts which have
bridging-joists,
Fig. 19 shows a method
main-trimmer, and shows
in this case
they are
joint-bolts, as at
which may be either secured
tension-rod or rods, which
with C, shows the former
may
mode
with a lath in three sections.
Fig. 31
the girder
which butt together
is
the binding-
the counter-lathing,
a short
has two tension-rods
Fig. 16 shows the framing
ti-immers with
suflBciently
first
cross
On
and Fig. 24,

Fig. 26
figure,
Fig. 21 the truss
of
this
is
in
and
Fig. 22
at B.
is
Fig. 27
forms
a secure and reliable method of splicing girders
from
formed by
at section
A,
trussed with a
Fig. 25
is
trussed
trussed with an oak lath in two
Fig. 29
the plan.
the tension-rod
is
is
follow,
is
Fig. 23, in connection
connection with D, the latter.
the plan.
Fig. 28
span, in which
shown
a single joist, as
be similarly applied to the centre or sides.

;
instead of
notched to steady them,
The examples which
one.
to the sides of
shown on the
stirrups,
Fig. 20, which represents a section of the
the
is
and Fig. 32
prevents their liability to be disintegrated or thrown out in case of
an example, suited like

Fig. 30
truss.
which deprives them of their leverage upon the walls, and thus
(56)
G G
and
which are greatly preferable to the usual
connecting
of
connection with the
its
or placed between a double joist, as
joists
is
the flooring;
Figs. 21 to 30, inclusive, are diflercnt forms of trussing-joists.
to
and
a section of the cross-trimmer, which shows the framing into
is
and then secured to each other with
the foregoing
for the deafen-
a section of the main-trimmer, showing a portion of the cross-trimmer,

Fig. 18
being morticed like the foregoing;
laths,
which
binding-joists, over
applicable for joists exceeding 12 inches in depth, and
with the tenon or key.
sections,
sides of the
shown.
all
as
1 inch thick by 3 inches in width, and placed 16 inches apart from centres.
Fig. 17
of a trimmer.
8. 8. these
10. 10. these, as also notched
the latter has but one rod which passes through the centre.
curved
4 a
are the straps or iron
the flooring-joists
sections of
on the
6. 6.
the counter-ceiling, formed of cross-boarding
14 and 15 are two -examples of
mode.
it
is
In this view the timbers are
the flooring-joists;
each lath of which
of iron
Fig. 1
joists.
laths nailed to the sides of the flooring-joists 3 inches below the floor line;
just been described.
Figs.
are the
an isometrical view of the construction of a
is
9. 9. are sections of the ceiling-joists
the ceiling-joists are notched;

ing,
7. 7.
11. 11. 11. are the laths nailed
same
the binding-joists as framed into the girder
by which they are clamped together
to the binding-joists
XXII.
fire
is
is
the
plan.
a method of inserting
to a considerable
extent
or other possible mishaps.
li;E^,';aanii
fi-,/
,
CARPENTRY AND
57
Tuscan temples, and of the foundations of arched ceihngs and
traves of
The Romans
timber work.
Rome, and
theatres at
The
JOliNERY.
roofs of the
wooden
also used
in different parts of Italy,
Roman
The
cornices.
were at
as at first
still
and amphi-
buildings were not always concealed;
the timbers were
as in the basilica of
gilt,
hy Constantino; sometimes they were incrusted with bronze.
Though circumstances
timbers will
in
constructed of timber.
first
sometimes exposed, and in magnificent buildings they were

St. Peter, erected
theatres
fioors
admit of
require
certain dispositions of timbers
infinite decoration
view to conceal the principal
in a building, the
without injury; and sometimes so
much
In the middle ages carpentry partook
use.
of the style of building called GoiJiic; the roofs were pitched very high, height being
one of the predominant features of this species of architecture.
Of
late years
many improvements have
of carpentry, in regard to simplified and
the almost general use, at least in

sawing, planing, and mortising;
more
scientific
this country, of
and
for the
accuracy and celerity of execution our

Latterly, the
been introduced into the various branches
modes of construction; and
machinery
the
for
purposes of
manufacture of doors, sashes,
workmen
In
etc.
are unequaled.
improvements in the manufacture of
both
iron,
cast
and wrought,
have caused the introduction of that material into buildings, in every variety of form,
as girders, beams, etc.
to be secured
from
The
fire,
floors,
and sometimes even the
have been constructed of
iron.
roofs of
The
those intended
use of this material,
however, as a substitute for wood, does not change the principle, as both materials are
affected
by the same gravitating laws.
This important and useful
and requirements of man
art,
which
kinds of work, or that which
includes
all
is
The
first
includes the
essential to the construction
the work wherein timber
is
may
and
Carpentry
with the comforts
be divided into two

larger and
stability of
valued by the cubical
the interior finishings and ornamental work, and
the superficial
strvctive,
all
so intimately connected
in every stage of civilized society,
grand branches. Carpentry and Joinery.
and generally
is
is
foot.
an
rougher
edifice;
Joinery
generally valued
by
foot.
itself is
properly divided into three branches,
viz..
Descriptive,
Cmv-
and Mechanical.
Descriptive Carpentry
is
the art of forming a diagram on a plane by the rules of
geometry, in order to construct any piece of carpentry of a

certain given dimensions of the thing to be constructed.
This
known
is
property, from
a necessary qualifi-
PLATE
On
manner of constructing a bay window.
this plate ia represented the
plan, forming in
its
XXIII.
outline the sides of a half octagon,
shutters being folded within the boxes prepared for
is
is
the ground
and so arranged as to allow of the inside
them
Fig. 2
in the side-jambs.
is
the eleva-
Fig. 3 shows similarly the elevation of the interior, with the extended
tion of half of the exterior.
shutter
Fig. 1
Fig. 4
and the moulded architrave which runs around the recess which forms the bay.
the vertical section.
According
to the
method usually pursued
in
the construction of windows of this description,
boxes are formed in each jamb to receive the inside shutters, which are folded one-half each way.
This
when the window
a convenient arrangement
is
is
of such considerable dimensions as to admit
of the space necessary for the formation of the angle-boxes, without hurting the proportion of the
But when the window
jamb.
the
bay, the
preferable, as
increased,
also
is
of an ordinary size, averaging from 6 to 9 feet in the width of
method which we here present, of folding the shutters within the side-boxes
by adopting
it
is
the angle-jambs can be lightened considerably, the width of the glass
and a much better proportion given
worthy of remark, that by
actually necessary for the
only,
to
the
general appearance of the window.
method no more space
this
is
It
is
required in the angle-jambs than
is
formation of the boxes to contain the weights, and even these can be
reduced to one in each angle by attaching a pulley to each weight, in a way which will be found
described in the succeeding plate, so that if the
the jamb,
recess
When
may
forming the bay

this
window be small the
be reduced to the width of a single bead.
method
is
shut oiT from the area of the apartment
is
by means of
sliding
doors.
adopted sash-fasteners only are used, shutters being unnecessary; the sliding
doors, however, prevent
the ordinary inside
inside face, or rather edge of
In other instances the whole of the
egress to the apartments through the bay,
The term
shutters.
oriel
is
more
effectually, perhaps,
generally applied to a bay
when
it
is
than
elevated
from the ground, and supported by a corbel, or moulded bracketings.
The form of
introduced with
economical
divisions
the bay prevents
the use of outside shutters.
advantage, especially
of space, and
may
be
in
(58)
houses.
readily attached to the
and hinging the upper of these
rails of the sash, so that it
southern
to the side-jamb,
may be sometimes
Pivot blinds
They
are
neat
in
appearance, and
window by making each blind

and the lower one
can be easily opened for cleaning when required.
to
it
in
two
at the meeting-
jp[i.5S!saaa
>3jti.- r-i.'-ar.
CAUPENTRY AND JOINEUY.

cation
engaged in the work of construction, not only to enable them to
those
for
59
any proposed
anticipate the effect, but to judge of the propriety of the execution of
work.
Constructive Carpentry
shows the method of reducing wood into forms, and joining
the parts, as directed by the rules of Descriptive Carpentry, or by the laws of strength,
and thereby forming a complete design.
Every
by
species of construction should be characterized
the
of
and a careful
These objects can only be obtained by judicious
regard to economy of materials.
combinations
staljility,
substances
used, so
the
that
amount of strength be
greatest
Unless the builder possess a con-
secured with the smallest expenditure of material.
knowledge of the principles of mechanics; unless he be acquainted with
siderable
the effect of pressure, and the resisting powers of different materials, he cannot com-
prehend,
much
less
design, such combinations
but becomes a mere laborer, putting
work without knowing
together the several parts of a
their relative dependence
He
each other, or the strength, or want of strength, of the whole.

the want of such knowledge
we have
as
described, incapable
is,
indeed, from
of judging
what
the best forms of construction, or which of several modes of uniting timbers

It is the
best.
wh.0
is
province of Constructive Carpentry to show
desirous to
make
Medmnical
the
and the carpenter
it is
Carpentry
is
knowledge of
its
details,
but also some insight into
founded.
that
part of the
art
of construction in timber which
treats of the proper disposition of framing, so as to enable it to resist its
or
is
are
himself thoroughly acquainted with his business, should study
to acquire not only a practical
the principles on which
this,
on
any additional load or pressure that may be casually
laid
upon
it.
own
weight,
It is so called
from the principles of mechanics being employed in the construction of truss-framing,

or other parts of the
therefore first
disposition
and
to
art.
The mechanical
be considered;
size of
principles of
a piece of carpentry are
because they must, in some measure, regulate the
the timbers in the design after which they are to be prepared
or formed, according to the rules of Constructive Carpentry.
Having thus
tion of a few
briefly referred to the general principles of carpentry, the introduc-
remarks on the absolute strength of
on wood, given with a view
may
to
assist
timber,
with some practical observations
in the proper choice of
be of great use to the practical carpenter.
timber as a material,
;;
PLATE XXIV.
here show the construction of a twin-window, in which each division of the sash on either
"We thus dispense
within the centre box.
side of the mullion is hung to a single weight, running
the usual method is
with the broad jambs required for the reception of the double boxes, when
According to the old plan, each sash is hung with a separate balance-weight in this
employed.
We
simple arrangement, nothing more
is
necessary than to have the weight cast of double dimension,
with a pulley in the end upon which the cord plays, instead of being attached to the end of the
Fig. 1
wcifht.
is
a horizontal section showing the inside shutters in two positions, folded within
the side-jamb, and extended so as to cover the sash;

is
on
also described
ing as
"We
struction.
may
Fig. 3
is
great advantage
add, that in regulating the
movement of
where the bottom sash
in cases
windows, as the pulley
is
window and
of the
its finish-
the sash the weight will only rise or
and that
requh-ed
placed in a position where
thus
is
much
outside shutters
a vertical section explanatory of portions of the con-
to one-half of the distance required for the sash
fall
manner of hanging the
Fig. 2 exhibits in elevation as
this figure.
necessary to be shown.
is
the
method may be employed with
this
to fly
is
it
up
into the
head, or in attic
easy of access, and
immediately
opposite that belonging to the upper sash.
In these or similar
box
The
date
letters placed
its
Fig. 1
on the figures in
the walls
section on Fig. 2
D, on the same
on each of the three
FF
II
hook driven within the
to a
Hn
C C
denotes the inside
shutter
figures, denotes in difierent positions the
and
GGG
II II II, distributed
manner of attaching them

(60)
construction.
The
by using them
letters
as references, to eluci-
AAA, where
placed on both
B, similarly placed, denotes the top of outer window-sill on Fig.

in
its
1,
folded and extended forms on
hinged to the frame
EE
E, placed
upper sash, as hung within the frame
the same manner the lower sash
I,
where placed on the
section of the centre box, which shows _two of
the sash-weights and
F, similarly disti-ibuted, denotes in
parting-shps
this plate will serve,
figure, denotes the outside shutter
elevation, denotes the vertical
the
end of the cord should be secured
the more important parts of the
sections, denote
and
cases, the
opposite the stile-pulley.
denotes
the
on Figs. 1 and
to the cord.
moulded architrave, both

2,
in section
and in elevation
denotes the sash-weights within their boxes, and the
'i
r;^1^S!^f?'i'^lS^#tS*^^' ':'-'
p.,,i-v.i

61
OF THE ABSOLUTE STRENGTH OF TIMBER.
The
strain occasioned
tension;
it
The
by pulling timber in the direction of
frequently occurs in roofs, and
is
therefore
it
is
to pull it asunder;
threads asunder
is
held together, which
and the
is
is
each
Hence
all
called
the force by which
proportional to that of their
to tear
sum; but the
any number of
areas of the sections
of two pieces of timber composed of fibres of the same kinds, are as the
fibres in
is
equal to the force that would be required
which would be required
force
length
worthy of consideration.
absolute strength of a fibre, or small thread of timber,
every part of
its
and, therefore, the strength of the timber
prismatic bodies are equally strong;
is
that
number of
as the area of the sections.

is,
they will not break in
one part rather than in another.

Bodies which have unequal sections will break at their smallest part; and, therefore, if
the absolute strength which would be required to tear a square inch of each
kind of timber be known,
we
shall be able to determine the
strength of any other
quantity whatever.
The
following table, taken from reliable experiments, shows the absolute strength
of a square inch of various descriptions of timber
Locust-tree
20-100 pounds.
Pomegranate
9 750 pounds.
Beech-oak
17-300
Lemon
2 950
Orange
15-500
Tamarind
8 750
Alder
13-900
"
Fir
8 330
Elm
13-200
"
Walnut
8 130
Mulberry
12-500
Pitch-pine
WiUow
12-500
"
Quince
6 750
Ash
12-000
"
Cypress
Plum
11-800
Poplar
5 500
Elder
10000
Cedar
........
650
000
4 880
PLATE XXV.
Represents the method employed in the construction of a window with sliding shutters, which in this
example arc substituted

Fig. 2
for
the ordinary covering.
the corresponding portion of the window.

Fig. 4
is
Fig. 3
is
a plan of the
entire
drawn
and on the exterior
and Fig. 7
is
and Fig. 5
is
its
shutter,
construction.
a vertical section, explanatory of the preceding
a plan of one side of the construction, which
aid of an enlarged scale;
elevation;
drawn
is
the elevation, showing on the interior one-half of the
is
figure.
Fig. 1
is
rendered more distinct by the
Fig. 6 shows a portion of the inside
vertical section.
a section of the shutters and the centre-bar, taken at the division and
to the full size.
This may, perhaps, be esteemed the most secure and reliable method of closing a window.
is
necessary to
make
to afford a thickness sufScient to insure
bar, which forms the
way
permanency
upper
for the
and strength and firmness
to the sheaves,
division, as well as the guide for the lower.
discerned by a reference to Fig. 7, on which
is
The
flanges of the bar or
as to form the centre-bead at the division of the shutters.
The lower
have a way with the usual side-plate, set in flush and screwed fast to the
is
usually
within the side-grooves
project
bearing
are
in
arranged in
grooves, which
this
manner the
should be of brass
nesses
slip
and
cut
sections
stiles
lap, so that
beyond the shutters on

in
the sides of the
may be taken
those at the sides of iron.
of two thicknesses, (except the
and
rails,)
it
can be taken
either
cavities
face, in
which
be
out separately,
if
are rounded, so
The centre-bar
sill.
is
secured to those
off at pleasure.
The
order to give them a
receive
the
shutters.
If
necessary; that in the centre
Shutters of this description
may
be readily made
and plates of sheet-iron inserted between the thick-
thus forming a perfect safeguard against the operations of burglars.

(62)
way
the middle of which crosses the window, and
by means of a
flanges of the side-sections
to the
may
section will likewise require
to
in three sections
This
also represented a plate of iron, let into the groove
at each end to prevent the wearing of the wood.
made
It
sliding shutters, or at least the outer frame-work, of two-inch plank, in order
Fi-S,/
63
PRACTICAL OBSERVATIONS ON WOOD.

1.
its
The wood immediately surrounding the
much
inferiority is so
pith, or heart,
the more remarkable as the tree
from experiments on large oaks and pines, that the heart
is
the weakest;
certain,
It is
older.
is
much weaker than
is
and
the
exterior parts.
The wood next
2.
than the rest;
the bark,
to
commonly
sap, or wliite, is also
called
and the wood gradually increases in strength
as
we
weaker
recede from the
centre to the sap.
The wood
3.
stronger in the middle of the trunk than at the springing of the
is
branches, or at the root
and the wood of the branches
The wood on the north
4.
side the strongest;
The heart
never in
is
the annual coats of
wood
its
is
most remarkable
centre, but
and that on the south
that the timber
in
always nearer
are thinner on that side.
general opinion of carpenters
weaker than that of the trunk.
side of trees is the weakest,
and the difference
of a tree
is
is
such as grow singly.

to the
north
In conformity to
strongest
side,
and
this, it is
whose annual
plates are
thickest.
5.
All woods are more tenacious while green, and lose very considerably by drying
after the tree is felled.
Joinery, the other grand division of general carpentry,

joining
wood together
for internal
and external
finishings of
is
the art of framing or
houses
thus the cover-
ings and linings of rough walls, or the coverings of rough timbers, and the construction of doors,
windows, and
Joinery requires
much more
latter consists only of
joinery
is
stairs,
are joiners' work.
accurate and nice workmanship than carpentry; the
rough timbers, used in supporting the various parts of an
therefore used
by way of decoration, and being always near
edifice
to the eye
and
consequently liable to inspection, requires that the joints should be fitted together
with the utmost
and the surfaces made smooth.
care,
In no art or business has greater changes taken
than in
the
this particular
most perfect of
effect
branch of mechanical employment.
their
respective
within the last few years
Appliances once thought
kinds have been superseded;
become obsolete; while modern invention has
simplified
old
terms have
labor and led to the intro-
PLATE XXVI.
Exhibits a metliod of constructing sliding doors, in which the sheaves and ways are placed at the
top, thus leaving the floor entirely clear of obstructions,
separating the carpets between the apartments,

as in the
the sheaves and ways are placed at the bottom
when
method usually employed.
Fig. 1
the ground plan of this construction, on which
is
The
partitions.
that
and obviating the necessity which exists for
marked
portion of the face of
Fig. 2 shows
floor.
and on the opposite
the wall,
the
for shifting the bar at the top;
elevation
at
side,
when
the doors are boarded

vertical
section of
Fig. 5
scale.
is
under portion at
between the studs, as

Fig. 4
the elevation.
shown on Fig.
By
sheave.
this
becomes central
on Fig.
its
to
4,
the
and
crank
Figs.
4 and
section
a section
make our
order to
5, in
is
of
the
at
the sheaves upon the bar

partitions to receive
and B.
Fig. 3
is
and the
sheave
line at
is
by the flange opposite

its
and
to the
whole length.
plate
on Fig.
K, on
the
we
this figure
intelligible.
L, where
denotes
the
regulated by the lever, until the
way
attached.
is
5.
this
figure,
enters the groove, as shown at
the flange described at
its
placed immediately beneath, denotes that of the
arrangement, the movement of the cranks
when
more
head, drawn to a large
In connection with
description
E, where
showing the bar or way at I
and the sheave at K.
plate to which the
in the cavity,
a bearing along
(G4)
FF
cavities formed within the
a transverse
Fig. 6
bar.
a section of Fig. C
by the
and by the dotted
position
it
to
5, is
door, as secured
is
and
be seen by reference to
will
also
and
a longitudinal section of the head, drawn to a similar scale, which shows on
side-plate as secured to the door at
must again refer
The
the doors are closed.
of the doors
D, the naked studding.
placed above the doors, denotes the truss-framing of the partition

as they appear
described the connection with the
is
and lever
displays the crank
plan at the
the
is
marked
half
In
this
by which the door
manner the way

is
is
held firm in
suspended, which also aflbrds
^Samî Sloan AjcV
i*
seiLtiial-^riJt^Piisli
ARPENTRY AND
.1
O I N E R Y.
65
duction and employment of suitable machinery in departments
formerly intrusted to
the most expert and careful artizans.
many European
In
improvement in joinery
countries
is
more or
methods
old
less discernible;
while with us
kept pace with the rapid strides which the country
branch of art and

pertains
because of modern
inferred, that
and
ingenuity and
workmen now than
our
skill in
and manifests
making
is
itself in
modus operandi of general carpentry.
the
to
scientific discovery,
invention
On
formerly.
others
prevail, in
still
It
the
spirit of
development has
its
in almost every other
nearly everything which
must
there
is
not, however, be
less
need of care
the contrary, owing to the higher
degree of finish and embellishment generally bestowed upon our structures, there
necessity for
increased
the
exercise of taste
is
an
and circumspection in every branch of
joinery.
In order to keep pace with the spirit of the age, every intelligent mechanic,
who
aims at being thorough in the practice of his profession, should make himself acquainted
with
and well consider every new invention which
principles, should closely scan
its
claims to efiect an improvement in their application

to attain such a
to understand
knowledge of geometrical
with
facility the several
lines
and, above
all,
and construction as
should endeavor
will enable
him
drawings given him from time to time for his
guidance.
To
known
well
or
the minor tools and materials used in joinery
its
to
almost every one
And
uses.
in fact, the
we need not
who has had even moderate
improvements
to
would
at
all,
into descriptions
experience in joinery
which we have referred have led
such changes in their preparation and application as would lead
them
These are
refer.
much more lengthened than
us, did
we
to
touch on
the limits at our disposal
afibrd.
On
the character and finish of a joiner's
work depend much of the appearance
of a building, and no exertions should be spared in the endeavor to perfect
neat and tasteful manner;
for
consulted in the several joints,

obtained.
When
no matter how much strength and accuracy

if
it
in a
may
be
the finishing be disregarded, elegance can never be
a joiner works in the harder and more costly descriptions of wood,
such as walnut, oak, or mahogany, his main object should be to obtain a perfectly
smooth and even

of joiners'
the joints
work
surface.
glue,
Too much pains cannot be taken
where
it
in the finer descriptions
oozes on the outer surface, should be nicely
should be carefully leveled;
removed
and the use of a smooth scraper and

I
fine
PLATE XXVII.
On
The example on Fig. 1
best adapted for vestibules.
are intended to be
will
the
filled
The
and
project from their face, flush to that of the stiles
ings, however,
is
etc.,
stiles,
necessary, in cases where the doors are
made
also intended for glass panels,
This door
is
to above, as circumstances
is
may
The mouldings may be treated
iron
is
methods alluded
in either of the
It has
In form and
three panels in each fold.
exception that the frieze-panel
is
here
doors of this description are intended to be used in important buildings, they
inserted between the
the
deemed more
substituted, if
determine.
well adapted for an outer door.
When
In other
The other example on Fig. 2
efi"ect.
wood may be
for which, however,
should be framed in two thicknesses and screwed together.
When
This arrangement of the mould-
have a suitable projection, thus adding much to the appearance
finishing the mouldings resemble those in Fig. 1, with the
introduced.
the outer ones, which are of
almost similar to the preceding, the only point of difference being in the
form of the corners of the panels.
Fig. 3
thus leaving a surface free of projections,

to slide.
of the door, and giving to the finishing a bold and increased
suitable.
inner mouldings which surround
rails
not desirable when the doors are not intended to be of this description.
cases, the centre mouldings should
is
and 2 are
The door
with plate-glass of at least one-fourth of an inch in thickness.
smaller dimensions, are also flush with the

is
these, Figs. 1
two panels in height, the upper of which
is
be double-faced, with similar mouldings on both sides.

fillets
which
Of
this plate are given four different designs for folding doors.
thicknesses of the
panels
and
fillets,
If
or
be desirable, sheet-iron
it
made
to
cover the
entii-e
may
be
surface.
not introduced, a single thickness will be suflicient for the panels and
fillets,
but the latter in either case should be framed.

Fig. 4
top.
is
an example of two panels in height;
The character of
this
adapted for vestibule and
form
other
is
also
interior
the upper of these being
appropriate for an exterior finish.

doors.
None
of
the
instance be less than one inch and three-quarters in thickness,

(60)
made
circular at the
is
equally well
foregoing examples
can in any
if
made
It
double-faced.
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gggggy.
<
'Iff.li,
3S7
^^^
^^S''
j^,^->-
Sloan AtcVi!
Rr
i'ii-.4.
L\ Bosfmlnl
i.:ih
l-i.

glass-paper
in
is
many
instances necessary,
more
especially
67
when
wood
the
is
intended
purpose of being afterwards polished with wax,
to be left in its natural color for the
or varnished.
When work
a process now
is
intended to be grained in imitation of any particular kind of wood
in very extensive use
great pains
should be taken in
its
preparation.
In more than one case which has recently come under the author's cognizance, the
interior
its
wood-work of
natural
all
has been
the principal apartments of a residence
and afterwards coated with preparations of varnish calculated to
colors,
bring out the grain and enhance the appearance of the various woods.
wood
descriptions of
very pleasing
whole
each with a different wood,

these are generally
made
suite of
the
apartments
can, of
may
to a considerable extent
Some
when
particular cases, be
arranged and varnished in the
and pretty
effect, viz.,
yellow-pine;
treated
The
choice of particular
upon the location of the dwell-
species of timber are indigenous,
more readily obtained than
way we have
We
others.
practice, which,
mentioned, produce a very pleasing
cotton-wood, chma-wood, maple, ash, cherry, beech, poplar, and
not to mention walnut, oak, and mahogany, which have been previously
this
manner.
In the internal finishing of the higher class of buildings,
the aid of turning has been

of varied
alone being uniform, as
some woods within the scope of our own immediate
instance
many
be finished in this manner,
of darker and heavier material.
wood depends
course, in
may
doors of the several rooms
ing in which they are intended to be used.
and
In
this process of varnishing over the natural ligneous color has a
effect.
descriptions of
left in
description,
They
been produced.
made
extensively available.
and balusters to
By
stairs, galleries, etc.,
this
means, ornaments
of peculiar
merit,
have
possess almost every conceivable advantage over those formerly
in use, both in regard to the beauty of their design and workmanship, and the -variety
Carving also lends
of their forms.
rapidly growing into favor.
But now, when almost
Formerly
palatial
its
it
aid
was
the
in
little
work of embellishment, and
is
used in consequence of the expense.
residences, costly stores,
and magnificent churches are
springing up around us, and meet the eye at almost every turn, the use of this beautiful
decorative art cannot be dispensed with.
An
improved kind of marquetry, or
curious inlaid work, composed of pieces of hard fine wood, arranged in various forms,
and woven as
it
were into each other, has recently been patented and introduced.
In particular cases
it
makes an admirable
substitute for
common
flooring.
It is
well adapted for use in vestibules, libraries, picture-galleries, and large apartments in
PLATE XXVIII.
Six designs are here presented for single doors, the upper panels of the
are intended to be
filled
The panels below the
When
Gothic style.
may
with plate-glass, which
be easily adapted to vestibules in

lock-rail
a door
three of which
first
be either stained or enameled.
Fig. 1
may
narrow passages, in cases where single doors are most desirable.
are moulded with
a plain
Fig.
fillet.
is
intended to be double-faced,
of this description is
an example in the
it
is
necessary that
the thickness should be at least two inches, in order to obtain sufficient depth for the sinking of
the
Fig.
mouldings.
3,
both of
like
the
preceding examples,
is
employed
intended to be
in
vestibules.
The three remaining examples are designed
As used
flush with the outer surface.
projection, so as to overlap the
stiles
Of
for exterior doors.
All the panels have mouldpd
above.
frieze-panels
fillets,
these. Fig.
which project from their
made with
is
and
face,
finish
for external finish, the outer mouldings should have suitable
and
This gives a better effect to the
rails.
and bold-
finish,
ness and character to the mouldings.
The method usually pursued

to,
consists
"bead and
with
finishing
in finishing the inner side of doors, such
making the face of the panels
in
flush,"
or
flush with
"bead and butt."
the
stiles.
This
These merely
beading the joint around the panels, as according to the former the bead
while in the latter
thickness,
and
Fig. 5
is
and firmness to the panels, than
a Gothic example, square in
This form
When
is
its
outline;
appropriate for external
we have
is
technically termed
differ
is
in
manner of
the
mitred at the corners,
if
they were moulded on both faces.
the filling in of the panels are in keeping

finish, in
a Gothic edifice,
when
example be applied externally, and made double-faced,
it
will
requii-e
If,
as intended,
to be fully
half inches thick, with the stiles and rails in two thicknesses, and screwed together.
also adapted for external use.
above have circular tops.

(68)
head-lights
thus used, the contour pecuhar to the style should be formed by the con-
tinuation of the head-light, in connection with the square outline of the door.
this
reference
This form of finish gives increased
the beads butt against each other.
greater solidity
with the style.

are requisite.
mode
as
The panels are
finished
and moulded on both
sides,
two and a
Fig. 6
is
and those
i?Lia^
^3?^yijLi[{
69
which, owing to their great extent, or the paucity of furniture, an increased
on the
walls, ceiling, or floor,
is
beautiful finish are also turned
occupy the positions
Brackets and scrolls of unique form and
from the saw, ready, without further elaboration, to
which they were designed.
for
foregoing are but a few of the most noticeable imj^rovenients which have of
The
been introduced into what, taken as a whole,
late years
Ornamental Joinery.
larize
desirable.
effect
any
It
further, or
to
would be impossible
specify the
minor
for us, in
arts
may
not inaptly be termed
our present
limits, to particu-
and inventions which the teeming
brain of industry brings forth from day to day, to improve and simplify
The
application of
the manufacture
of
its
work.
steam machinery to sawing, planing, and mortising, and
mouldings, sash, and doors,
may
for
be incddentally mentioned, as
having tended to the introduction of essential changes in the practice of joinery.
We
think
we have
said
enough in the preceding observations to make
it
apparent
that in no former time were taste, neatness, and intelligence more requisite qualifications in our artizans than in the present.
business.
excellence
founded.
No
abstract rules will teach a
Close study and intelligent observation are necessary.
must make
himself
He who
man
his
aims at
conversant with the principles on which his
art
is
PLATE XXIX.
This plate contains six examples of different forms of doors,
Fig. 1
is
a six-panel door, in which the panels are equally divided,
need not be made more than one and a

raised or flush panels on the inner side,
Fig. 2
is
the centre
Fig. 3
may
be
Fig. 6
is
form termed
Fig. 4
is
Fig. 5
frieze.
finish.
These
and single-moulded.
and
if
made
single-faced, with
further reduced to one and a quarter inches.
still
another description of
is
those above have circular tops.
at the top being of the
top.
half inches in thickness;
adapted for interior
a foui'-pancl door of almost similar construction, having a broad centre, or, as
usually termed, lock-rail.
and
all
it
more
is
six-panel door, with frieze-panels
in
an eight-panel door, those in the centre

is
six-paneled, with frieze-panels
the
at
another example of the six-paneled form, with frieze-panels in the centre.
For the general information of the reader, we

order to determine the widths of the panels,
stiles,
insert the
and
rails,
method necessary
employed
to be
in
in doors of this description:
Divide the entire width of the door into seven equal parts, and of these give two to the
breadth of each panel, and one part to the width of each of the
rails
should always equal that of the
the width of the
stiles,
according to
description
generally
To
the
made equal
into seven equal parts, of

is
which
marked on
For further explanation

reader
of
the
in width to
find the proportion of the
sion of the parts
is
referred to
stiles
or equal to two
in
but where
is
The width of
there
is
of the upper
made
usually
twice
the lock-rail varies
no frieze-paneling,
it
is
stiles.
frieze-panel:
Divide
the space between the
given vertically to the panel will form
its
stile
and munton
height.
The
divi-
Fig. 4.
regard to the forms and application of mouldings and
Plate LXVI., on which
carefully to a scale of one-half the full size.

(70)
used
two of the
five
The width
the width of the bottom rail
of the given parts.
panels
stiles.
will
be found a variety of these forms,
fillets,
all
the
drawn
TiL- aaiia
jl
11
Fi^J
THE FIYE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE.
Having
in
the preceding pages explained and
illustrated
of
the
most
branches connected with Constructive Architecture, the next
important and
useful
division of our
work brings us
to the
consideration of those great creations of the
the
ancients which have never been added to or excelled
The examples we have chosen

kinds, arranged with care,
are the best
Five Orders.
and most celebrated of their respective
and accompanied by such plain yet minute descriptions

the principles of the different orders, and thus
serve clearly to elucidate
will
several
the distribution and proportions of their several parts and
In the fulfilment of our task we have exercised great
members
care.
as
make
easily apparent.
Our
principal object
has been so to simplify the arrangement and description of the orders as to present
them
in the plainest
and most
intelligible form.
We
have culled the best examples,
consulted the most reliable authorities, and availed ourselves generally of the materials
placed at our disposal by those whose researches in this field have rendered
them eminent.
Our
orders
the
used by the Greeks.
first
The
examples are Grecian.
first
more rude, the
To
middle rank.
Doric, Ionic,
and Corinthian, were the only
The Tuscan and Composite were used only

more
latter
attain a proper
ornate, than the
Greek
orders,
in Italy;
which occupied a
knowledge of the true principles of Architecture,
the student should devote his most careful attention to the study of the three Grecian
orders, as in
The
them
first
these principles are faithfully portrayed.
Grecian order in point of antiquity
Dores, a small tribe in Greece

first
employed the order
Our
first
or, as
is
the
Doric, so called
from the
others say, from Dorus, an Achaian chief,
who
in erecting a temple to Juno, at Argos.
plate contains an
example of the Grecian Doric, taken from the Temple
of Theseus, at Athens.
(71)
PLATE XXX.
THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE GRECIAN DORIC ORDER.
Any
altitude being proposed for this
whole order, make the lower diameter of the shaft of the
column one-eighth of the entire height of the order
divide the diameter of the
equal parts, then one of these parts will be a module;
and each of these parts

of the
tliat
capital
will
Make
be a minute.
one module.
Divide the height of the capital into five equal parts

;
The height of the entablature
is
Make
its
the upper diameter of the
side of the abacus
two modules
Again divide the height of the
upper one to the capital of the triglyph, and the three lower
into eight parts, giving the
to the channels.
and of
the annulets one-quarter
four modules, of which the cornice has one
module, and the frieze and architrave each forty-five minutes.

frieze
make
Make
and the length of each
shaft three-quarters of its lower diameter,
two
module into thirty equal parts,
divide the
of the echinus, and give the remaining two parts to the abacus.
and twelve minutes.
into
the height of the column twelve modules, and
one to the neck, and two to the annulets and echinus
these, give
column
the inner edge of the angle triglyph directly over the axis of the column;
breadth should be twenty-eight minutes
and the distance between the intermediate triglyphs
should be equal to the height of the frieze, and their position directly over the centres of the
Make
columns.
the
tenia
upper
or
fillet
one-tenth
the
of
height
of
the
and the
architrave,
The height of the
cornice being
regula, together with the drops, equal
in
height to
one module, give to the small bead on
its
lower part one minute, and to the height of the mutules
and
guttC,
triglyphs,
minutes
four
and
and
their projection
half.
the
tenia.
The length of the mutules equals the breadth of the
beyond the triglyphs extends
These
to two-thirds of their length.
should be placed directly over the centres of the triglyphs and in the middle of the metopes or
intermediate spaces.
The
fillet
above the mutules, which
beyond the mutule half a minute.

beyond the
over
it
one minute
fillet
comes a
fillet
Make
order.
example
is
The module
these parts;
taken
is
half minutes high, projects
this fillet
is
the
its
projection
one minute and a quarter
make another
fillet
above the echinus.
most celebrated buildings now remaining of
divided into thirty parts or minutes
and
echinus six minutes and
the measures
are
all
numbered
The
this
in
the projections are reckoned from a line representing the axis of the column, and are
figured at the extremities of each

(72)
Over
remain for the height of the
from one of
a'
the height of the corona ten minutes, and
the height of the small echinus
of the same height.
a half high, and two minutes will

opposite
one and
is
member.
THE FIVE ORDERS OE ARCHITECTURE.
73
THE GRECIAN IONIC OllDEK.

GENERAL REMARKS.
It
may
be observed in the general definition of the orders, that every order con-
of a column and an entablature;
sists
and
except in the Doric, where the base
capital,
an architrave, a
consists of
and
trave, frieze,
liar
mode
But
many
is
omitted
and a cornice; that the
of the mouldings are
that every entablature
base, shaft, capital, archi-
members of an order; and that the pecu-
members determines the
or form of the
since
frieze,
cornice, are the principal
in a similar
rated
that every column consists of a shaft, base,
name
particular
common
of the order.
to all the orders,
and are gene-
manner, what has been said on the Doric order will render
it
unnecessary to repeat the same things in the Ionic, as such mouldings cannot form
a distinctive feature of any particular order.
members ought
these
The
to be modified so that they
subjoined definitions
may
show how
constitute the Ionic order.
DEFINITIONS.
1.
from the under side of the abacus of an order there project two or more
on each end of the
spirals
the same
a plane parallel to the
frieze, so
the opposite
distance
side of
the
abacus, parallel
to
the former and projecting
from the axis of the column, so that each of the
have the same number of revolutions, and equal and similar

jecting part contained between
2.
An
order which
any two
trave finishing
and
if
cornice
to the
under
parallelopipeds, equidistant
An
sequently,
is
to each other, the pro-
spirals is called a volute.
abacus square, as in the Doric order, the archi-
consisting of
side of
cyma
recta,
the corona are
then a
fillet,
and an echinus
hung a row of equal and
similar
from each other, whose fronts are in a plane parallel to
that of the frieze, then each of these

3.
shall
of plain facia, and mouldings either plain or enriched, the frieze a
surface, the
only;
spirals
has volutes and mouldings in the capital of the annular
kind, and the ichnography of the
plain
that the extremity
be at the same distance from the axis of the column, and also two
of each shall
others upon
front, in
order so constructed
the Ionic order.
is
is
called a dentil.
similar to that invented
by the
lonians, and, con-
PLATE XXXI.
FROM THE TEMPLE OF BACCHUS AT
changed
drawn from the accurate measurements, as taken from that celebrated
building.
The
is
It
add greatly
the elevation of the order,
letters
is
tlie
and dedicated
dentils in the cornice
Of
by
begun of
first
into that of the Ionic,
This example
Doric order by Hermogenus;
lie
This temple was

it
TEOS, IN IONIA.
it
it
but afterwards
to Bacchus.
to the character of the order.
may
be observed that the measurements of the parts marked
have been supplied by conjecture, as no remains of the originals could be found.

thought by some, from the
and the portion of
little
differences
which exist between the shaft at the base
immediately under the capital, that the base which
it
is
here exhibited in con-
nection with the shaft, did not occupy that position in the original order, but rather belonged to
some of the
columns.
interior
This supposition
strengthened by the fact that the ancients
is
always made their interior ranges of columns less in diameter than those on the exterior, as in the
Temple of Minerva, the Propylea, and other celebrated Athenian
Be
this as it
may, the form of base shown, which
most favorite one among the ancients, as

that termed the Ionic;
In
this
It
may
contour
is
also
is
pleasing,
and
is
among
is
terminated with a horizontal
line,
which
is
falls
here be
the shaft
their junctions are
formed by
fillets,
not so heavy as
a tangent to the curve of the
volute.
in
is
not formed with a border on the
commencement of the second revolution of each

generally remarked, that
It
in general appearance elegant.
the Ionic
with this difference, however, that the number of flutes
and
the moderns.
example, the channel connecting the two volutes
lower edge, but

spiral at the
its
it
buildings.
termed the Attic, seems to have been the
is
fluted,
as
in
the Doric,
increased from twenty to twenty-four,
is
instead of sharp arrises.
The channels being thus
multi-
plied,
and set apart from each other, are consequently much narrower than those of the Doric
order,
and are much deeper
semi-circle, or semi-ellipse.
(74)
in proportion to their
breadth
and
their extremities terminate in the
THE FIVE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE.
ROMAN
The
Doric, as
orders used
we have observed
by the Greeks, but
Roman
the second of the five
capital
edge,
the frieze
cut in each, which
nels
The
are
is
called
and not by a
moulding
the
drops or guttae;
the triglyphs;
surmounted with a plain
flat
triglyphs;
spaces between these
projections,
along the top of the frieze runs a broad
the
sofiit
called mutules, one of
with three chancalled
called the capital of
fillet,
which
is
placed over each metope and each triglyph;
identical with the Grecian, but
in other
Li these respects the
points
there
is
considerable
In the pure Grecian examples the column has no base, and
ence.
are
of the cornice has broad and shallow blocks worked on
under surface are several rows of guttos or drops.

is
is
and
below the abacus of the
ornamented by
the
flutings,
as in the other orders,
fillet
as
under the triglyphs and below the tenia of the architrave are placed small
metopes;
Doric
column has twenty
shaft of the
an ovolo; the architrave of the entablature
called the tenia;
fillet,
and simplest of the three
was ranked by the writers of the Renaissance
than a semicircle in depth;
less
is
DORIC.
before, is the oldest
orders.
which are separated by a sharp

they are
it
75
its
it,
on the
Roman
difier-
height varies
from about four to six and a half diameters; the capital has a perfectly plain square
abacus, and the ovolo
it
is
but
quirked under the abacus;
is
at all curved in section, except at the top,
little if
under the ovolo are a few plain
channels, and a short distance below
them a deep narrow channel
the flutes of the shaft are continued up to the
In the Roman Doric the shaft
is
fillets
is
fillets
under the ovolo.
usually from seven to eight diameters high, and
the order, consisting of a plinth and torus, with an
astragal
has a small moulding round the top of the abacus, and the ovolo
and
them a
ings
is
not quirked;
collarino or neck.
above
is
Roman
is
it;
peculiar to
the capital
in section a quarter
under the ovolo are two or three small

In the
and small
cut in the shaft;
generally has a base, frequently the Attic, and sometimes that which
circle,
where
fillets,
and below
Doric, the triglyphs at the angles of build-
must be placed over the centre of the column, and the metopes must be exact
squares.
Sometimes the mutules are omitted, and a row of dentils
the cornice.
is
worked under
PLATE XXXII.
The example given on
of Diocletian, at
We
opposite plate
Rome, with the proportions
and enrichments
in
the
may
this
cornice,
an Elevation of
is
Owing
numbers.
in
tlie
Doric order from the Eaths
abundance of mouldings
to the
The
termed enriched Boric.
be
disposition
the
of
in the frieze is according to the rules of Vitruvius.
and metopes
triglyphs
tlie
append a method, whereby may be determined the proportions of the
different parts, the
intcrcolumniations and the distribution of the metopes, in a fa9ade or portico of the Doric order,
according to the rules observed by the ancients in the erection of their temples.
The
front of a Doric temple, where the columns are placed,
twenty-eight parts
if
One
hexastyle, into forty-four.
thickness of the column must be two modules
is
divided, if
is
divided into three parts, of which one
to the echinus with the annulets

stilium, with
length of
the tenia and drops,
is
the hypoti-achelion.
The
tenia
On
hypotrachelion of the column.
the
centre of the
epistilium
Two
The height of the

;
another
The height of
the epi-
of these
are
are
the
also answers to
triglyphs, one
of the femur
cut a channel, whose breadth
is
left,
channels are sunk, as
divided into twelve
is
if
imprinted by the elbow of a square.
is
On
The
being thus disposed,
made
On
one-sixth of the module.
the
height
of
the
triglyphs and metopes,
the
metopes
half a module in width.
these
is
two
to the channels
drops
in
The
the
mutules
are
To
either side of this,
the right and
left
of these
and
at the
members are the same
equals
their
capitals
length.
of the
On
triglyphs
the
have
In the under part of the corona, over the

distributed,
The spaces between the metopes being rather broader
either plain or carved;
On
placed the corona, which projects a half and one-sixth of
a module, having a cimatium above and another below.
(76)
each side
In the same manner serai-channels must be sunk at the extremities.
formed.
angles the semi-metopes are
the remaining
Next
equal to two parts.
cut in the form of a semi-channel.
is
another femur
breadth.
in
each equal to the breadth of the middle femur, and the part which remains
next to the edge of each triglyph
triglyphs
is
module
between each column, and one over
equal parts, of which the breadth of the femur in the middle will be two parts.
other femurs are
Their
triglyphs.
epistilium
placed the
The breadth of the triglyphs
6olumn at the angle.
the height
has the seventh of a module, the
The breadth of the
one-sixth of a module.
breadth and one and a half in .height.

the
to
drop under the tenia, coinciding with the perpendicular of
height with the regula

the
is
one module.
is
given to the abacus with the cimatium
and the third
The
of these parts will be the module.
the height, with the capital, fourteen
of the capital itself one module, and the breadth two modules and a sixth.
capital
be terastyle, into
it
six
than
in
the
length
triglyphs,
edge of the corona, a channel, termed a scotia,

as in the Ionic order.
and three
is
are
cut.
in
left
All
77
OF THE ORDERS IN GENERAL.

The term
order, as applied
when
of liarmony
applied
to
used in relation to painting.

ings, so
conveys the same meaning as that
to Architecture,
music
or the
means
It
more ancient one of ordminance, when

an assemblage of parts and mould-
in fact
disposed as to give an effect at once pleasmg to the eye, and proportioned
and adapted
to the office each has to perform.
who was perhaps
Vitruvius,
the
first
writer on Architecture
the birth of Christ, expresses this idea as follows
members
sition of the
portion with symmetry."
and who
is
of
an apt and regular dispo-
and a comparison of the universal pro-
had no competitor, seems to convey
observes
" That
it is
a kind of excellency which infinitely
beauty of buildings, sacred
comprehended
is
Each
and
is
in the terms lyropriety
the compositions
known
or
The
profane."
"The
generally as
Five Orders"
elsewhere stated, of two parts, the column and entablature;
consists,
as
each of which
again divided into three other parts, which are severally composed of mouldings,
The
it
orders are, the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite;
peculiar in
strength,
its
grace,
three most
elegance,
and
richness.
each of which
These orders, rightly understood
the foundation upon which
ancient are the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, to which the
" rustic even to deformity
;"
the comjjounded order.
It is
invention,
cor-
The
Romans added
Vitruvius speaks of the former
nor were the later masters more favorable to
The Composite, the other Roman
and
Architecture has long rested.
the Tuscan, as they subsequently did the Composite.
Palladio.
forms a part.
composition, and well calculated to express the various attributes of
rectly applied, are
as
idea thus
and harmony.
each respectively proiôrtioned and adapted to the order of which
is
flourished after
Scamozzi, one of the old masters, a contemporary of Palladio,
when he
adds to the shape
we have
separately,
after the death of that great architect
the same meaning
expressed
work
of a
" It
who
is
it,
except
termed by Sir Henry Wotton
composed of parts of the other
orders, but principally
of the Ionic and Corinthian.
The
proportions of the parts of the orders are as various as the examples, but
few authors agreeing.
In those
we have chosen
proceed, explanations of the orders
heads.
more
the parts are figured, and as
in detail will be furnished
we
under the proper
PLATE XXXIII.
Is
Sir William Chambers, who took his example

a finished elevation of the modern Doric from
As on the other plates, the correct proportions are here given in numbers, thus
Vignola.
from
rendering further description unnecessary.
which
equally appUcable to
is
column be not
and
all
other kinds of shafts, the Tuscan alone excepted.
the bottom of the shaft
feet,
make
these parts
the bottom
is
is
and a half are the measure
fifty feet in height, it is
proportional method
to
is
to appear
make
it
be from twenty to thirty
the diminution at the top.
bottom
is
be observed in
the
And
their altitude be
if
treatment of columns;
more diminished, they are therefore

if
If the column be
satisfied
make
still
for,
to be corrected
not
feet,
If from
divided into seven and a half
of the diminution at the top.
beauty being the province of the eye, which,
ness,
divided into six parts,
If the height be from fifteen to
divided into eight parts, whereof seven will
of the hypotrachelion at the top of the shaft.
causes them
If
the thickness of the column at the top.
thirty to forty feet high, the thickness of the shaft at
from forty to
is
If the
divided into six parts and a half, and five and a half of
divided into seven parts, and six of these
parts, of which six
thus regulated.
is
than fifteen feet high, the thickness at the bottom
less
of these parts are given as the thickness at the top.
five
twenty
tliis
for the diminution of columns,
diminution of the top of the column at the hypotrachcllon
"The
and
by Vitruvius,
insert in this place the following rules, given
We
as
the thickness
greater, the
same
a greater height
by an addition
of thick-
by the due proportion and
augmentation of the members, correcting apparent deficiencies with proper additions, the aspect
will
appear coarse and displeasing."
Of
the order in general
of the Doric order, the

proportions,
has been remarked, that
emotion
diversity so great
will
"on viewing and comparing
the examples
probably be one of surprise, at beholding the different
that scarcely any two instances appear which do not materially
the relative size of their parts, both in general and in detail, and presenting differences
differ in
which
first
it
cannot be reconciled upon any system of calculation, whether the diameter or the height
of the column, or the general height of the order, be taken as the clement of proportion.
the
same
order;
time,
they
all
resemble one another in certain characteristic marks, which denote
the differences are not generic, but specific,
marks which
definition."
(78)
enable
us
to
circumscribe
the
At
the
and leave unimpaired those plain and obvious
genuine
Doric
order
within
simple
and
easy
THE
ORDERS OP ARCHITECTURE.
FIXi:
ROMAN IONIC
In
base;
the
the
flutes,
sufficient to
by many other marked
much
altered
and the introduction of
the increased
fillets
is
dis-
such as the employment of a distinct
differences,
proportions;
it
number and
different contour of
the increased ornamentation of the entablar
and by many other variations.
ture;
The
The
is
from any other, although from the preceding, or Doric order,
it
tinguishable
OllDER.
order the capital becomes the chief characteristic, which
tliis
distinguish
79
shaft varies from eight
and
echinus, astragal,
the echinus
is
fillet,
and a quarter
are
common
to nine
and a half diameters in height.
to both Grecian
The
astragal
The
and
in all the
Roman
capitals of all the
abacus alike on each
buildings except the Coliseum.
columns are sometimes made
side, as in
formed into a row of beads,
is
These mouldings are cut in a
with two small ones between every two large ones.
manner
capitals,
uniformly cut into eggs, surrounded with angular-sectioned borders, and
with tongues between every two borders.
similar
and Ionic
to face the four sides of the
the Temple of Concord, at Rome, from which example
the Scamozzian capital was formed.
The
Attic base
favorite form, for
was adopted by the Romans, and seems
it is
not only employed in
all
by the Romans
There are but few examples of

entire;
among them
of Fortuna Virilis.
would seem
to fall
have been their most
the examples of this order at Rome, but
However, the proportions of the
frequently in the Corinthian and Composite orders also.

Attic base as employed
to
are different from that
this order, as practised
are the Theatre of Marcellus, the
employed by the Greeks.
by the Romans, remaining
Temple of Concord, and that
Although these Roman examples are of considerable merit, they

short of
the
Grecian in taste and elegance.
impoverished by the volutes being considerably reduced in
This
Concord the volutes are placed diagonally.
Roman
Ionic capital, of
figures,
masks, busts,
which there
etc.
is
no
lack,
These differences are
is
size.
one among
The
capital
was
In the Temple of
many
varieties of the
some being ornamented with human

sufficient to
show that the ancients
did not confine themselves to the same treatment of this order on all occasions.
The Roman
entablature differs also from the Grecian, especially in the proportions
of the cornice, which in the latter case

in examples of
Roman
is less
practice the cornice
than either of the other members, whereas
is
by
far the
most important
division.
PLATE XXXIV.
In
plate
this
Chambers, from
of the column
is
different antiquities at
The base
ancient examples.
which
more
may
distinctly
is
Sir William
The height
Rome, proportioned by modules and minutes.
the other orders
in
Attic, as
trifle
The
marked.
their width,
than one -third of
it
which
is
more than semicircular
fillets,
to the strict rules of the
The three parts
when
so
and the shaft of
the plan of
only,
executed, they arc
much broader
or intervals between the flutes, should not be
The ornaments
nor narrower than one-quarter.
Romans,
antiques,
flutings
and there should be an ove or
of
the
capital
according
dart,
over the middle of each flute.
of the Ionic entablature, as represented in this plate, bear the
tion to each other, as in the
Tuscan order; the
simplicity of the rest of the composition
from
because,
than in any of the
less
trifle
Roman
most of the
in
is
should correspond with the flutes of the shaft
enrichments
by
collected
profile,
be cither plain or fluted, with twenty-four or twenty
should be a
flutings
antique
the
eighteen modules, and that of the entablature four and a half, or one-quarter
is
of the height of the column, as
the column
of
design
the
rcprcsenteil
frieze is plain, as being the
and the coimice
Vignola's design, in which there
is
is
same propor-
most suitable to the
almost an exact copy
without
the
a purity of form, a grandeur of style, and
a close conformity to the most approved specimens of the ancients, not to be equaled in any of
the profiles of his competitors.
If
it
be requisite to reduce the Ionic entablature to two-ninths of the height of the column,
which in most cases
is
preferable to that of one-quarter,
the module of the entablature
wards dividing
The
it
less,
by
it
may
easily be accomplished
by making
one-ninth, than the semi-diameter of the column
after-
as usual, and strictly observing the same dimensions as are figured on the plate.
distribution of the dentil-band will, in such case, answer very nearly in all the regular inter-
columniations, and in the extreme angle there will be a dentil, as there
is
in the best
examples
of the antique.
In the decorations of the interior of

the eye has
to
all
contemplate diminutive objects,
apartments,
the
height
when much
of
the
delicacy
entablature
is
requisite,
may
and
be reduced
even to one-fifth of the column, by observing the same method, and making the module only fourfifths of
the semi-diameter.
(80)
THE
FIVPJ
ORDKRH OF ARCHITECTURE.
81
ROMAN CORINTHIAN ORDER.

Although the Romans
in all probability
borrowed the idea of
Greeks, and cannot therefore rightly lay claim to

to the praise due to its perfection;
We
than Greek.
its
invention, they are fully entitled
the order, as far as
cannot be said to
know
we know
pius
Romans.
The
it
principal
Sibyl, at
Italian specimens
are the
Roman
and the Temple
Temple of Jupiter Olym-
the
Tivoli;
temples
Mars
of
Temple of Jupiter
the Pantheon
Ultor,
which have come
to our
and some very much
so;
Stater, three
the Temple of Vesta,
Jupiter
Rome, Antonius and Faustina, and of Jupiter Tonans.
of animals,
Lysicrates,
true, as the
is
columns of which remain in the Campo, Rome

or the
rather
is
but this was erected long after the order had been practised by the
Athens,
at
there are others,
it,
of more than three examples in Greece,
and these are the Tower of the Winds, the Monument of

of Jupiter at Olympia;
from the
this order
Capitolinus, Vesta at
Among
all
the
all
vary in
detail,
some fragments bear evidence of the introduction of
figures
knowledge there are not two alike; they
specimens
etc.
The Romans,
borrowing their architecture from the Greeks, appear to have
in
indiscriminately employed
the
Corinthian
order,
which they found possessed of an
ornamental character adapted to the splendor and magnificence of their
taste, in
the
same manner that the early Greeks used the Doric, and the lonians the order which
bears their name.
The
orders of Architecture appear to be altogether national;
temples of Greece and
Sicilian colonies are Doric,
its
thus the numerous
and bear one general character;
the Ionian cities present the best, the most elegant, and chaste examples of the Ionic
while Italy, Balbec, and Palmyra, exhibit the Corinthian almost to the exclu-
order;
sion of
any
Some
other.
writers suppose that the Corinthian arose naturally out of the Doric order,
while most modern writers are of opinion that the capital was invented by the Egyptians;
yet,
although
many
Egypt, the Corinthian
is
bell-formed capitals are to be found
among the
superior to anything yet discovered there;
ruins of
and even in the
present day, this capital exhibits the utmost elegance, beauty, and richness, that have
ever been
made
attained
to excel
in
architectural
composition, though
it.
many
attempts
have been
PLATE XXXV.
Is a finished elevation of
members
tlic
Corinthian base, capital, and entablature, with the proportions of the
figured in minutes.
The example here chosen
is
from the three famed columns
in
the
Campo Vaccine
Rome,
at
supposed to be the remains of the Temple of Jupiter Stater, and certainly one of the most perfect
and elegant remains of

It
may
be well, in lieu of a more
extended notice of the
description of the standard form of this

different
examples
can produce.
this order that antiquity
The average
order, for
the
details
vary to a considerable extent in
in the ancient examples
third of their
the
height with cabling;
and
cinctm-e,
and
diately above the astragal
row
consisting of
in
is
ten diameters, the
the
fluted,
number of the
The
shape of an
the
and the
The
flutes occasionally filled to
shaft
about one-
flutes
is
generally twenty-four, as in the
capital
is
separated from the shaft by an
inverted
bell,
ornamented as follows
Imme-
two rows of acanthus, or olive leaves, one above the other, each
are
eight leaves
is
remaining two being made up in the capital and base.
was almost invariably
Ionic order, and arranged in the same manner.

astragal
mean
height of the column, inclusive of capital and base, taking a
proportional between those of the Pantheon .and the Temple of Jupiter Stater,
shaft containing eight, and
append a general
example, to
the upper row
is
arranged in such a manner as to have one leaf
immediately in the centre of each side of and beneath the abacus, and one under each corner of
the abacus, which, altogether, one in the centre of each side, and one at each angle of the capital,
will
make up
the eight leaves.
with those of the upper,
or, in
The
leaves of the
lower range are disposed so
as
to
alternate
other words, the upper leaves rise between the divisions of the lower
Between every two of the leaves of the upper, or second series, rises a stalk, out of which
springs a bunch of foliage, consisting of two leaves, one of which branches toward the centre of the
ones.
abacus,
and the other toward the angle.
diagonally a volute, the two at each
angle
Out of each of
the
leaves,
the
at
angles,
proceeds
meeting under the abacus, which they support;
two
smaller ones, emerging from the central leaves, meet under the centre of the abacus, and are sur-
mounted by a small
plan,
with
concave
consist of a cavetto,
flower, called the flower of the capital.

sides,
fillet,
proper Corinthian base
two astragals;
rally
employed.
(82)
curving out
toward
and echinus, the
differs
first
The abacus
is
square in
its
angles,
which are cut
and
last of
which are sometimes enriched.
off.
from the Ionic or Attic, in having two smaller
general
The mouldings
the
scotia, separated
both bases, however, arc used indiscriminately, and perhaps the Attic
is
The
by
more gene-
THE
BÎVE
OKDERS OP ARCHITECTURE.
83
THE FIVE ORDERS ARRANGED IN PARTS.

In the six preceding plates are contained some of the best and most celebrated
examples of the Doric,
Ionic,
correctly figured in modules
and Corinthian
orders, with
And
and minutes.
in order
their
still
several
more
proportions
fully to elucidate
important department of our work, and to com-
and simplify the arrangement of
this
press within restricted
that will be likely to prove most useful and inte-
we
resting,
limits
all
here propose to give what
detail,
be termed a continuation of the ti'eatment
arrangement of
the orders, which consists of an
of
may
the
" Proportions
of the
Orders,"
etc.,
of their princij)al
Interspersed with
accompanied by simple descriptions.
the opinions of some of the most eminent
all
among
ancient and
from
collected
these will
modern
standard
parts in
be found
architects
authorities
and
on
ar-
ranged with perspicuity.
THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE TUSCAN ORDER.

Divide the given height for this whole order into ten parts, of which take two
and then divide the remaining eight parts into
for that of the pedestal;
five,
giving
one of these to the altitude of the entablature, and the other four to the length of
the column, inclusive of the base and capital
by these means the entablature
is
made
one-fourth of the length of the column.
The
trave,
entablature
two to the
divided into seven parts, of which two are given to the archi-
is
frieze,
and three
parts are equal to the diameter of the column,
form
its
height.
for the base
and
The
Observe, also, that four of these
to the cornice.
the pedestal
altitude of
and that seven of these diameters

is
divided into six parts, two being
plinth, three for the height of the dado,
and one
for that of the cap.
In order to find the breadth of the dado, the diameter of the column
five
parts,
and seven such proportional parts form the breadth, and
is
divided into
also determine
the projection of the base of the column.
The
proportion of the base of the pedestal
parts allotted for the base
and the remaining two

is
and plinth into
to the plinth
three,
may
be found by dividing the two
and giving one of these
to the base
the projection of the base and cap of the pedestal
equal to the height of the former.
PLATE XXXVI.
THE TUSCAN PEDESTAL, WITH PART OP THE SHAFT OP THE COLUMN
AND
The
altitude of the base of the
parts, one of which
one
is
given to the
The whole
of the
is
fillet
The
given to the plinth
fillet,
projection
equals
altitude
its
of
column
and three
is
ITS BASE.
half
is
a diameter;
the remaining part
is
given to the
The
may
base, plinth,
two equal
and the projection
and cap of the pedestal has been already shown, but
fillet,
is
in
divided into three parts, of which
and two to the hollow.

is
divided into four parts, of which one
In regard
and being each divided into three
readily be obtained.
(84)
into
again divided into four, of which
equal to one-fifth of the diameter of the column;
the corona, and one to the band at the top.
bers
divided
height.
the
altitude of the cap
altitude of the base;
is
to the torus.
order to find the pi'oportions of the several members, the base
one
is
this
to
the
is
allowed to the ogee, two to
projections, they both equal the
parts, the projection of the several
mem-
"/lyf
^^^
..%UOk
?
f?" rf>
E'Sg
<!^
.^
^^ .>
.JT
^TUE FIVE ORDERS OF ARC UITECTURE.
85
GENERxVL REMARKS ON THE TUSCAN ORDER.

The Tuscan
few and large
the simplest
is
parts,
and
is
and most
homely
the orders.
of a construction so massive that
porting the heaviest burdens; whence

laborer, dressed in
solid of
it is
by
Sir
it
It
is
composed of
seems capable of sup-
Henry Wotton compared
to a sturdy
apparel.
This order will not admit of ornaments of any kind; on the contrary,
times customary to represent in the shaft of
Luxembourg
practice,
in Paris,
column
rustic
to be
met with
in
many
the column,
composition.
and
always excusable, and should be indulged in with great caution, as
work
also
alters
Few examples
and, in general,
This
of the works of distinguished
calculated to hide the robust, characteristic, and truly rustic, but
it is
some-
cinctures, as at the
and in many buildings of considerable note in London.
though frequent and
architects, is not
its
it is
it is
the proportions and
aflfects
manly
figure of
the simplicity of the entire
of these bandages are to be found in ancient remains;
advisable to avoid
for the rntercolumniating,
where
them
it
in all large designs, reserving the rustic
may
be employed with great propriety, and
will serve to produce such a contrast as at once renders the aspect of the entire composition perfect, distinct,
But
cinctm'es
and
in smaller works,
may
striking.
where the parts are few and
easily
comprehended, rustic
be sometimes introduced and sanctioned, as they serve to diversify the
forms, produce strong and impressive contrasts, and contribute most essentially to the
bold and masculine effect of the composition.
PLATE XXXVII.
THE TUSCAN ENTABLATURE AND CAPITAL.
The
-ivliolc
and three-fourths of a diameter, and
altitude of the entablature being equal to one
the principal heights of the architrave, frieze, and cornice having been set
next divided into six parts, of which two are given to the
band at the
to the
first
off,
the architrave
is
face, three to the second, and one
top.
The projection of the band
equal to
is
altitude,
its
and that of the second face
is
one-third
of the foregoing.
The
altitude
the cornice
divided
is
to the ovolo;
nine parts, (or rather each principal third into
into
and of these one and a half are given
three,)
upper
of
to the hollow
one-half to the
two to the corona;
fillet;
one-half to the
fillet
two to the cyma-recta;
one and a half
and one
to the
fillet.
The
projection of the cornice
jections of the
several
is
equal to
its
members are thus made
altitude,
so
and
is
similarly divided;
and the pro-
apparent on the plate, as to render further
description unnecessary.
The
capital
is
half a diameter
given to the frieze of the capital
in
height,
is
divided
another to the ovolo and
and the remaining part to the abacus.
fourth;
and
To
find
into
fillet,
three
parts,
of which one
is
of which the latter has one-
the projection of the capital, divide the
diameter of the column at the top into six equal parts, and give one of these to each side of the
the whole of which will thus form eight parts, as described.
abacus;
The
of the
height.
astragal or collarino
fillet
It
other orders.
(86)
is
is
equal to one-third of the frieze of the capital in height, and that
equal to one-half of the astragal;
may
the projection of
each of these equals their
be remarked, that the proportions for this moulding serve for those in
all
the
:fî.ii;ixyaii.
iisÂ^
i^TîiiL-a-iruju
THE FIVE ORDERS OP ARCHITECTURE.
87
THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE DORIC ORDER.
An
parts, of
five
altitude
having been proposed
which allow two
for this
whole order, divide
it
first
into ten
and make the remaining eight parts into
to the pedestal,
then give four of these to the base, shaft, and capital of the column, and reserve
the other for the entablature, which must be again subdivided into four parts, of which
two
will
Thus the column
form the diameter of the column.
will be eight diameters
in height, and the entablature one-fourth of the length of the column.

divisions of the entablature, one
frieze,
and one and a half
The
is
given to the architrave, one and a half to the
to the cornice.
architrave projects one-sixth of
equals the diameter of the column.

parts, of
Of the four
which two are given
height,
its
The height
to the base
and
and the projection of the cornice
of the pedestal
is
divided into seven
plinth, four to the dado,
and one to
the cap.
The column diminishes

length of the shaft.
also the
The
its
diameter in the upper two-thirds of the
If the lower diameter of the shaft be divided into five parts,
and one of these added

and
one-sixth of
to each side, the
whole will give the projection of the base,
breadth of the dado of the pedestal, which thus forms a perfect square.
base of the pedestal contains one-third of the two parts allotted for the base
and plinth;
its
projection equals its height;
the cap projects four-fifths of
its
height.
PLATE XXXVIII.
THE DORIC PEDESTAL, WITH PART OP THE SHAFT OF THE COLUMN
AND
The height
of the base of column
the pedestal, -which
is
half
is
ITS BASE.
its
diameter, and the projection gives the breadth of
The
one diameter and two-fifths.
several heights of the jjlinth, base,
cap of the pedestal are described on the preceding page.

vidual members, divide
one to the
torus;
the
to the hollow;
obtained by a reference to the plate.

to the hollow
corona;
fifths
of
half a part
and half a part

its
height;
The height of
find
the proportions of the indi-
height of the base into six parts, of which three are given to the
and two
fillet;
To
to
the
The cap
fillet
the projections being figured in parts, are easily

divided into five parts, of which one
is
one and a half to the ovolo
The whole
to the fillet at the top.
base of the column
has three
the
plate.
lower one of these being
reserved for the plinth, the upper torus receives a half of the corresponding division
whole of the remainder, as will be seen by the plate,
and the portion embracing the scotia and the
fillets
is
is
the half which
one-fifth of the diameter,
one forms the projection of the upper

these heights
On
the
and projections are
fillet,
and
and two are given
is
contains these
fillets
and the
is
again sub-
the remaining two.
The
divided into three parts, of which
to that of the
upper torus.
All of
fully explained in the example.
lower part of the shaft
is
described the plan for fluting the
should be twenty in number, merely separated by an edge or arris.
methods of finding the form or depth of the

(88)
divided equally between the lower torus
divided into six parts, of which the scotia receives four, and the
whole projection of the base
given
cap equals four-
projection of the
divisions
is
one and a half to the
and that of each particular member may be seen upon the

the
and
flutes.
column.
and
The
flutes
denote different
îc.;yxx" y/m[
intii ^^j-T rrfiTiiin
h-
%m.,
^
_i
89
GENERAL REMARKS ON THE DORIC ORDER.

The Doric
order, next
masculine aspect,
all
the orders
to
the
Tuscan, and of a grave, robust, or
Being the most ancient of
by Scamozzi, called the Herculean.
is,
it is
strength
in
more primitive
form than any of the others, having triglyphs
in its
in the frieze to represent the ends of joists, and mutules in
with inclined
rafters,
soffits
express their direction in
to
The Doric columns
they were imitated.
without bases, in imitation of trees
its
the
cornice to represent
originals,
from which
are often seen in ancient works, executed
and, in the primitive buildings, without any plinths
them above the ground.
to raise
Freart de Cambrai, in speaking of this order, observes that dehcate ornaments

are repugnant to
regularity of
soHdity, and
that
it
succeeds best in the simple
" Nosegays and garlands of flowers," says he,
proportions.
its
not a Hercules,
characteristic
its
" grace
appears more becomingly with a rough club and lion's
who always
skin; for there are beauties of various sorts, and often so dissimilar in their natures,
that those which
may
highly proper on one occasion
be
may
be quite the reverse,
even ridiculously absurd, in others."

In most of the antiques, the Doric column
a base; this
is
is
found to have been executed without
particularly observable in examining the remains of Grecian examples.
Vitruvius also makes
it
without one; the base, according to this author, having been
first
employed in the Ionic order to imitate the sandal or covering of a woman's
foot.
Scamozzi blames this practice, and most of the moderns have been of his
opinion;
the Attic base
Chambers
now
is
says, that
the
generally employed in this order.
ancients
employed the Doric in temples dedicated to
Minerva, to Mars, and to Hercules, whose grave and manly dispositions suited well
with
saints
its
remarkable
Christian faith.
adapted
and
character;
for
for
It
Serlio
their
may
remarks that
fortitude
in
it
is
exposing
proper for churches dedicated to

their
lives,
and suffering
be employed in private dwellings; and
is
columns erected to the memory of brave men, or intended
great victories or heroic actions.
for
the
particularly well
to
commemorate
PLATE XXXIX.
THE DORIC ENTABLATURE AND CAPITAL.
previouslj mentioned, the whole height of this entablature, -which consists of two diameters,
As
is
divided into four parts, of which
To
the cornice one and a half.
divided into six parts
their
and the space between each
The
frieze.
projection
The
the ovolo.
cap
recta and
its
are divided
of these
is
frieze
parts
are
divided into
and the other
divisions
another the
fillets
corona, as
is
members, as
embellished with triglyphs,
is
allowed to each half
fillet,
will
and
is
which
is
channels
divided
into
the
three
and the remaining one that of
these two are given to the mutule

its
fillet
and two
constitute
the
The
height;
The other part
is
also subdivided
into
the
cyma-
projections
and the
first
another
seven, which
be seen on the plate.

;
one of these gives the height of the
and the third the abacus, cyma-reversa, and
The
projection of the capital
subdivisions, which are four, designate
be seen by inspection.
to
given to the cap of the triglyph
divided into three parts
and ovolo
its
cornice
are easily discovered on the plate.
may
minor subdivisions are figured on the plate.

the frieze and
Of
seven.
to the three
to the ovolo.
cyma and
fillet
one to the cyma-reversa and
proportional
altitude of the capital
(90)
The height of the
again subdivided into three, of which one

;
is
fillet
one of these must be placed over the centre of the column
another that of the hollow and
The smaller
fillet.
regulate those of the
The
other two parts
into four
to the cavetto
frieze
and one to
which their
parts, of
subdivided into three smaller parts, one of which gives the height
is
two to the corona
The
is
termed the metope, which should be equal to the height of the
one aad a half of these parts.
is
and the lower of these
its
and
its
each whole channel, and two to each of the spaces between the
of the cap of the triglyph
and
is
face, three to the second,
first
have one of
each divided into twelve parts, of which one
triglyphs arc
channel, two to
parts,
face
projection also equals a part.
which are half a diameter in breadth
the frieze one and a half
proportions of the several members, the architrave
two of these are given to the
one
architrave receives
The drops on the second
the band at the top.

receives one-third;
the
find the
equals
fillets.
the
The
height of
the projections of the
several
fi'L.xxxxa.
ULl'DÛUUir
L>'JU*Jt:LU^.'J"
91
THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE IONIC ORDER.

Divide the whole given height for this order into ten parts, of which apportion
two
for that of
which
and then make the remaining eight parts into
the pedestal;
the column, (inclusive of the capital and base,)
five constitute the length of
and the one which remains
column being divided
into
is
six, of
The length
the height of the entablature.
of the
nine parts, one of these will form the diameter of the
column, by which the proportions of several of the smaller members are regulated.
The height
to the
The
is
of the entablature
architrave, one
and a half
projection of the architrave
equal to
its
divided into six parts, of which two are given
to the frieze,
and
of the pedestal
height; and that of the cornice
one-fourth of
is
divided into seven parts, of which two are given
its
of the column
is
and one
to the
cap.
diminished from a point taken at the commence-
of the second third of the shaft, in the
order;
to the cornice.
is
plinth, four to the dado,
The diameter
ment
and two and a half
height.
The height
to the base
is
same manner
and the base of the column has a similar
projection,
as that of the preceding
which
also gives a like
breadth to the dado of the pedestal.
The
base of the pedestal forms one-third of the two parts allowed as the pro-
portion of the height for the base and plinth
The
projection of the cap
is
and
its
projection
equal to three-fourths of
its
is
height.
equal to
its
height.
PLATE
XL.
THE IONIC PEDESTAL, WITH PART OF THE SHAFT OF THE COLUMN
AND
of the base of the column in this order
The height
the projection
preceding
is
divided into four parts, of which one-half part

fillet;
and one
equal to the half of
cap of the pedestal have
in order to apportion the heights of
page; but
half to the
is
to the hollow.
larly divided into parts, the proportion of
The
each
and
diameter;
its
This also gives the breadth of the pedestal.
equal to one-fifth of the -whole.
is
heights of the plinth, base, and
The
ITS BASE.
is
members, that of the base
the several
given to the
projection
been fully described in the
is
two
fillet;
to the
cyma; another
equal to the height, and being simi-
member may be
readily seen
by reference
to the
plate.
The cap
is
also divided into four parts, of
and the ogee and
its
fillet,
fourths of the height;
which the hollow and
each receive one respectively.
its fillet,
The whole
the ovolo, the corona,
projection
is
and each third being subdivided into three parts, they are
equal to threeset
off,
as
may
be seen on the plate.
The height of the base of the column

for the plinth,
is
and the other two are apportioned as
upper torus, which
is
part of the column,
of similar dimensions.
AVhen the column of
The
is
plainly
(92)
order.
double the height of the
projection of the base
is
this order is fluted, the flutes
are sunk to the depth of a semicircle, of which the
more
in the Doric
fillet.
identical with that of
amount
fillet
is
reserved
The bead above the
The
fillets
are
the preceding order.
to twenty-four in
number.
These
between each equals a third part, as
shown on the plan given of one-quarter of the column.
all
is
93
GENERAL REMARKS ON THE IONIC ORDER.

The
Ionic, being the second of the Grecian orders, holds
a middle station between
the other two, and stands in equipoise between the grave solidity of the Doric and
Among
the elegant delicacy of the Corinthian.

diflferent dresses
thian;
sometimes more simple, and bordering on Doric plainness,
according to
all
It
is,
a more slender construction than either of the preceding orders;
ance, though
find it in
sometimes plentifully adorned, and inclining most toward the Corin-
the fancy of the architect, or nature of the structure where employed.

out, of
we
the antiques, however,
simple,
is
graceful
and majestic;
through-
its
appear-
ornaments should be few, rather
its
neat than luxuriant; and, as there should be nothing exaggerated or affectedly striking
in
any of
parts, it is
its
not inaptly compared, by Sir Henry Wotton, to a sedate
matron, rather in decent than magnificent
"Among
the ancients," says Chambers,
"the form of the Ionic

that of any other;
attire.
who always
refers to the
Roman
architects,
appears to have been more positively determined than
profile
for in all of the antiques, the
Temple of Concord excepted,
it is
exactly the same, and conformable to the description given by Vitruvius."
"As
the Doric order," he further remarks, "is particularly affected in churches
and temples dedicated
to
male
saints,
so
the Ionic
is
chiefly used
such as are
in
consecrated to females of the matronal state."

It
may
be well employed in courts of justice;
libraries, colleges, seminaries,
and other structures having
as well as private houses; and, as

tranquillity.
The
deities,
the effeminate.
Le Clerc
also
introduced in
relation to arts
and
letters,
says, in all places dedicated to peace
and
ancients employed
whose
and may be
it
in temples sacred to
dispositions they esteemed to hold a
Luna, Bacchus, Diana, and other
medium between
the severe and
PLATE
XLI.
THE IONIC ENTABLATURE.

The whole height of
this
entablature
which two are given to the architrave
To
cornice.
proportions of
the
find
is
divided, as
several
its
the bead
also
jection of the architrave
is
receives
one
the ogee two
equal to one-fourth of
The
to one-third of the preceding part.
first
height,
its
face;
and the
four to the second;
fillet
one.
is
to the
sub-
is
and
The extreme
and that of the upper face
outline of the frieze
in the centre division of its height, (as shown,) the
and two and a half
members, the height of the architrave
divided into sixteen parts, of which three are given to the

to the third
previously mentioned, into six parts, of
one and a half to the frieze
is
five
pro-
equal
formed by describing a triangle
extreme angle of which forms the point for the
centre of the curve or swelling.
The height of the

fourth) receive one
is
divided
the ovolo another
four are subdivided into

fillet,
cornice
five,
into
eight parts, of
and the modillion and cap (half a part) two.
of which two are given to the corona
(one-fourth ;) one and a half to the cyma-recta
projection
is
equal to the height, and
of the diameter.
The
is
fillet
(one-
The upper
and half a part
to
the
fillet.
The whole
divided into nine parts, each of which forms one-twelfth
projections of the several
on which they are fully figured and described.

(94)
which the hollow and
members may be seen by referring
to the plate,
i?*L 31111
"^
liir;
95
THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE CORINTHIAN ORDER.

Divide the whole height given for this order into six parts, of which two are
for the
six,
is
height of the
The remaining
pedestal.
eight parts
of which five form the length of the column, with
The length
the height of the entablature.
parts;
two of these
will
be
its
are then divided
and base
capital
of the column
is
into
the other
subdivided into twenty
minor parts are
the diameter, by which several of the
proportioned.
The height
of the entablature
to the architrave, one
The
cornice
architrave
and
its
is
divided into six parts, of which two are allotted
and a half to the
projects
to
frieze,
one-fourth of
and two and a half

its
height,
to the cornice.
and the projection of the
height are equal.
The whole height
of the pedestal has seven divisions, of which
form that of the base and plinth, four
The column
is
for that of the dado,
two are given
and one
for the cap.
diminished in a manner similar to the preceding orders.
half of the height of the pedestal be taken,
it
will
to
And
if
give the projection of the base of
the column and the breadth of the dado of the pedestal.
The base
plinth,
height.
and
its
of the pedestal forms a third of the two parts allotted for the base and
projection equals
its
height.
That of the cap
is
three-fourths of
its
PLATE
XLII.
THE CORINTHIAN PEDESTAL, WITH PART OF THE SHAFT OF THE COLUMN
AND
The
altitude of the base
is
ITS BASE.
half the diameter of the column, and
its
projection
equal to
is
half the height of the pedestal, which also gives the breadth of the dado.
To
the
find
is
fillet,
the third to the ogee and
projection of the pedestal
given to that of the ogee
its
fillet
and one
the corona;
the height, and
is
to
height,
its
is
;
and one
set off in
The whole
fillet.
minor subdivisions, as
is
among
the upper torus one

the
beads
described on the plate.
prehended by referring to
and
The whole
The
projection
this plate, in
is
projection
its
is
fillet
is#
(96)
The whole
given to the hollow,

;
one entire part to
equal to three-fourths of
into
three
parts, of which one
into five, of
is
allotted
which the lower torus receives
and the remaining one and a half are
proportions
of
these
minor
divisions
divided into three parts, as will be
are
fully
easily com-
connection with the arrangement of the preceding bases.
If the columns of this order be fluted, the flutes must be similar in form and
the Ionic order.
is
be seen by reference to the plate.
will
divided
the scotia one
fillets.
the base
to the torus.
divided into four parts, of wliich half a part
the ogee and
of
(one-fourth;) another to the
divided into five parts, two of which are
is
The two upper parts are again subdivided
one and a half

distributed
and
one part to the cyma, and one-fourth to

to the plinth.
fillet,
which the latter receives one-fourth.)
(of
two to the cyma
The height of the cap

to
equal to
is
pedestal, the height
given to the torus and
cyma; and
and one-fourth
members of the
proportions of the several
number
to those of
r.-,i.-.t..i
i\
I'.,,-.-
^P
THE
ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE.
PIA'E
97
GENERAL REMARKS ON THE CORINTHIAN ORDER.

This order
is
with which
peculiarly adapted
The
required.
Proserpine,
is
ancients
employed
is
in
it
and the nymphs of fountains

it
buildings
to
which gaiety or magnificence
in
temples
dedicated
to
Venus, to
Flora,
because the flowers, foliage, and volutes,
adorned, seemed well adapted to the delicacy and elegance of such
deities.
Being the most splendid of the Five Orders,
also
it is
extremely appropriate for
the decoration of palaces, galleries, theatres, banqueting-rooms, and other places devoted
to festive mirth or convivial reci'eation.
"The
Corinthian order," says
Sir
Henry Wotton, "is a column
woman
extravagantly decked, like a wanton courtezan or

are elegant in the extreme
every part of the order
is
of fashion.
lasciviously or
Its proportions
divided into a great variety
of members, and abundantly enriched with a diversity of ornaments."
"The
ancients," saya
De Cambrai, "aiming
at the representation of
a feminine
beauty, omitted nothing either calculated to embellish or capable of perfecting their
work;" and he observes, "that

fusion of different ornaments
is
in the
many examples
left
of the order, such a pro-
introduced that they seem to have exhausted imagina-
tion in the contrivance of decorations for this master-piece of the art.

it
the Virginal, and
it
Scamozzi
calls
certainly has all the delicacy in its form, with all the gaiety,
gaudiness, and affectation in
its
dress, peculiar to
young women."
PLATE
XLIII.
THE CORINTHIAN ENTABLATURE.

The whole height
of this entablature
of these two are given to the architrave;
is
divided into six parts, (as previously mentioned,) and
and two and a half
one and a half to the frieze;
to
the cornice.
To
are
find the proportions of the individual
divided
into four,
given to the bead;
members, the two principal parts of the architrave
which are again subdivided as follows:
of the second part the ogee receives a third;
or upper part into three, gives half a part to the bead

the upper
The
fillet.
which the middle face receives one-half.
The
ogee and
height of
fillet,
the cornice
(one-fourth
is
For the
the lower
and the
division of
one and a half to the ogee

is
equal to one-fourth of
corona
one-fourth to
its
fillet
half a part to the ogee
and half a part
to its
fillet.
half a part to the ogee and
one-fourth to
is
is
the fourth
and one
its
to
height, of
given to that of the
and another to the ovolo and
ing five must be again divided into six, which are apportioned as follows
the modillion
division
lesser projections refer to the plate.
divided into eight parts, of which one
one to the dentils
;)
architrave
whole projection of the
of
one-fifth
its
fillet
fillet
The remain-
fillet.
one and one-fourth to

one and a half to the
one and one-fourth to the cyma-recta
The whole projection of the cornice
is
equal
to
its
height,
and
being divided into a similar number of parts, the projections of the several membei's will be easily
apparent on inspection.
On
this
plate
is
also
shown the plan of the entablature, on which the construction of the
modillions, dentils, coffers, etc.,

(98)
is
explained.
(P[LoiXlL3]a"
^ h R1 Tvm " - ii 1 niTA nxTin m

6
"i:
'n
7.-- ri
THE FIVE ORDERS OF ARC HITEC f U RE.
99
THE riUNCirAL TARTS OF THE COMPOSITE

The given height proposed
column
ten,
of the entablature
its
allotted to the base
The column
is
is
The diameter
base.
given to the
of the column, at
whole length; thus the pedestal
is
three, the
in height respectively.
divided into six parts, of which two are given
is
two-sevenths of
its
height,
and that of the cornice
height.
The whole height
base
its
and
five are
one and a half to the frieze; and two and a half to the cornice.
projection of the architrave
equal to
capital
and the entablature two diameters
to the architrave;
is
its
equal to a tenth part of
The height
The
eight parts are then divided
which one forms the height of the entablature, and
length of the column, with

its base, is
divided into ten parts, of which
is
The remaining
for that of the pedestal.
two are allowed

into six, of
whole order
for this
OllDER.
is
of the pedestal
and plinth; four
is
divided into seven parts, of which two are
to the dado;
and one to the cap.
diminished as in the preceding order;
is
and the diameter
added to each side
at the
for its projection.
This also gives the breadth of the dado of the pedestal.
Of the two
parts given to the height of the base
the base itself receives one-third, and
its
projection
jection of the cap equals four-fifths of its height.
is
and plinth of the
pedestal,
height;
the pro-
equal to
its
;;
PLATE XLIV.
TUE COMPOSITE PEDESTAL, WITH PART OF THE SHAFT OF THE COLUMN
AND
of the
The height of the base

on either side equals
tion
whole of the pedestal
To
is
is
column
one and two-thirds to the cyma;

is
whole diameter of the shaft.
members of the pedestal
is
given to the torus
and the remaining part
two to the cyma and
The whole
of
four-fifths
(half a part
fillet,
projection of
its
projec-
its
The breadth
;)
the base of
pedestal
the
height, and the projections of
the astragal and
to
one to the corona

is
of the
the base
and one
to
plate.
fillet,
to the ogee
height;
its
;)
fillet.
divisions
That of the cap
members arc
(one-third
and
its
fillet
The height
fillet.
the astragal and
equal
the several
in height, that of
one-third of one part to the
given to
is
and the minor projections are easily apparent on the
and
diameter;
its
limited to the projection of the base.
find the proportions of the particular
of the cap
equal to one-half of
is
one-fifth part of the
divided into four parts, of which one
five
ITS BASE.
is
are
equal to
so clearly shown, as to
render further explanation unnecessary.

one part and three-fourths
and one
the
is
fillet
among
distributed
one-fourth
part of the column,
The whole
is
divided into six parts.
the lower torus one
the astragals and
the
fillets
fillet
one-fourth
these the plinth receives
the scotia half a
part
the upper scotia then receives half a part
and the upper torus the remaining three-fourths.

is
Of
The upper
fillet,
which
is
twice the height of that immediately beneath the torus.
projection
is
divided
into
three
parts,
and
its
minor divisions are easily under-
stood by an examination of the plate, and a reference to the preceding instances.
When
the
order.
(100)
column
is
fluted,
the
flutes
should amount to twenty-four, as in the
Corinthian
I',
,1,-1. .I.N lli.s.-
TUE FIVE OllDEUS OF A U C IIITE C T U RE.
IQl
GENERAL REMARKS ON THE COMPOSITE ORDER.

It is manifest,
pounded
from an examination of the best
chiefly of the
worlcs, that
this order is
component parts of the Ionic and Corinthian, without possessing
The Composite
the native simplicity pertaining to either of these classical orders.

is,
com-
nevertheless, an order of considerable
a decided preference, and cannot
The Romans introduced
fail to
merit,
which on many occasions
be duly appreciated
when
will claim
judiciously introduced.
the Composite more frequently in their triumphal arches
than in any other buildings;
meaning, as Serlio supposes, to express their dominion
over other nations, the inventors of the orders of which this
is
composed.
It
may
with great propriety be used wherever elegance and magnificence are to be united
but more especially in buildings designed to commemorate great and signal events, or
to celebrate the
It
to
may
combined achievements of conquerors and
here be remarked, that the ingenuity of
man
produce a sixth order, though large premiums have
attempts have been

fettered state of
Ionic,
human
to nothing
with some
to
trifling
has, hitherto, not been able
been
imagination, such the scanty store of
more than
deviations
ofiered,
of first-rate talent to accomplish
and Corinthian, have ever been uppermost; and
amounts
more
made by minds
legislators.
different
scai'cely
all
its
it.
and numerous
Such
ideas, that
is
the
Doric,
that has yet been produced
arrangements and combinations of their parts,
deserving
notice
the whole generally tending
diminish than to increase the beauties of the ancient orders.
PLATE XLV.
TUE COMPOSITE ENTABLATURE.
The whole height
to the architrave
To
divided into six parts, of which (as previously mentioned) two are given
is
one and a half to the frieze
find the proportions of
which two arc given
the
to
and two and a half
the several members, the architrave
first
face
half a part to the ogee
face; and the remaining or upper two parts are subdivided into
part;
and a half; the hollow, two;
ovolo, one
the
equal to two-sevenths of
The
The whole height

given to the
fillet
its
formed
frieze is
of
height,
and the minor
manner
in a similar
the cornice
is
part to the ovolo
to the
fillet
fillet
one and a half to the cyma-recta
The whole
number of
projection
parts,
on the plate
(102)
of
by which the
on which
is
also
the
divided into seven parts, of
two and a half to the second
of which the bead has half a
five,
one.
fillet,
divisions are set
ofi"
Its
whole projection
upon the
plate.
divided into ten minor parts, of which one-fourth part
cornice
another to the
first
one and one-fourth part to the second face
two parts to the corona
and half a part

is
is
to that of the Ionic.
one-fourth to the bead, and one part to the ogee
the modillions, and half a part to the ogee

half a
and the
is
to the cornice.
equal
projections of the
to
its
several
to the
height,
is
face of
one-fourth

fillet.
and
members are
is
divided
into
regulated, as
a similar
may
shown the plan of the entablature, with the modillions,
etc.
be seen
ii='lL>.Jii,V
THE
PROPORTIONS OF THE ORDERS;

WITH THE
PRACTICE OF PILASTERS.
In the opinion of Scamozzi, columns should not be

ters in height,
than seven of their diame-
less
nor more than ten ; the former being, according to him, a good proportion
in the Tuscan, and the latter in the Corinthian order.
The
in their best works being conformable to this jsrecept,
we have
doctrine of Vitruvius, and

nine, as Palladio
last is a
the
three
made
practice of the ancients
generally followed the
the Tuscan seven diameters, the Doric eight, the Ionic
and Vignola have done, and the Corinthian and Composite ten; which
mean between
the proportions observed in the
columns in the Campo Vaccino, both
Pantheon at Rome and in
of which
are
esteemed
excellent
examples of the Corinthian order.
The common
practice of the ancients
was
to
make
the height of the entablature
equal to one-quarter of the height of the column; and in

of entablature they seldom exceeded or
fell
all
the various descriptions
short of this measure.
Nevertheless, Palladio, Scamozzi, Alberti, Barbaro, Cataneo, Delorme, and others
of the modern architects, have

posite,
may
and Corinthian
orders,
made
their entablatures
much lower
than in the Tuscan or Doric.
not only be excusable, but highly proper
particularly
in the Ionic,
This, on
some
Com-
occasions,
where the intercolumnia-
tions are wide, as in a second or third order, in private houses, or inside decorations,
(103)
PLATE XLVI.
THE CAPS AND BASES TO THE PEDESTALS OF THE SEVERAL ORDERS,
IN DETAIL.
The purpose
still
more
of
this
plate
is
to
show these portions of the pedestals on an enlarged
preserving the method of proportioning them previously observed, in order that they
easily
may
be
comprehended, and the relation of their members to the several scales of height and
projection rendered
more
distinctly perceptible.
It will be seen that the height of
the caps exceeds that of the bases
the case of those of the Tuscan order, which are equal.

(104)
scale,
by
one-half, except
in
-=j
ii
"
TUE PROrORTIONS OF THE ORDERS.

where lightness should be preferred
ment
to dignity;
105
and where expense, with every impedi-
to the convenience of the fabric, should be carefully avoided.
Perrault, in
all
his
orders
except the Doric, divides the whole height of
the
entablature into ten equal parts, three of which he gives to the architrave, three to
the
and four
frieze,
to the cornice
and in the Doric order he divides the whole height
of the entablature into eight parts, of which two are given to the architrave, three
to the frieze,
and three
to the cornice.
These measures deviate very
now
from those observed in
extant at Kome, where they have stood the test of
them
plicity renders
and
little
many
many
ages;
singularly useful in composition, as they are
of the antiques
and their sim-
remembered
easily
applied.
Of the two modes used by ancient and modern

sions of the mouldings,
plest, readiest,
and the
lesser parts that
and most accurate
is
architects to determine the dimen-
compose an order, perhaps the sim-
by means of the module, or semi-diameter of the
column, taken at the bottom of the shaft and divided into thirty minutes.
Many
prefer
the
method of measuring by equal
parts,
that
affirming
beauty
depends on the simplicity and accuracy of the relations existing between the whole
body and
better
its
members, and alleging that dimensions, which have evident
remembered than those whose
affinities,
are
relations are too complicated
to be immediately
from which they derive their
origin, are tapered
apprehended.
Columns, in imitation of
trees,
In the specimens of antiquity the diminution
in the shafts.
sometimes beginning from the foot of the

of
its
height;
the lower part being
left
shaft, at others
is
variously performed;
from one-quarter, or one-third
perfectly cylindrical.
The former
of these
methods was most in use among the ancients, and, being the most natural, seems to
claim the preference, though the latter has been almost universally practised by modern
architects,
from a supposition, perhaps, of
marked and
"The
its
being
more
graceful,
as
it
is
more
strikingly perceptible.
first
architects," says
Monsieur Auzott, "probably made their columns in
straight lines, in imitation of trees, so that their shaft
was the frustrum of the cone
but finding this form abrupt and disagreeable, they made use of some curve, which,
springing from the extremities of the superior and inferior diameters of the column,
swelled beyond the sides of the cone, and thus gave the most pleasing feature to the
outline.
Vitruvius, in the second chapter of his third book, mentions this practice;
PLATE
XLVII.
THE BASES OF THE COLUMNS BELONGING TO THE SEVERAL ORDERS,
SHOWN
IN DETAIL.
All the bases are equal in height to one-half of the diametei' of their columns;
projection
equals
one-fifth
of the whole
The mouldings of these are
diameter.
being mostly semicircles, except the scotias, which are
struck
from two centres.
instance the scotia in the Boric order, the height for which being given, divide
on the
fillet,
line
it
and
their
easily formed,
Take
as
into three,
an
and
which separates the upper of these parts from the two lower, and perpendicular to the
inscribe the centre for the first quarter circle
the same distance repeated on the line out-
ward, will give the centre for the other quarter, and at the same time limit the projection of the
lower
fillet.
(100)
This method
is
applicable to
all
the other orders.
THE PROPORTIONS OP THE ORDERS.
107
but in so obscure and cursory a manner, that his meaning has not been clearly under-
and several of the modern
stood;
have made the diameters of their columns greater
doctrine,
bottom of the
Roman
And
it
Henry Wotton,
in his Elements of Arckiiecture, says, in his usual quaint style:
making
(I
know not how)
pillars swell in the middle, as if they
unseemly to the very judgment and
may have an
mentioned by Vitruvius
reach of
knowledge, and
to signify not
its
shaft to
its inferior
and supposes the addi-
parts;"
anything more than the increase toward
and thus, by dexterous means,
to
line,
which
at first
was
"snatch a grace beyond the
art."
This supposition
is
extremely
works of antiquity, where there
just,
is
by Vitruvius,
all
of
and founded upon what
is
observable in the
not any single instance of a column thicker in
the middle than at the bottom, though

at
some
thickness in the middle without
additional
the middle of the column, occasioned by changing the straight

in use, into a curve,
sicke of
" That a column, supposing
being swelled in that part beyond the bulk of

tion
in certaine
sight."
Auzott further observes
be the frustum of a cone,
were
my
tympany, or dropsie, without any authentique pattern or rule to
And Monsieur
than at the
being neither natural, reasonable, nor beautiful."
here I must take leave to blame a practice groioie
places too familiar, of
in the middle
to his
very absurd extent, for which they have
architects, carried this practice to a
Sir
conform themselves
Lconi Baptista Alberti, with several of the Florentine and
shaft.
been justly blamed,
''
architects, intending to
all
or most of
them have the swelling hinted
them being terminated by curves
excepted, which are bounded by straight lines;
some
few granite columns
a proof, perhaps, of their antiquity,
or of their having been wrought in the quarries of
Egypt by
unskillful
workmen.
In the remains of antiquity the quantity of diminution at the upper diameter

of columns
is
various, but seldom less than one-eighth of the inferior diameter of the
column, nor more than one-sixth of
it.
The
the most perfect; and Vignola has employed

all
last of these
it
is,
by Vitruvius, esteemed
in four of his orders, as
we have
in
of them, there being no reason for diminishing the Tuscan column more, in pro-
portion to
its
diameter, than any of the others.
Our intention being
to give
an exact idea of the orders of the ancients, they are
represented elsewhere in this work under such figures and proportions as appear to
have been most in use in the esteemed works of the Romans and Grecians, who, in
the opinions of the most eminent writers, carried Architecture to
its
highest degree
PLATE XLVIII.
THE ARCHITRAVES BELONGING TO EACH OF THE ORDERS, SHOWN IN DETAIL.
this plate the heights of the architraves of the
On
into six parts,

off,
as
is
and then with some minor subdivisions
Tuscan and Doric orders are each divided
in those of the Doric, the mouldings are set
apparent on the plate.
The next two
the
Ionic and Corinthian orders
which are again subdivided,
those
have
each of theirs divided into four parts,
of the former into sixteen, and those of the latter into twelve
and by these minor parts, the proportions of the several members are regulated.
The
architrave of the composite
being further subdivided into five;
order
is
divided into seven parts, the upper two of these
and by these several
divisions the heights of the several
mem-
bers are regulated.
All the projections are set off from the lower or

of these
is
equal to one-sixth of the height
first face,
and
in
the
first
in the succeeding two, to one-fourth
two orders, each
and
in the last,
to two-sevenths of the height.
All the minutice of these

plate.
(108)
are plainly shown
by the minor
divisions
and dotted
lines
on the
s'i...i.wyn
THE PROPORTIONS OP THE ORDERS.

of perfection.
will,
on
must
It
not, however, be
imagined that the same general proportions
Those in our
occasions, succeed.
all
first
have been taken
series
from the temples and other public structures of antiquity, and

churches and other important
the whole composition
to
make them
edifices,
distinctly perceptible
less considerable edifices,
where majesty or grandeur
large, the parts require
is
109
may
chiefly
be employed in
Where
required.
is
an exti-aordinary degree of boldness
from the proper general points of view; but in
and under various circumstances, more suitable and perhaps
more elegant proportions may often be designed by the ingenuity
man.
of
THE PRACTICE OF THE PILASTERS.

Columns
differ
from the
pilasters in their plans only;
the latter being square or
rectangular, whereas the former are round.

Pilasters,
capitals,
all
when accompanied by columns
in the
Roman
style,
have their
and entablatures the same as the columns, and their component parts are
of similar heights and projections;
names of Tuscan,
Doric, Ionic,
and when complete, they are
Composite,
and Corinthian
identified
most perfect as well as the most beautiful.
doubt, the
numerous
all occasions,
instances,
they
may
with any regard
which
is
be employed with fitness and great propriety.
Roman
invention;
and doubtless
a most objectionable practice, and
to primitive types,
would be
it
is
In
to columns."
their composition
an improvement upon the Greeks, who employed what are called the
servile imitation of
to
without any
and upon most,
and on various accounts, they are even preferable
Pilasters are stated to be of

is
is,
Nevertheless,
impossible for composers in Architecture to dispense with pilasters;
not upon
by the
pilasters.
" Of the two opposite compositions," says Chambers, " the column
if
bases,
anta; ;
the
quite inconsistent
from which the Grecian Architecture
is
supposed
have originated.
The Greeks employed
these antas in their temples to receive the architraves where
they entered upon the walls of the building; and in nearly

antique the front of the antge
column
the examples of the
equal in diameter to the upper one of the adjacent
the antae being also of the same width at the top as at the
not diminished as in the

It is
is
all
Roman examples
bottom, and
of pilasters.
supposed that the Romans, disgusted with the meagre aspect of these antce
and the want of accordance in their bases and
capitals, substituted
pilasters
in
lieu
PLATE XLIX.
IMPOSTS OP ARCHES, WITH THEIR ARCHITRAVES.
All of
tlicso
And
arches.
imposts arc equal in height to one-eighth part of the opening of their respective
this
The height
is
height
is
also equal
to the -width of
the pilasters on either side of each arch.
then divided into three principal parts, each of
which
is
again divided into
three smaller divisions, so that by reference to the plate no difEculty can be experienced in setting
oflf
the several
make
members.
The
projections
are
all
similarly dealt with,
and
in such a
way
as to
their different proportions readily apparent.
It
may
also be observed that the astragal at the foot of the
of the nine minor parts, and the
equal to
its
The
tioned in
height;
architrave
its
shown on the
(110)
is
equal to half a part.
and that of the astragal exceeds

that
width by
plate.
fillet
circumscribes
its
height by
The
is
equal in height to one
projection of the
of the pilaster
is
fillet
is
one -fourth.
each arch, more properly termed the archivoU,
similar divisions to the foregoing,
The width
impost
is
propor-
and the several projections are plainly
equal to that of the architrave.
i.-u-'JA
:;jj:j.r;r'73 l)[? ASiX-.
j^BaAyjs
"-1
*>
^V
'
'
t.!
J'llaslcT
ri/.H,-
/h,r,r
I'll.'can
loni c
T.J
iTim'
-^
^B^
J',/.1/,,
Corinthian
mn posi tc
THE PROPORTIONS OF THE ORDERS.

of them;
column,
which, being
and decorated in a similar manner with the
proportioned
most thinking and unprejudiced persons, more appropriate
are, in the eyes of
and applicable
11
as tending at once to preserve the unity
and harmony of
effect in all
those architectural compositions in which columns and pilasters accompany each other.
" Several authors," says Chambers, " are of different opinions about pilasters and
and
their application,
men upon
scientific
"many
writer,
bility, force,
end of time such
to the
"
points of taste."
French Jesuit," says the same intelligent
years ago published an essay on Architecture, which, from
and elegance of
diction,
went through several
understood,
is
is
author referred
the
to,
inveighs in
the
plausi-
its
and operated very
editions,
powerfully on the superficial part of European connoisseurs."

it
minds of
differences will exist in the
The Abbe
Laugier, who,
strongest
terms against
and every other architectonic form, except such as were imitated, by the
pilasters,
builders in stone, from the primitive
wooden huts;
be the only one confined to
arts Architecture should
first
entire
catalogue of
its pristine simplicity,
and debarred
as if
in the
from any deviation or improvement.
To
pilasters the learned father
better than
objects because they are, in his opinion, nothing
bad representations of columns.
"Their
angles," he says,
"indicate the
and are a striking deviation from the simplicity of nature
formal stiffness of
art,
projections, sharp
and inconvenient, offend and confine the eye
without roundness, give to the entire order a tame and insipid
and their
effect."
They
their
surfaces,
are not,
he thinks, susceptible of diminution, one of the most pleasing properties of columns;

and, in his opinion, they never can be necessary.
To
assert that pilasters are not susceptible of diminution at once discovers
acquaintance either with books of architecture or with buildings.
little
very
Innumerable
are the instances in the remains of antiquity, of their being diminished, particularly
when
associated with columns.
Those in the Temple of Mars the Avenger,
Frontispiece of Nero, in the Portico of Septimus Severus, and in the

tino, at
Rome,
Palladio has diminished
Inigo Jones has treated
And
if
we
them
in
Arch of Constan-
Scamozzi always gave to his pilasters the same dimi-
are all diminished.
nution as his columns
in the
a.
similar
them
manner
in all his buildings at Venice,
and
in most of his designs.
trace pilasters back to their origin,
and consider them either as the
representation of the ends of partition walls, or trunks of trees reduced to the diameter
of the round
trunk but
will in either case be
left
made
square for greater strength, the reason for diminishing

apparent.
PLATE
L.
CLASSIC DOORS AND WINDOWS.

and windoAVS have
Classic doors
used in
the
Greek or Roman
heads either square or circular, accordingly as they are
their
The
orders.
latter
impost does not exceed the height of a man.

but their height generally equals twice
form must not be used, however, when the
There
is
no certain proportion for their opening,
width, and
their
should
two squares and
never exceed
one-fourth.
In
this
example we present a method of finding the proportions of these openings by a
geometrical rule.
'
Make
the square
A B
C D, each
opening; then draw the diagonals from
side
being equal to three times the width of the intended
to
D, and
The
a centre for the pitch of the pediment F.
lines
to C,
from
and
to
their intersection at
C and
will give
being then drawn, will
cut the diagonals at the proper height, and also give the width of the opening, which will be two
diameters in height, as
is
shown by the
The architrave around the opening

similar
proportion
is
equal to one-sixth of
and that of the cornice
elbow of the architrave
is
proportion, as will be seen

(112)
circles.
is
one-third of the width
by inspection.
one-fourth
;
part
its
own width
additional.
and the width of the
the frieze
The length
is
of
pilaster is of the
of
the
same
THE PROPORTIONS OF THE ORDERS.

It is also
a strange error to suppose, or to
but that columns will at
all
113
assert, that pilasters are
times answer the same purpose
never necessary,
most
for at the angles of
architectural fronts to buildings they are indispensably necessary, both for solidity
For the angular support, having a greater weight
beauty.
plan altered from the circle to the square.
sonable expedient, especially as
it
The
latter
than any of the
must be increased or
so that its diameter
others, should be proportionately stronger;

its
to sustain
certainly the
is
and
more
rea-
obviates a very striking defect occasioned by employ-
ing columns at the angles of buildings, namely, that the angle of the entablature
left,
as it were,
Engaged
suspended in the
may
pilasters
air
without any apparent support.
appropriately employed
be
in
the
interior
decoration of
churches, galleries, halls, and similar structures, in order to economize space;
they seldom project more than one-fourth of their diameter,

extent than
attached three-quarter columns.
propriety in
exterior
of porticos; but
When
among the Roman
pilasters
They
are
decorations, very frequently with
Blondel says that pilasters
expense.
is
may
tliey
also
for
occupy much
as
less
introduced with great
a view to avoid
superfluous
be substituted for columns in the formation
antiques no examples of this sort are to be found.
introduced as the chief ornaments in a composition, they
are
should always project to at least one-quarter of their diameter from the face of the
wall, as this projection
is
necessary in order to produce that degree of boldness so
requisite in buildings of a certain character;

volutes,
and the small leaves in flank of the
orders, are cut exactly
But
if
means,
also,
the stems of the
This method
is
and Composite
taught by Scamozzi,
his compositions.
the cornices of the windows be continued in the interpilasters, as
times the case;

stories, or large
provided that
it is
this
capitals of the Corinthian
through their centres.
and employed by Inigo Jones in several of
by
it
or if there should be cornices to
mark
imposts of arches, the projection must in
is
some-
the separation between the

all
such cases be increased,
does not interfere with any prominent part of the decorations.
For
extremely offensive to an architectural eye to observe several of the upper mould-
ings of an impost or cornice cut

pilaster,
away
perpendicularly, in order to
make room
for the
while the cornice or impost on either side projects considerably beyond
When
pilasters are placed closely
it.
behind columns, they should not project beyond
one-eighth of their diameter, or even so much, unless there be imposts or continued

cornices in the interpilasters.
Where
flutings are required to the shafts of pilasters,
the same proportions should be used as in the similar treatment of columns.
PLATE
LI.
CLASSIC WINDOWS.
In proportioning windows, regard must be had to the altitudes of the several stories in an
edifice.
This plate contains
si.x
designs of
different
proportions,
some of which are
suitable
to
the
architraves
to
the
height of any room.
No.
1 is a circular
No. 2
is
window.
a perfect square.
No. 3
the height
is
the diagonal of a square.
No. 4
the height
is
equal to a square and two-thirds.
the height
is
equal to a square and three-fourths.
No. 5
No. G
All
several
is
of
equal in height to two squares.

the
proportions
windows are
{11-))
in
^re
fully
described
by the dotted
general equal to one-sixth of the width.
lines.
The
MOULDINGS AND ORNAMENTS.

Having
an essay form,
in the preceding pages combined, in
would be most
likely to prove valuable
all
and interesting in regard
that
we thought
to the Orders,
we
here purpose to conclude this important department of our work by prefixing to the
necessary Definitions a few pertinent remarks on the theory of Mouldings and Ornaments.
Of Regular Mouldings there
but eight, the names of which are the Ovolo,
are
the Tblon, the Cyma, the Cavetto, the Torus, the Astragal, the Scotia, and the
The names
Fillet.
of these are allusive to their forms, and their forms are adapted to
The
the uses which they are intended to serve.

their extremities, are
fit
The Crjma and
for supports.
weak
that pui'pose, as they are
Ovolo and
at the extremities
Talon being strong at
Cavetto,
and terminate
though improper
for
in a point, are well
adapted for coverings to shelter other members;
the tendency of their outlines being
very opposite to the direction of
which, therefore, cannot glide along
their surface, but
must
necessarily drop from
like ropes, are intended to bind
and the use of the

effect of other
falling water,
Fillet
it.
The
and strengthen the parts on which they are employed;
and Scotia
is
only to separate, contrast, and strengthen the
mouldings, to give a graceful turn to the
confusion which would result from joining several convex
That the inventors of these forms meant

figures will
may
scarcely be denied;
to express
profile,
and
members
to
prevent that
together.
something by these different
and that the above mentioned were their destinations
be adduced not only from their
their
Ibrus and Astragal, shaped
figures,
but from the practice of the ancients in
most esteemed works.
Mr. Gwilt very justly observes, that the Ovolo should be used only above the
level of the eye of the spectator;
capitals;
that the Cavetto ought not to be seen in bases or
that the Cyma-recta ought to be used only in crowning members; the Scotia
below the eye;
and the
Fillet
when
required to separate the curved parts.
Mouldings are generally divided into Grecian and Roman.
from the
fact that the
Romans
They
differ
mainly
usually employed segments of circles in their ornaments,
while the Greeks often introduced parts of an
ellipsis,
or some other section of a cone.
PLATE
The range
found
is
it
in
the corona and beneath
form known as the echinus, or
the
included under Fig. 1, are of
of mouldings
Grecian ovolo;
LII.
abacus of the Doric order, and
the
frequently otherwise applied, particularly in bed-mouldings for cornices, for which
its
form
is
very
is
suitable.
C D, and
the given projection,
method of obtaining the desired curve.
1 in this range shows the
The diagram No.
height,
C, divide the height into four parts
forms the upper or receding portion of the moulding called the quirk.
parts
give one of these to the lower
Set
from G.
1,
may
Then draw
below.
ofi"
2, etc.
and two
fillet,
at a distance from
and divide
4,
and from
the point
draw
into
it
lines cutting
II F,
H D, E
from
points
draw
lines
required
the
in
on the
line
AC
L, into four equal parts
and
manner; and No.
3,
B,
into five
1,
from
draw the radiating
and the required curve
1, 2, 3,
fillet
lines
2, etc.
range arc described on the same principle.
this
B C
D, including the width of the
4 in the points
In No. 1 divide the height and projection each
Fig. 2 exhibits three forms of the cyma-recta.

into two equal parts
parts
then be traced through the points of intersection with
The others of
one of these,
Divide
determine the distance of the point 4
will
equal to
four equal
Having
set
F A, G
ofi"
from
draw
through which
may
curve
is
it
much
to the
lines
through the points in
where the projection
C, each equal to one of these parts
GL
and
be
in Fig. 3 will
points in
the
traced.
greater,
HD
No. 2
of
drawn
is
EL
and
intersections
in
then
these
the
are
same
performed by the subdivisions of the
is
horizontal lines, and setting of the vertical points in diagonals
The manner of drawing the mouldings
divide
HB
be found
and
in
F M.
the description of the next
plate.
No.
No. 2
1,
Fig. 4,
is
a Grecian ovolo, formed by the intersection of radiating with horizontal lines.
an example of the same with a
is
jection of the moulding at

parallel
to
number of
points in
B, making
parts,
C D
draw
through
the
and
from
D A
to
equal.
draw
scotia
(116)
No. 3
is
G B
these with
traced.
The
AD
Having
the points in
intersections of
The tangent
above.
being given, from
DE
lines
fillet
formed on the same principle.
the
B, and the greatest pro-
E, perpendicular
divided
;
then draw from
former
C B and C
the
from C draw C
into
lines
required
an equal
through the
curve
may
be
Fill
'
'H
/u,
-'
^K"
Fi^.J
J"
F,.,
.V"
.'iT-.
SlCSJi.-?;-
.i
_'
_-_c?eri-riiaj.s Liri, yj.ti
MOULDINGS AND ORNAMENTS.

varying from the
The Roman
circle.
Architecture, nor the Greek Ecliinus in
An
Ovolo and Oavetto are never found in Grecian
Roman
the otliers they possess in
assemblage of essential parts and mouldings
choice, disposition,
and proportions of
The most
composition.
varied both in form and
perfect
size, fitly
117
these,
those which
subservient;
and where the
the
of few mouldings,
consist
applied with regard to their uses, and so distributed
that the straight and curved ones succeed each other alternately.
there should be a predominant
On
termed a profile.
is
depend the beauty or deformity of the
are
profiles
common.
member
profile
which
to
profile
of the others ought to appear
all
predominant member should
considerable, the
is
In every
always be accompanied by one or more principal members, calculated to attract the

eye and
the perception of the beholder.
assist
dominates
the modillions and dentils are
Thus, in a cornice, the corona pre-
principals
in
the composition
the
cyma
and cavetto cover them; the ovolo and talon support them.
When
always be
ornaments are employed

left
to decorate profiles,
plain in order to form a proper repose;
figure of the profile is lost in confusion.
some of the mouldings should

for
when
all
are enriched, the
In the cornices of entablatures neither the
corona, the modillion bands, nor the other facias of the architraves should
mented.
Neither should plinths of columns,
fillets,
or
be orna-
any square members be curved.
For, generally speaking, they are either principals in compositions, or boundaries to
other parts
and, in either instance, their figures should be simple, distinct, and unem-
barrassed.
distinct outline,
and an equal distribution of enrichments, should on
every occasion be strictly attended
to.
Variety in ornaments should never be carried to excess.

in particular, should be simple, uniform,
representations on each moulding;
same number of
parts,
and
all
Those of the mouldings,
and never composed of more than two
different
these ought to be cut equally deep, formed of the
nearly of the same dimensions, so that the eye
may
not
be more strongly attracted by any particular part than by the entire composition.
It is further to be
the order they enrich.
remarked, that ornaments should partake of the character of
Those applied
to
the Doric and
Ionic orders should be of
the simplest forms, and of larger size than those employed in the Corinthian and Composite.
With regard
in sculpture drapery
the parts
it
is
to the execution of
not esteemed unless
covers, so in Architecture the
ornaments
its
it
is
to be
remembered, that as
folds are contrived to grace
most
delicate
and
classic
and indicate
ornaments
their value, if they load or confuse the forms they are intended to enrich
lose all
and adorn.
PLATE
LIII.
They
Exhibits a variety of mouldings, the curves of which arc struck from centres.
Roman
ovolo
the points a and h being given at each extremity of the curve,
sary to bear in mind that this moulding

less
than a quadrant
either a quadrant, or
is
hence the variation of the centre from which
amount of projection desired
to be given
it
some part of a
it
is
describe the
is
only neces-
circle greater or
struck depends on the
proportion to the height, as shown by the examples
in
A, B, C.
The manner of describing the cavetto or hollow
is
very simple, and
is
by
fully represented
the examples D, E, and F.
To
describe the cyma-recta G, the points a
from the points
J, c,
and with the same
and
being given, join a and
and a describe arcs cutting each other
radius,
cyma-reversa or ogee, H,
is
draw the curves
drawn
in the
h e
and a
e,
in c
and d
5,
bisect
ah
from the centres
in e
and
which gives the required cyma-recta.
d,
The
same manner, except that the position of the centres
is
reversed.
The torus and

the example
is
cavetto,
so
frequently
I.
a semi-hollow.
K, a form
suitable for a bed-mould.
L, an ogee and bead.

(118)
employed
in
the
finishing
of
stairs,
arc
shown
by
OÛLJlJli
SaTYi^ Slo ait -&xclt-*^
DEFINITIONS.
If a Circular
Column has no
and
one, the shaft, base,
thereby
frustum column; but
if it
has
form the Cohimn ; and the mass supported
capital together,
denominated the Entablature.
is
The beam, which

of the entablature,
The
base, it is called a
is
is
presumed to
rest
upon the column, and forms the lower part
called the Architrave, or Epistylium.
space comprehended between the upper side of the architrave, or epistylium,
and the under
side of the
presumed beam over the
joists, is
called
the
Frieze, or
Zophorus.
The
profile or
edge of the presumed inclined
beams, projecting beyond the face of the
The
thickest or lowest part of the
upper and most slender part
by
upheld by the
frieze or zophorus, is called
column
is
joists or cross-
the Cornice.
called the lower diameter
and
its
called the up'per diameter.
is
Half of the lower diameter

parts called minutes;
roof,
is
this scale
called a Module,
which
is
divided into thirty equal
every part appertaining to the order
regulated,
is
both as regards the altitude and projection of the several component parts.
The depth
diameter,
The
is
of the column, from the lowest part of the architrave to the upper
called the Capital.
space comprehended between the upper and lower diameters of the column
and the space between the
is
called the Shaft;
if
there be none, the column
must of necessity
pedestal, or step, is called the
rest
upon the
step, as in
Base;
Grecian and
Doric examples.
The
smallest spaces between the lower diameters of columns, which stand in the
same range, are
When
called Intercolumniations.
intercolumniations
are
equal to one and a half of the lower diameters
of columns, they are called pycnostyle, or columns set thickly.
When
the intercolumniations are equal to two of the lower diameters, they are
called systyle.
(119)
DEFINITIONS.
120
When
intercolumniations
the
are
equal to two and one quarter of the lower
diameters, they are called eustyle.
When
the intercolumniations are equal to three of the lower diameters, they are
called decastyle.
When
the intercolumniations are equal to four of the lower diameters of columns,
they are called
When
called
like
ceosystijle,
or columns set thinly;
porticos consist of
tetrastyle ;
may
four columns, with
which case they may be coupled.

three
intercolumniations, they are
with six columns, hexastyle ; with eight columns, octastyh ;
manner, according
terms, which
in
to the
number of the columns, they
are
identified
and in
by Latin
be created ad infinitum.
Porticos to public buildings, with six, eight, or ten columns, are the
most esteemed
yet among the ancient buildings beautiful examples with four columns only are frequent,
of which the
much admired
River
are striking instances.
Ilissus,
Doric portico at Athens, and the Ionic specimen on the
/.>
GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS.
To
the Glossary
striking variations in
we
comparison of the most
prefix, in a tabular form, a detailed
what may be termed the two extreme
styles, the
Grecian and
the Pointed, or Gothic.
GRECIAN.
The general running
GOTHIC.
The general running
lines are horizontal.
Arches not necessary.
Arches a
really
Gothic
lines are vertical.
fundamental
building
principle,
and no pure
ornament can be composed
or
without them.
An
entablature
absolutely necessary
ways of two, and mostly of three

having a close relation
to,
and
consisting al-
distinctive parts,
its
character and
ornaments determined by, the columns.
such thing as an entablature composed of parts
and what
tion
to
is
the
called a cornice
shafts
which
bears no real
may
be
in
the
rela-
same
building.
entabla-
The
and no arch can spring directly from a co-
in
The columns can support nothing but an

ture,
No
shaft can only support an arched moulding,
no case a horizontal
and
line.
lumn.
flat
column may be called a
Nothing analogous to a
pilaster.
pilaster
mented projecting surface
is
every
either
flat
orna-
series
of
panels or a buttress.
The arch must spring from a
horizontal line.
No
horizontal line necessary, and never any but the
small cap of a shaft.

C
ilumns the supporters of the entablature.
Shaft bears nothing and
round pier
No
projections
like
buttresses,
stopped by horizontal
and
all
projections
Buttresses
still
are
is
only ornamental, and the
pier.
essential
parts,
and stop horizontal
lines.
Arrangement of pediment
Pediment only an ornamented end-wall, and may be
fixed.
of almost any pitch.
Openings limited by the proportions of the column.
Openings almost unlimited.
Regularity of composition on each side of a centre
Regularity of composition seldom found, and variety

of ornament universal.
necessary.
Cannot form good
steeples, because
they must re-
semble unconnected buildings piled on each other.
From
its vertical lines,
may be
carried to any prac-
ticable height, with almost increasing beauty.
;;
PLATE
LIV.
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS.
To
Fig. 1.
a Circle a regular Hexagon and an Equilateral Triangle.
inscribe in
radius c
the alternate angles of the hexagon, and there
To
Fig. 2.
-will
Bisect the radius J e at
and with the radius a
Draw
take
e d,
two diameters, a h and

equal to a e;
d f, and the chord a f
describe the arc
d,
the
Join
be inscribed an equilateral triangle.
a Circle a Regular Pentagon.
inscribe in
pendicular to each other.

centre,
Apply
a six times to the circumference, and then will be inscribed a regular hexagon.
then from
per
i,
a, as
be one side of the
will
required pentagon.
Fig.
To
3.
inscribe in a Circle
a Square and a Regular Octagon.
To
two diameters at rightangles to each other, and join their extremities.
by one of the
sides of the square,
and the chord, a
i of half
inscribe a square,
draw
Bisect the arc subtended
be the size of the
the arc, will
octagon required.
Fig.
To make an Octagon out of a Square.
4.
as centres,
and with a radius equal
the square in a and b
Fig.
5.
remove from
Draw the
any Leîgth and Height.
to
each being equal to the base b d oi the segment, to form
and move the frame
mark
the arc of the required segment.
we may
If the segment required
cut a triangular piece of board, as
is
d,
at Fig. 9, the height, i
by the rods
Fig. 10.
at e
To draw
a and
the
nail also at a,
and
e b
perpendicular to b d;
divide, also, a
and
its
height
divide 6 6
into six equal
Circle by
them, and you will
same way.
(122)
g.
then, having
drawn
d,
them
pencil-point
and the point a
we may, with
in this
will
way,
triangle,
this
to the above, placing it
(Z
the
1,
b,
and erect b
Let
1', 2', etc.,
and draw the
2, etc., are points of the
half-segment a
b.
d he the
perpendicular to
each into six equal parts, at the points
parts at the points
have
means of Intersecting Mnes.
draw the chord a
and 6
their point of intersection with the lines
through
ab
e b.
Segment of a
base of the segment, and a 6
e,
of the triangle being
c,
draw half the arc of the required segment at a time, in a manner similar
as shown
from / and
Now, place a
too large to be conveniently
shown
Now, by putting a
half the height of the segment.
two rods, a b and a
bad;
way, sliding against the nails at b and
either
and d g
Make
the angle
placed as in the figure, put a nail at b and one at d.
at a,
Second Method.
/e
corner of the square a triangle equal to
eacli
To draw a Segment by Rods
secured, and
diagonals
one-half of the diagonal, describe arcs cutting the sides of
to
lines 1 1',
curve
it,
1, 2, etc.
2', etc.
trace the curve
The other half may be drawn
in
the
j'luxa^
N-^
\L
h.
tig.i
::^s
Tig 3
Fi,i/
T..-.,.:.^-: ^".1
GLOSSARY.
A.
Aaron's Rod.
An
ornamental
figure, representing
a rod
Tvitb
a serpent twined
about
it
called
by some the Caduceus of Mercury.
Abacus.
The
upper member of the capital of a column, serving as a kind of crown-piece in the
Grecian Doric
Acanthus.
a collection of members or mouldings in the other orders.
plant, the leaves of
which are represented in the Corinthian order,
Acanthine
etc.
means ornamented with leaves of the Acanthus.
Acropolis
The highest part of a

vertex
Acrotria.) The extremity
from the Greek.
AcROTERiUM
(plural
city
or
on the angle or on the apex of a pediment, which
the citadel or fortress.
of anything
may
a pedestal or base placed
be for the support of a vase or statue.
particularly that of Minerva.

In decoration, a
or
.^TOMA. A pediment, or the tympanum of a pediment.
Aisle, or Aile.
of the nave; the wings of the
walk in a church on the
with columns.
Alcove. A
or part of a chamber, separated by an estrade or
Arôstyle. The greatest
distance that can be made between columns.
Alto-relievo, or high
That kind of sculpture which projects much from the surface
^Gis.
breast-plate,
shield
choir.
side
Â
partition
recess,
interval or
so
relief.
which
Amphora;
it
is
attached as to appear nearly insulated.
(plural Amphorce.)
In
decoration, a vase or jar with two handles.
horn.
In
a curved drinking-cup
Ancones. Ornaments depending from the corona
Scamozzian
Angular Capital. The modern
Ancon.
to
or
decoration,
of Ionic doorways, etc.
Ionic, or
capital,
which
is
found alike on
all
the
four faces.
Annulet,
ANTiE.
or Fillet.
small square
species of pilasters
Arc-boutants, or Boutants.
of the nave.
Arch.
Arches
They
common
in the
Arch-formed
in the Doric capital, under the quarter round.
Grecian temples.
props in Gothic churches,
etc., for
sustaining the vaults
are at times called flying buttresses, and arch-butments.
are either circular, elliptical, or straight;
Anything
Architecture. The
Architectonic.
member
the latter term being technical.
calculated to assist the architect.
art or science of designing
and superintending
edifices.
(123)
;;
PLATE
LV.
THE ELLIPSE.
An
Ellipse
sum
their
called
is
a curve, sucli that,
be always
will
equal
given
to
from any point two
if
The
line.
bo drawn to two fixed points,
lines
0' on Fig.
as
points,
fixed
are
1,
foci.
diameter
any
is
through the centre, and terminating in the
passing
line
diameter which passes through the foci
Fig.
Thus,
the conjugate axis.
E, Fig.
1/
Move
upon the
rod, that e
the pencil around and
AB
be equal to the transverse, and
will
an
will describe
it
angle upon the axes, and
divide
A 2,
their
1',
and
2', etc.,
it
efg
fg
Place
the
upon the arms, and the
equal to the conjugate axis.
ellipse.
the
Axes being
given.
Describe
conjugate axis into equal parts, at the points 1, 2,
the
same number
to
the conjugate axis.
and so arrange the rod
figure,
divide the transverse into the
and the one perpendicular
transverse,
To describe an JElUpse by intersecting Lines,
Fig. 2.
etc.,
the
the transverse, and
To describe an UUijJse with the Trammel, the Centre and Axes being given.
1.
trammel at the centre, as seen in the

pencil
called
is
1, is
The
curve.
at the points 1', 2', 3', etc.
bo points of
intersections will
a rect3, etc.
then draw the lines
the
1,
Trace the curve
curve.
through these points.

Fig.
To
3.
describe a
that the parallelogram a 5
at
Draw
you
will
bisect
then from
parallel
and equal
a c and d
An
5.
bisect
AB
is
performed like the preceding, except
ab d
and from
h,
Draw
c,
An
6.
DE
join '
Fig. 2.
c',
and draw
c,
it
V d',
and D' E'
k through
will
the
draw
to
c,
Represen-
its
A / and b B
and draw
c,
intersecting
EC
meeting
as a centre, describe the arc
in e
h,
and
same way.
another, having the same Eccentricity.
on the transverse and conjugate
Ellipse being given, to find
parallel,
and draw
at /,
the other parts in the
Ellipse being given, to describe tvithin

b
it
produced in
A' B' be the conjugate axis of the required
let
e,
to
as a centre, describe the arc
e,
c' d' parallel to
Fig.
problem
used instead of the rectangle
have one-fourth of the curve.
Fig.
b c
is
This
A by a perpendicular, meeting
Describe the rectangle a
and
ED
Ellipse.
The transverse and conjugate Axis of an Ellipse being given,
Fig. 4.
tation.
rampant
ellipse,
axis,
and draw the diagonals a d
and through A' B' draw
a' b'
be the transverse axis of the required
Centre, Axes,
their middle points
and
Foci.
bisect i
Draw
at C,
any two
and C
will
and
ellipse.
lines,
be the
centre.
From C
dicular to
it,
From B,
describe two arcs, intersecting the curve at

will
witli
be the transverse, and

a radius equal to
points of intersection
(124)
and 0'
will
A C B,
and n
draw
m n,
and
DC
E, perpen-
perpendicular, will be the conjugate axis.
E, describe two arcs, intersecting the transverse, and the
be the
foci.
p'Loi^y
J^T^ 3
l-i</
ti
3t09en.tha'i s
I.^. ?>îa
GLOSSARY.
Architrave.
125
beam; that part of an entablature which
lies
immediately upon the capital or
head of the columns.
Astragal.
A small moulding whose

The
or tendino.
profile is semicircular,
often cut into beads
is
to separate the faces of
tui'es
Attic.
astragal
and
and which bears also the name of talon

berries,
and used
ornamental entabla-
in
the architrave.
low story erected over an order of architecture.
Attic Order.
An
order of low pilasters generally placed over some other order of columns.
B.
Balcony.
A projection from the
surface of a wall, supported by consoles or pillars, and surrounded
by a balustrade.
A
Balustrade. A connected range of
Band. A term used
express what
Baluster.
small pillar or pilaster, serving to support a
number of
to
Corinthian
or
may
The lower part of a column,

Basilica. A town or court
a
Bas-relief. The representation of
called
the
from which the
modillion
band, or the
moulded or
cathedral
figures
plain,
on which the shaft
is
placed.
a palace.
projecting from a background without being detached
it.
When a wall
Battlements. Indentations
Batter.
Bay;
dentils, project, is
that
be.
Base.
hall
balusters on balconies, etc.
generally called a face or facia
other modillions, or the
dentil band, as the case
from
is
rail.
is
on the top of a parapet or wall.
architecture.)
(in G-othic
Bay-window.
built in a direction that is not perpendicular.
An
opening between
window projecting from the front
piers,
in
beams, or mullions.
two or moi-e planes.
which the
Anciently the Campanile; the part of a
are
or observatory
generally very ornamental.
Belvedere. A
Bed-moulding. The moulding between the corona and
A sculptured protuberance the interjunction
Gothic
Boss;
Belfry.
steeple in
turret, look-out,
bells
hung.
frieze.
architecture.)
(in
at
of the ribs in a
vaulted roof.
BouLDER-WALLS.
Bossage;
(a
Those
Constructed of
French term.)
flints
Any projection
or pebbles, laid in strong mortar.

left
rough on the face of a stone for the purpose of
sculpture.
Broach;
(in
Buttress
piers
Gothic architecture.)
(in
and
Gothic
A
A
architecture.)
spire or polygonal pyramid.
projection
on the exterior of a wall
resist the pressure of the arches within.
to strengthen the
;;
PLATE
LVI.
THE PARABOLA AND HYPERBOLA.

A
Parabola
Let
line.
AB,
a curve, any point of which
is
Fig. 1, be the given line, and
GF
as G, the distances
fixed point, F,
is
A B,
the axis.
called
is
and
GC
The
The
line
equally distant from a fixed point and a given
H D,
line
A B,
line,
called the
is
drawn through the
drawn through the
n,
then for any point of the curve,
the fixed point;
The given
are equal.
called the focus.
ia
The
directrix.
and perpendicular
focus,
focus, perpendicular
the axis,
to
to
is
called the parameter.
A
to two
Hyperbola
is
a curve in which the difference of two
fixed points,
is
constantly equal to a given line.
Fia.
To describe a Parabola.
1.
one end of a string, equal to
keeping
it
G C,
always stretched, and
Take
a straight edge,
and the other end
at
drawn from any of
lines,
A B,
;
and T-square,
GC
points
its
fasten at
place a pencil against the string,
move the square along the
The
edge.
straight
pencil will
describe a parabola.
Fig.
2.
To describe a Parabola by intersecting Lines.
the sides a c and c
draw perpendiculars
into
to c
the same
number of equal parts
at the points 1', 2', 3', etc.
them; trace the curve through the points of
secting
Fig.
3.
To do
the
Take
same by another method.
the rectangle
the points
at
Take
the
triangle
and C d into the same number of equal parts at the points
1,
and trace the curve
A 1, A 2,
etc., inter-
intersection.
2, 3 3, etc.,
and divide
1, 2, 3, 1', 2', 3', etc.
and, also, the Imes
A H c a,
c d,
and divide the
sides
draw the
lines
1, 2, 3, etc.
so that these lines shall be tangent to
as represented in
it,
the figure.
Fig.
5.
To describe a Eyperbola by means of intersecting Lines. Divide the

A B c a into the same number of equal parts at the points 1, 2,
sides a c
of the rectangle
BA
produce
to C,
and trace the curve through the intersection of the
lines
CI,
and
3, 1', 2', 3', etc.
A 1,
2,
A 2,
etc.
TRACERY.
Having given any Gothic Arch,
intersect
it
into
to
any number of
e([ual parts, as four
secting the arch at h
Erect
g f.
intersecting the perpendicular in
ad
another, either Right or Banijmnt, so that the tivo shall
also into four equal parts

to the points
bed.
make
then, from the point
Now,
e o,
let
e,
Draw
the
draw
lines
e,
and from
lines
ad
through
and divide
1, 2, 3, inter-
f g h,
we wish
line
o,
draw
lines
to
draw
o,
and divide
in conit
equal to those on a d. Fig. 4, and draw lines
from
e,
through
This will give the desired arch.
rampant arch on Fig. 6 may be made
chord a
through
o,
the arch, Fig. 7, which
and a greater base, ae; draw the
the divisions on
Having drawn
through the points of intersection.
(120)
perpendicular to a
deb.
nection with 4, have the same height,
from
draw
a Mitre truly together. Let Fig. 4 bo the given arch.
1, 2, 3,
By
to correspond with either Figures
trace the curve o
g h a
similar construction, the
4 or
7.
j'i!-ai'3u
A
vc:
^-nS\
AX
y
/
_:
r-i-t'-B.
*'
J'
^'
'
'i
Fill
l-\g 2
i;,, I
!..,
fit/
Ftgl
f.
^toar. ArcTi."
RoseufhAlsIifix P>j1
GLOSSARY.
127
C.
of a column with a
The
up of the lower part of the
Capital. The head or uppermost part of a column or
support the entablature.
Cakyatides.
of women, which servo instead of columns
Casement. A sash hung upon hinges.
Cavetto. A hollow moulding, whose
a quadrant of a
Cincture. A
the top or bottom of a column.
or
Chamfer;
Gothic
or jamb of a door, canted.
An
leaves
with
CiNQUEFOiL
Gothic
An ornamental
Coping
Gothic
The stone covering the top of a wall or parapet.
Corbel
Gothic
A kind of bracket. The term generally used a continued
Cabling.
solid cylindrical piece.
fluting
filling
pilaster.
Figui-os
to
profile is
ring,
list,
arch,
architecture.)
(in
(in
architecture.)
(in
architecture.)
at
architecture.)
(in
fillet,
circle.
figure,
or points.
five
for
is
brackets on the exterior of a building, supporting a projecting battlement, which
series of
is
called a corbel table.
Cornice.
The
or the
Corona.
That
flat,
whose situation
Corridor.
Crenelle;
Crocket
Cupola.
members which crowns
projection consisting of several
body or part
to
which
it
square, and massy

is
member of
a cornice, more usually called the drip or larmier,
between the cimatium above and the bed-moulding below.
gallery or open communication to the difierent apartments of a house.
The opening of an embattled parapet.

(Gothic.) An ornament of leaves running up the
or finishes an entablature,
annexed.
is
(Gothic.)
side of a gable, or
ornamented canopy.
small room, either circular or polygonal, standing on the top of a dome.
It
is
some-
times called a lantern.
Cusp;
(Gothic.)
CrMA, or Cimatium.
name
for the segments of circles forming the trefoil, quatrefoil, etc.
moulding which
is
hollow in
its
upper part and swelling below.
D.
and
having ten
A plain
Decoration. Anything that enriches or gives beauty and
the
found
Demi-Metope. The half metope which
Decagon.
figure
sides
is
angles.
at
ornament
to the orders of architecture.
retiring or projecting angles of
a Doric
frieze.
Dentils.
Small
square blocks or projections used in the bed-mouldings of the cornices in the
Ionic, Corinthian, Composite,
Details of an Edifice.
and sometunes Doric orders.
Drawings or
delineations for the use of builders, otherwise called working
drawings.
Diagonal Scale.
scale subdivided into smaller parts
by secondary
intersections or oblique lines.
PLATE
To draw Arches of various forms, and
As
to
LVII.
find the Lines of the Joints between the Arch-stones.
carpenters are frequently called upon to prepare centering for arclies, and also to cut out
patterns of the arch-stones, to be used
duce a plate which

Fig.
1.
This
by the
the semicircular, or perfect arch.
joints between the voussoirs are part of the radii.
each line perpendicular to a tangent, as at

Fig.
2.
This
3.
The
circle.
C c,
easier
This
The Elliptical Arch.

it
Various
then a line bisecting the angle
to be
composed of a
5.
AB.
It
The Gothic lancet arch

joints are
equilateral arch
The
Fig.
7.
Fig.
8.
The obtuse pointed arch

The ogee, contrasted or
two without the arch,
is
is
half
its
is
are found
D N.
by other
(128)
two
is
b.
the
ellipse
first joint,
c,
and
may
are
so on.
rules.
down
foci of
in
the
If the curve
is
which are longer than the
arcs, the radii of
oo'.
is
described from four centres, two within and

at pleasure.
described from four centres within the arch, 0, 0',
will
laid
F' be the
be used as centres.
may be
found thus:
divide the base line
0' be the centre of the arc

o'
equal to
then
Bn;
is
o, o'.
AB
For an
into three
from D, through 0, draw
o' the
Those arches which have their height greater or
described by radii shorter than the span.
reflected arch,
span, they
and 0'; then
as a
described by radii equal to the span.
and make the distance from C to

arc
the points 1 and 3,
an arc greater than a semi-
the joints, let
The proportions may be varied
a, b, o, o'.
Fig. 9. The Tudor arch
describe the
To draw
F' will give the
consists of
G.
line,
F1
D E,
line,
methods for drawing
drawn from the points
Fig.
equal parts at
From
the joint correctly.
consists of
series of arcs of a circle, the points 0, a, b,
The
arch whose height
make
and from the point of intersection draw a
this will give the line of
unnecessary to repeat them.
is
Fig.
and the
centre, C,
between the springers below the centre must not be drawn from the centre, as
ellipse
1,
a Moresque, or horseshoe arch.
is
joints
Plate LV., and
drawn from the
is
not convenient to draw the radii,
here exhibited.
is
but must be made parallel to the imposts, or base
Fig. 4.
span
method of drawing the joint
through the point 2 bisecting

Fig.
It
is
it
t.
draw small intersecting arcs above the arch
as centres,
line
If
a diminished, segmental, or imperfect arch, being composed of an arc less than
is
An
a semicircle.
expedient to intro-
it
student with the best method of dividing and drawing arches.
will familiarize the

is
we have thought
stone-cutter,
centre with which to
less
than half the span,
fwum
'0
J'lfl
"
ATn
IÎoMi
ArA'
"R'jren**!* I.Il PIuia.i*
GLOSSARY.
Diameter.
The
Diapered;
(in
line in a circle passing
That intercolumniation or
Dye. A naked square cube.
DiASTYLE.
Die
or
129
from the circumference through the centre.

panel or other
flat
surface, sculptured with flowers.
space between columns which consists of three diameters.
Thus the body of a pedestal
called
is
its
Some
die.
call
the abacus the die of the capital.
In geometry, means
breadth,
Diminution. A term expressing the gradual decrease of
express a
Dipteral. A term used by the ancients
Dimension.
either length,
to
in each of
or thickness.
thickness in the upper part of a column.
temple with a double range of
columns
flanks.
its
and
A regular polygon, with twelve equal
Dodecastyle. A building having twelve columns
springing from a polygonal,
Dome. An arched
vaulted
of a
Docks. Flat
of wood of the shape and
Dodecagon.
angles.
sides
in front.
or
roof,
Door.
The
(Gothic.)
A
Dressing-Room. An
window
set
upon the slope of a roof
or spire.
large and elegant apartment.
apartment contiguous to the sleeping room, for the convenience of dressing.
(in
and
sleeping room.
Drawing-Room.
Drip;
bricks.
gate or entrance of a house or other building, or of an apartment in a house.
Dormer Window;
Dormitory.
wooden
sometimes
brick, inserted in brick walls;
size
pieces
called plugs or
circular, or elliptical plane.
A moulding
much resembling
the cimatium of
Roman
architecture,
canopy over the arch of a door or window.
used similarly as a
E.
The same
Edging. The reducing
the edges of ribs or rafters, so that they
Elbows of a Window.
The
as the ovolo or quarter round;
Echinus.
only termed echinus with propriety.
may
two paneled flanks, one under each shutter.
A geometrical projection drawn on a plane, perpendicular

or other material.
mound of
Embankment. An
Embrasure. See Crenelle.
and
consisting of
Encarpus. The festoons on a
Entablature. The assemblage of parts supported by the column;
Elevation.
fruits, flowers,
frieze,
Entail
Entasis.
(in
Entresol.
is
slight
Delicate
leaves.
it
consists
of
three
the
carving.
curvature of the shafts of ancient Grecian columns, particularly the Doric,
scarcely perceptible, and beautifully graceful.
See
the horizon.
cornice.
The
which
and
to
earth, stone,
artificial
architrave, frieze,
range together.
Mezzanine.
PLATE
To
describe the Intersecting or Angle-ribs of a
and
Fio. 1
or
a semi-ellipse, and
a given body-rib,
and C from
into the
same number of
may be
is
either a semi-circle
a rib across the angles.
From
parts.
these points draw lines
ab and
and range
draw
lines
trace the angle-curves through the quadrilaterals, and the
Then
or D, taking care not to
but from the straight chords
describe
wliicli
being divided into a like number of equal parts, and
give the place of the intersecting ribs.
result will
To
is
centre at m, and from the divisions of the base of the rib
its
parallel to the side of the groin.
and
divide the base of the given rib
moulds
a side-rib given of the same height;
is
Trace from E, the base of both
across the groin to
Qroin standing upon an Octagon Plan, the Side

same height.
Body-7-ibs being given both to the
a quadrant of the octagon.
is
LVIII.
Draw
the chords a b and b
mark them from
then mark the
c,
the crooked line at the base,
be.
the Angle-ribs of a G-roin
upon a Circular Plan,
the Side
and
Body-arches being given.

Fig.
On
2.
this
quadrant, the ribs are described in
example for the octagon groin
same moulds as are shown
To find
Fig.
6,
and
7,
from
ellipsis,
and the ranging
3.
The
ribs in this case
and as shown
and
may
BE
from
found in a similar manner.
may
and
Groin when the given Arch
the preceding
in
and
is
much
are the
is the
Segment of a
Circle.
be found by the method explained on Plate LVI., Figures 4,
on the present figure
b to c, at
the crowns of
as
C and
C and D,
to
now take
a and d;
also,
we may take the height of the

at
A, and place
C and D, which
are parts of
twice the radius a
the arches
c,
then be drawn by intersecting lines, as explained on Plate LV., Fig. 2.
these methods
(130)
c,
at
it
is
manner
and D.
the Jack-ribs of a Plaster
segment A, and place

it
at
the same
easier, in practice,
than to trace the ribs through ordinates.
Either of
ff-'CUlL'iiJUU
fJ;^s,'T-:
GLOSSARY.
Epistylium.
The
That
EusTTLE.
131
same as Architrave.
form of
intercolumniation
which, as
name would
its
The face or front of any considerable building a

member
the entablature or elsewhere; being,
Facia. A
a plate of metal cut
Fane, Vane. A church
some
Facade.
street, court,
to
in
flat
import, the
ancients
con-
namely, two diameters and a quarter of a column.
sidered the most elegant;
a band or broad
fact,
characteristic form,
into
in
garden, or other place.

fillet.
and turning on a
pivot to determine the course of the wind.
Fastigium.
See
Pediment.
Feather-edged Boards.
Festoon.
An
Are
ornament of carved work, representing a wreath or garland of flowers or
The
members
FiNlAL
member which
small square
leaves,
each other.
or both, interwoven with
Fillet.
narrow boards, made thin on one edge.
is
placed above or below the various square or curved
an order.
in
(Gothic.)
The
ornament consisting usually of four crockets, which
is
employed
to
finish
a pinnacle, gable, or canopy.
Flank.
The
an
side of
the least side of a pavilion,
edifice;
by which
it
is
joined to the main
building.
Steps a
Flight. In
Floor. The bottom
Flutings. The
Fliers.
in
stairs,
series
which are parallel
to
each other.
a series of steps from one landing place to another.
is
of rooms.
vertical
on the shafts of
channels
columns, which are usually rounded at the
top and bottom.
Folding-Doors.
Foliage.
An
Doors
to
meet from opposite jambs.
ornamental distribution of leaves or flowers on various parts of an
Foreshortening.
view, the
made
object
edifice.
term applicable to drawings or designs, in which, from the obliquity of the

is
represented as receding from the opposite side of the plane of the pro-
jection.
Foundation.
Foot.
Framing.
That
part of a building or wall which
is
below the surface of the ground.
measure of twelve inches.
The
name given
to the
wood-work of windows enclosing
of doors and windows, or window-shutters, enclosing panels
work supporting
floors,
roofs,
and
ceilings
or to the
glass,
and the outward work
and in carpentry, to the timber-
intersecting
pieces of
timber forming
partitions.
Fret.
series
kind of ornamental work, laid on a plain surface.

of rightangles of
fillets,
of various forms.
The Greek
fret
is
formed by a
PLATE
LIX.
The Plan and Inclination of an Ascending Groin, one of

section of the
Arches shall
in a Perpendicular Plane.
lie
Divide half the circumference of the body-rib at

lines
from these points perpendicular to
the plan
\d, le,
from thence,
This curve
curve of the side-rib.
lines, as at
is
any number of equal parts
draw
to the line of intersection
on
toward C, and make the distances 16, 1
at rightangles
C, equal to the corresponding distances at
etc., at
the true
into
and continue them
base,
its
them be drawn
let
and the Place of the

of the Side-ribs, so that the Inter-
the Body-rihs,
Form
Intersection on the Plan, being given, to find the
then will the curve abed,
a semi-ellipse, and
F, according to the rules for describing a rampant
may
etc.,
e,
be
be found by intersecting
ellipse.
To find the Moulds for placing the Jack-ribs.
At C draw
and
the
lines
draw the
semi-ellipse
lb, Ic, Id,
ordinates
0, 1, 2, 3, etc.
from the points
up
etc.,
extend the
as wide as the body-range,

to
A;
bend a
upon the
slip
perpendicular to the line of ascent h, g, toward
a, b, c, d, etc.,
line
and E, and divide
^6
through each of these points draw perpendiculars across

dicular
to
the rake
Draw
the
The edges of
number of the
several heights, hi, hi,
d;
to intersect
it
C
it
continue
the
points
correspondingly ;
the lines
now
drawn perpen-
these moulds, bent over the body-vault
when boarded
exactly coincide with the intersection of the side and body-vaults.
To find
c to
at
then curves traced through the points of intersection will give the moulds
for placing the jack-ribs.

in, will
ah
around A, and mark upon
slip
6, at
and as high as
draw
lines
mn,
the Jack-ribs of the Side-groins,
jack-ribs
etc.,
and
upon the arch B,
set
at theii- proper distances,
them upon the arch
from a
and take
from
to b,
b to
c,
their
from
through bed, parallel to the rake, and they will show on the curve the proper
length and form of the jack-ribs.
To
Since
all
the body-ribs
the
Body-ribs.
stand perpendicular to the plan, the upper edge must be beveled to
correspond to the rake of the groin.

ribs,
bevel
To do
this, let
be beveled according to the rake, so that they
from B, or one of the body-ribs
will answer,
the lower beveled edges correspond.

(132)
and place
it
1111,
at B, of the body-
stand perpendicular;
then take a mould
the under edge
may
on each side of the
rib to
The upper edges may now be marked and
be cut, making
beveled.
[MUQJM
Saio^ Sloan Aich*
Roiintlvjli
lid PJujl"
GLOSSARY.
Frieze.
The
member
middle
133
of the entablature of an order which separates the architrave and
the cornice.
Frontispiece.
The
face or fore-front of an edifice;
more generally applied
as a
term to desig-
nate the decorated entrance.
A name given
Frustum. A piece cut
FUNINGS. Are
pieces
Front.
to the principal interior facade of

oflF
from a regular
figure.
of timber, plank, or boards, used
flat
a building.
by carpenters
to bring dislocated
work
to a regular surface.
Fust.
The
shaft of a column.
G.
Gable;
(in
Gable -Window
Gablet;
Gage.
(Gothic.)
In
The
Garland;
in a gable, generally the largest in the composition.
See Canopy.
small gable.
beveled shoulder of a binding-joist.
(Gothic.)
The
Gouge. A
An
ornamental band, surrounding the top of a tower or spire.
vertical channels
sunk in the triglyphs of the Doric
The
Ceiling. A
(Gothic.)
diagonal line formed by the intersection of two vaults in a roof.

surface
formed of three or more curves, so that every two
groin, all the groins terminating at one extremity in a
Groove, or Mortise.
sill,
or
rail,
The channel
made by
common
may form
point.
a joiner's plane or chisel in the edge of a moulding,
to receive the tenon.
The
Plane. A
Ground Floor.
Ground
frieze.
a semicircular form.
chisel of
Groined
window
stuff.
Glyphs.
Groin;
triangularly-headed wall which covers the end of a roof.
carpentry, an instrument to strike a line parallel to the straight side of any board or
piece of
Gain.
(Gothic.)
The
lowest story of a building.
line
forming the ground of a design or picture, which line
is
a tangent to
the surface of the face of the globe.
Ground
Plot.
Grounds.
The
ground upon which a building
is
placed.
term used by joiners to designate narrow
strips
of
wood put
in walls
to
receive
the laths and plaster.
GuTT^,
or Drops.
Those
frustra of cones in the Doric entablature which occur in the architrave
below the tenia, under each triglyph.
Gutter.
kind of canal in the roofs of houses to receive and carry
off rain-water.
PLATE
LX.
Given, one of the Body-ribs, the Angles straight upon the Plan, and the ascent of a Q-roin not
standing upon level ground, to find the form of the ascending Arches and the Angle-ribs.
Let baa at
be the angle of the ascent
and describe the rampant curve

to
it,
and equal
To find
Draw
fore;
to
manner
the same
lines
from the point
make
b c perpendicular to a b,
then draw the diagonal ab at E, and
make
b c
perpendicular
bo at B; then draw the hypothenuse ac, and describe the angle-rib
in
as that of B.
the length of the Jack-ribs, so that they shall fit to the Jtake of the Groin.
up from the plan to the arch, as at D,
then the arch from to a
the
is
jack-rib,
first
in the
from
same manner
to
as explained hereto-
the second, and from c to
<?
the third, etc.
To range
Get the
ribs
out in two halves
the Angle-ribs for these Groins.
the ascent of the groin, and the plan of
may
be
it
rib,
or the rib
marked upon the bottom

aroimd.
(134)
to
itself,
and
slide
be backed
ribs
must be beveled agreeably
must be drawn upon the
drawn perpendicular from the plan
form of the
bottom of the
'then the
off;
to
the rake of the rib
this
level,
then take a mould to the
agreeably to the rake to the
this will
to
and from thence they
show how much the
rib
distance
is
to
that
bevel
is
all
[Pi.iLii
li
- -
\
c-^V
c^
F5^?S3.
ecr,r- -iLo ir.
nt
~c'
I'lKjim .Xi-&,
"Fiiil"
GLOSSARY.
135
H.
Halving.
The junction
of two pieces of timber,
inserting one into the other;
by
in
some cases
preferable to mortising.
Hand-Railing.
The
forming hand-rails ai'ound circular and
art of
elliptical
well-holes, without
the use of the cylinder.
That which
Rafter. The end
Hanging-Stile.
Heel of a
The
Hem. The
Hexasttle. A
the hinges are affixed, particularly of doors and windows.
to
or foot which rests upon the wall-plate.
cm-ling stalk under the ilower
Helix.
the Ionic capital.
spiral projecting part of
Hood-Mould
building having six columns in front.
(in
Open
Htperthtron. The
Hypotrachelion. A
Htpcethral.
where
it
the Corinthian capital.
at the top
lintel of
See
Drip.
having no roof.
a door-way.
term given by Vitruvius to the slenderest part of the shaft of a column

It signifies the part
joins the capital.
under the neck.
I.
Ichnography.
The
of the whole
transverse
edifice;
the
a building, on which
section of
represented the circumference
is
rooms and apartments, with the thickness of the walls;
different
the dimensions and situation of the doors, windows, and chimneys
and everything that could possibly be seen in such a section

Impost.
The
layer of stone or
wood
base line of an arch or arcade;
that
crowns a door-post or
generally projects,
it
if
and
is
the projection of columns
made
pier,
in reality.
and which supports the
often formed of an assemblage
of mouldings.
Inch.
The
twelfth
ten
divided into
Inclined Plane.
of a
hill,
part
parts
One
of
or
For the purpose of reckoning
foot.
in
decimal fractions
of the mechanical
column standing by
powers used for raising ponderous bodies; a declivity
itself.
Detached from another

on
Intaglio. Any surface with
Intercolumniation. The distance between two columns.
of an
Intrados. The under curved surface or
intrados below the
have
Inverted Arches. Such
building.
Insulated.
figures
in
relief
soffit
as
is
integers.
etc.
Insular Column.
it
their
it.
arch.
centre or axis.
PLATE
LXI.
GEOMETRICAL STAIR-LINES.
Those
This, and the two succeeding plates, contain carefully prepared diagrams of stair-lines.
attention to this branch of art, will at once
who have paid

and
them
be able to turn
will
As
each of the plates
is
comprehend
their value
and meaning,
account by means of the accompanying explanations.
to useful
intimately connected with the other, our reference must necessarily
be general.
Plate LXI., ground plan on

required in the cylinder;
manner of doing
CS
line
AW;
half a step
angles
to
the
radius
from bk make an intersection, the
line
ToP, and where
We
make L
mon
to
Draw
Plate LXI.
and
PB
e o
through the centre of the
parallel
to
Nf
.extend
PB
and the plumb-bevel, which
the bevel for the joint,

sects
at
is
at
(136)
is
to
3,
equals
two steps
to
at right;
with a
LN
make
from
lines
through the centre of the
the line
draw the
make
BA
RST
equal to the com-
N S,
intersection
to the intersection
equal to
rail
P S
extend;
draw
draw
A F,
This gives the required plane, also the semi-major

at
A, and
it
also
intersects at
with
N, draw the quadrant
shown at Fig.
draw C
and at rightangles
rail
string
is
the
gives the position of the risers.
both ways
e.
shown
draw/W, and where

to VP; and
rightangles
same centre extended

the joint, and
is
considered equal to one;
line of the
from
the tangent
equal to the height of two and a half risers
draw
is
that
steps
from the point of intersection, draw
d^,
these lines cut the cylinder at
extended to C, cutting the intersection at

axis,
distance
VO;
plane or pitch-board, cutting the tangent at
ing to
to
now return
will
the half-pace
in this there are five;
number of
the
one-half
lay off
shown on Plate LXII.; from the
this is
from
the
for
NW;
Plate LXIII.
at
Fig. 4,
Plate LXIII.
V, draw VZ;P.
The
MXW
is
For the spring-bevel
the
bevel
obtain
line that inter-
a centre, draw the quadrant;
then
To
with the
for the
end of
at the intersection at T,
^R
Sam-' Slcar. Ar
Rosen-tKaTs-Lj-lh I'J.U'
GLOSSARY.
Jack-Rafters.
Jambs.
The
The
137
jack-timbers, wHcli are fastened to the hip-rafters and the wall-plates.
side pieces of
any opening
in a wall
which bear the piece that sustains the super-
incumbent weight.
A term
Joinery.
applied
in
building
to designate the finer
and more ornamental parts of the
wood-finishing.
Jointer.
^Â
tool
used for straightening and preparing wood for joints,
etc.
K.
The
Kins-Post. The
Kerf.
slit
or
made by
cut
a saw in a piece of stone or timber.
middle post in a section of rafters.
L.
Label;
(in
Gothic
architecture.)
name
the drip or hood-moulding of
for
an arch when
it
is
returned square.
The
Lantern. A
Lacunar.
same
as Soffit.
or
turret
tower placed above a building
or
dome, pierced with windows
to
admit
light or to aid in ventilation.
Larmier.
Called
also
A narrow
Leaves. Ornaments
Lath.
slip
Corona, which see.

of wood, usually employed in plastering.
representing natural
leaves.
The ancients used two
The natural were those of the
and imaginaiy.
sorts of
laurel, palm, acanthus,
and
leaves, natural
olive.
neither
A surface which
surface of a
the
casing
covering
the
Lining. Covering
placed horizontally over a door, window, or other
Lintel. A piece of timber
or annulet.
List, or Listel. The same
Listing. The cutting the sapwood out of both edges of a board.
narrow window.
Loop; (Gothic.) A
A window a tower
Louvre
LuFFBR Boarding. The same
Level.
inclines to
for
side.
interior, as
for
is
or stone,
as
fillet
small,
(Gothic.)
in
or turret.
as blind-slats.
exterior
building.
opening.
PLATE
LXII.
GEOMETRICAL STAIR-LINES. (Continued.)

mn
draw
at rightangles
extended to draw
end of the mould, and
shown on Fig.
to
P/, Plate
and
centre,
it
LXL
at
as
draw the centre of the
The chord P^, Plate LXI.,
extended, and at rightangles draw

rightangles
at
make an
to
AG
on
intersection on the lines
or parallel to the major-axis
mark
the width of rail
rail
on the
A B,
A K, A B
drawn
parallel to the line
A K, A B
lines
Any
extended with one-half of the width of the
diagonal lino
GE,
application, the
Either
the trammel, a
let
stuff
fall
may
way produces
the
mould
shown
sliding the
is
GL,
Fig. 2,
draw the
a radius
thus the plank
is
lines
rail.
Plate LXIII.; draw
A E,
of
Hca
Draw
quantity of straight
new and
beautiful
perpendiculars, then
rail,
MN
principle
rail
with
draw
AH
the lines
and C
AH
for
at rightangles to
A G,
lines.
AC
and
for centres,
A C,
and
give
wood may be added, and
is
Draw
shown.
on
each side of the major-axis
is
the given width
of
the
the
;
diagonal
cutting the
mould.
In
its
be cut square through or vertically, at the discretion of the workman.
same
result
at Fig. 4,
perfectly square
edge on the plank.
Plate LXIII., on which
will also
equally divided from
its
centre.
(138)
line
each
equal
Fig. 2,
drop perpendiculars to cut these
that the plumb-level makes through the plank with the centre line
mould;
oif
In order to determine the width of the mould on the major-
C.
and
set
to
Plate LXIII.,
these lines extended, cutting
G E,
to
taken
is
G C,
with half the width in the compasses, and
axis,
also
a tip
if
which gives the quadrant of the
intersection
the points that the trammel will pass through.

is
rail
transfer
This at once gives the exact quantity of the ellipses for the
shows the centre of the
from whicli the
quadrant,
tlie
major-axis, with
the
at the points of
draw
centre
This will not be required,
on the square edge of the plank according to the plumb-bevel
slid
is
Plate LXIII.
4,
ALK
the line
Ln
P S
to
the required bevel.
is
The manner of
be found half the distance
marked on the
edge of the
iPEL[t,iâfl
[DOXiCSBAKO
STTAiaiR liQPiliS
//r
yr-
--'
âjn""-
Sloari-ATch^
itoaenfihals XiEh phTla

.
GLOSSARY.
139
M.
Machicolations
Small
(in
charge of missiles upon the assailants.

in which case the ivholc
Mechanical Carpentry.
openings
an embattled parapet
in
for the dis-
Frequently these openings are beneath the parapet
brought forward and supported by corbels.
is
That
branch of carpentry which teaches the disposition of the timbers
according to their relative strength, and the strains to which they are subjected.
Medieval Architecture. The architecture of England, France, and Germany,

ages, including the Norman and early Goth'c styles.
Members.
The
different parts of a building
mouldings of a cornice,
during the middle
the different parts of an entablature
the different
etc.
The square space between two.

Mezzanine. A low story introduced between two
Minute. The
part of the diameter
a column.
Mitre. An angle of
degrees
the half
a
the entablature
resembling a
Modillion. An ornament
the
only
Module. The semi-diameter of a column.
As a semi-diameter
curved
square forms.
Mouldings. Those parts of an order which are shaped
Mutule. A projecting ornament of the Doric order which occupies the
of the
Metope.
''
principal stories.
of
sixtieth
forty-five
rightangle.
of
bracket.
richer orders,
of
in
it
thirty minutes.
consists of
into
or
place
modillion, in
imitation of the ends of rafters.
Mullion
(in
The
framework of a window.
N.
column,
Applied the unornamented surface of a
Nads,
Cella. That part of a temple within the
of
around which the
are turned.
Newel. The
cavity
a wall or other
Niche. A square
Naked.
wall,
to
or other part of a building.
walls.
or
steps
solid
or cylindrical
stairs
solid.
in
0.
slender frustum of a pyramid.
A
Octastyle. A building with eight columns
Cyma.
Ogee. The same
consisting of a
Order. An assemblage of
Corinthian,
the Tuscan, Doric,
orders there are
and the
Ordonnance. The arrangement of a
a quarter round, from
Ovolo. A moulding sometimes
Obelisk.
tall
in front.
as
base, shaft,
parts,
Ionic,
five
design,
called
circle.
When
sculptured
capital,
it
is
called an Echinus.
and entablature.
Of
the
and Composite.
disposition of its several parts.

its
profile being
the quadrant of a
PLATE
LXIII.
GEOMETRICAL STAIR-LINES. (Continued.)

Plate LXII. shows
be
will here
FC
extended to B.
To
centre of the
rail
at C,
Plate LXI.
make
Plate LXIII.
right line
EH
is
draw
the
tangent
the same as
line
RA
is
Pi
YK
draw
the joint
P I the
distance F P is
all
shown on Fig.
the last riser
4.
makes
YK
intersected
D E,
equal
at
rightangles
at
In this plate, the height of
height, which
the
is
the whole
to
draw
YX
to
the remainder of the
AB
distance
is
equal to two and a half
PE
from
drawing
shown
the semi-diameter of the
The
at
A B C D,
Fig. 1,
mould
is
the
common
extend
through
c,
the
the same as on
for the level part
face of the
Plate LXIII., and
position of the rail-landing
g h extended,
is
to
the semi-diameter of the raking mould,
the centre-joints are at rightangles with the

is
diameter;
parallel
is
its
e,
the
application
shown on Plate LXII.
plane or pitch-board
plank
the
the half of the
This makes the level balusters the same height as the long balusters on the steps.
riser.
In drawing the moulds, the centre of the
moulds are constructed.

curve
is
draw the intersection
the bevel, as applied to the level,

is
XZ
where
equal to
the
so nearly alike, that a brief description
explained as follows
is
line
intersection of the tangents at Y,
both ways to
Fig. 1,
difference
taken together on the
is
at the
risers
The only
sufficient.
both wreaths
The drawings are
the half-twist.
and
wreath-piece
as
is
rail
is
The wreaths, when sawed
we have adopted a centre line for
out, at
its
taken as a point to square from, which
moulds we disapprove
of,
down, and from
this, as
once give the outline of the required
formation, the centre of each

is
all
a basis, the
that
any workman
end of the
requires.
Falling
from the fact that their application to cylindrical surfaces, in nine cases
out of ten, produces a deformed and crippled curve.

(!40)
first laid
g>a,o&3giag|Di
ZRoseivt'ua'L s "Lxtli PiiiiA
GLOSSARY.
141
P.
edges
the grooves
A
board, having
a surrounding frame.
Parapet. A breastwork the defence around a
standing
Parastat^.
Pedestal. The substructure under a column
the pedestal
a column
the
and the cap
parts the
Pediment. The low
crowning ornament
a facade
over a
window,
Pend;
A vaulted roof without
Pendant;
A hanging ornament highly enriched vaulted
Pinnacle;
A small
ancients
express a building encompassed by columns, forming
Peripteral. A term used by
Panel.
thin
inserted in
its
of
terrace or roof.
insulated.
Pilasters
or wall
base,
or coi'nice.
die,
of
triangular
door,
in
(Gothic.)
(Gothic.)
or niche.
were an
roofs.
spire.
the
it
or
groining.
(Gothic.)
as
consists of three
of
aisle
to
around the
edifice.
In Greek and Roman houses, a

Perspective. The science which teaches how
Peristtlium.
court, square, or cloister.
and shades of a picture
to dispose the lines
so as
to represent on a plane the image of objects exactly as they appear in nature.
columns
a
A continued archway, supported by
windows of a
Pier. A
between the doors
a
engaged
Pilaster. A square
the
Pile. A stake
beam of timber driven firmly
Pillar. A column of irregular form, always disengaged, and deviating
Piazza.
pillars
wall.
in
pillar
the orders
earth.
into
or
hence
the difi'erence
portico.
building, etc.
or
solid
or
between a column and a
under the base of a column,

The square
other
the entrance of a church
Porch. An arched
denote the
Portico. A covered walk; more usually employed
Plinth.
from the proportions of
pillar.
pedestal, or wall.
solid
or
vestibule at
to
building.
projection before
a church or
temple, supported by columns.
Principal-Rafters.
The
two inclined timbers which support the
The contour of the

Projection. The prominence
Profile.
column, wall,
Proscenium.
different parts of
of
the
mouldings
roof.
an order.
and members beyond the naked surface of a
etc.
The
front part of the stage of a theatre.
A building temple with columns

timber framed horizontally
Purlins. Pieces
Prostyle.
in front only.
or
of
from the principals,
to prevent the deflection of
the intermediate or common-rafters.
Pycnosttle.
An
Pyramid. A
apex.
intercolumniation equal to one diameter and a half.
solid with
square, polygonal, or
triangular
base, terminating
in
a point
at
the
PLATE LXIV.
On
this plate is represented a
moulded architrave of the description usually employed
trimming of doors and windows, drawn

in
the
style
and character of
to one-half
finish,
its
and, as
of the
full
It
size.
is
may
a general example,
simple, yet
in the
effective
prove acceptable and
suggestive.
shows the plan of the architrave
upon the
DE
face of the jamb.
door
the position of the
of the wash-board moulding at the back of the architrave, of which, in
a part
and
the
manner
ing
and
G
in
its
which
is
and the manner

(142)
face
its
its
as
it
butts
is
the
to
scotia returns
section.
the rebate strip nailed
describes the mitre at the angle of the head
architrave.
FFF
continuation,
up and around the architrave, forming a part of
is
tongued in; and
the return
it
forms
denotes the face of the surbase and
the section of the wash-board
in which the surbase
its
its finish-
shows a portion of the
denotes the face of the wall.
floor
iPictkiJ
ow
r o
a--
ilo.-
^.
r:
'
'i
>
-L- J
i"
i ii
GLOSSARY.
143
a.
Quatrefoil;
Gothic
(in
circles, or
ai'cliitccture.)
An
The
tracery, consisting of four
segments of
convex part of Grecian mouldings, forming, where they recede at the
top, a reenticent angle with the surface
The
in
cusps within a circle.
QuiKK-MouLDiNGS.
Quoins.
ornament
which covers the moulding.
See Coins.
corners.
R.
Radius.
In
geometry,
the circumference
the semi-diameter of a cu-cle, or a right line drawn from the centre to
is
in mechanics, the spoke of a wheel.
In framing, the pieces that horizontal

mouldings, whose
Raking. A term applied
which the courses are
Reticulated-Work. That
Rails.
to the stiles.
lie
arrises are inclined to the horizon.
to
The
arranged in a net-like form.
in
stones are
square and placed lozengewise.

timber
An arched
Ridge. The top of the roof which
Relievo. The projection of an
stone
courses
Rustic. Applied
Rib.
sustaining the plaster-work of a vault, etc.
piece of
rises to
an acute angle.
architectural ornament.
of
to
surface
also,
work
left
or brick in which the
work
is
jagged out into an irregular
rough without tooling.
s.
Sagging.
The
deflection of a
body caused by
its
own weight, when suspended
horizontally from
bearings at either end.
its
usually vaulted; an apartment of

A
windows.
Sash. The wooden frame which secures the
those
of timber, usually applied
Scantling. A term
Saloon.
state, etc.
lofty hall,
glass in
to
for pieces
used in the framing of parti-
tions, roof-timbers, etc.
Scarfing.
Scotia.
The
The
joining and bolting of two pieces of timber together transversely.
name of a hollowed moulding,
principally used
between the
tori
in
the
base
of
columns.
Shaft.
That
part of a column which intervenes between the base and capital.
Shoulder. The
plane
transverse
to
the
length
of
piece
of
timber
projects.
Shutter.
The
framed paneling which shuts up the aperture of a window.
from which
the
tenon
PLATE LXV.
This
finish,
may
as
plate contains seven
drawn
designs for architraves
be applied with peculiar propriety in
many
instances
In the latter case they
examples.
suggestive
doors
to
and windows, of varied form and
and accompanied by portions of the corresponding wash-boards.
to full size,
may
and
in
These
others they will prove valuable
be enlarged or diminished at pleasure,
taking care, however, to proportion their mouldings accordingly.

Fig. 1
only the scotia of the surbase
Fig. 3 with 4,
board and
on the back, which receives the wash-board and
square
is
Fig. 2;
its
moulded on the back, and
is
8, has
exception that the
is
this
similar
finish
to
that
ovolo of the wash-board butts
Fig. 9 with
In
its
its
moulding.
architrave.
mouldings mitre with those of
the
wash-
square on the back, and finishes similarly to Figures 1 with 2.
6,
Fig. 7 with
On
continued around the
surbase.
Fig. 5 with
trave.
is
10,
the wash-board, with
example there
Fig. 11 with 12
there
is
is
its
shown on Figures 3 with

to
the
4,
with
the
single
the
archi-
square of the architrave.
mouldings, butts
to
the
back of
no surbase.
no surbase
the moulded wash-board
continues around the archi-
trave.
Fig. 18 with 14, only differs

(144)
from the preceding example in the form of the mouldings.
la
..
'^'JiX
r
^!'
Aiy
//,/
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I--.0. FJ-tla.
GLOSSARY.
Sill.
The
timber or
stone
The ground timbers which
bottom of a window or door.
the
at
145
support the posts of a frame.
Skirtings.
Soffit.
The
The
narrow boards which form a plinth around the margin of a

under part of a member
ceiling or
the larmier, or corona, in a cornice
The
lintel of
It
means,
also, the
under side of
the under side of that part of the architrave which does
See Lacunar.
not rest on the columns.
SoMMER.
an order.
in
floor.
a door, window, etc.
beam tenoned
into a girder to support the ends
of joists.
Spandrkl
(Gothic.)
The
space enclosed by one side of an arch, and
triangular
right angles to each other
one
and on a
horizontal
level
with
the
apex of
two lines at
the
arch,
the
other perpendicular, and a continuation of the line of the jamb.
Spiral.
curve line of a circular kind which in
STRETCHiNa-CotTRSE.
Bricks
or stones
laid
its
progress recedes from
its
centre.
with their longest dimensions in the hori-
in a wall
zontal line.
The mouldings immediately

Systyle. An intercolumniation equal
above the base of a room.
SuRBASE.
to
two diameters.
T.
member.
Any
T^Ni. A term usually applied
the
Templet. A mould used by bricklayers
Table.
surface or
flat
to
lastel
above the architrave, in the Doric order.
and masons
for
cutting or setting their work
a short
piece of timber sometimes laid under a girder.
Tenon.
piece of timber fitted to a mortise.
Tetrastyle.
Torus.
building having four columns in front.
moulding of semicircular form, used
Tracery;
(in
the bases of columns.
term for the intersection, in various forms, of the mullions
head of a window or screen.
in the
Transom;
(in
Gothic.)
Trefoil; (Gothic.)
Triglyph.
in
The
An
frieze
cross
muUion
in
a window.
The impost over a
ornament consisting of three cusps within a
door.
circle.
ornament in the Doric order, consisting of two whole and two half channels,
sunk triangularly on the plan.
Trimmer.
small
beam
into
which are framed the ends of several
joists.
The two
joists into
which the ends of the trimmer are framed are called trimming-joists.
Truss.
is
Tusk.
framed support used
in
roofs,
or to support floors,
when
the weight to be sustained
very considerable or the girders of great length.
level shoulder
Tympanum.
fillet
The
made above
a tenon, to strengthen
it.
space enclosed by the cornice of the sloping sides of a pediment, and the level
of the corona.
PLATE LXVI.
We
conclude
carefully designed
It
use
our
labors
present work
the
will
our last plate, twelve
this
full
size.
prove of essential service to the practical mechanic, for whose
work was more particularly designed.
this
by presenting, on
examples of moulded panelings for doors, drawn to half of the
hoped that these
is
in
It
be
will
seen
they are susceptible of
that
Being very distinctly arranged and shown, a brief descrip-
easy adaptation to particular forms.

tion will suffice.
Fig. 1 shows
Fig. 2
is
panel, with
its
to
a straight joint, as
stile.
on each sinking.
framed and paneled, with mouldings on
fillet
preferable
moulding planted against, and flush with the
its
a moulding
slightly varied, with
is
Fig. 3 has
which
a sunk
prevents
it
each
the unseemly
sinking
these
overlap,
appearance occasioned by
shrinkage.
Fig. 4
almost similar, differing only in the foi'm of
is
Fig. 5 has also a framed

flush with the
stiles,
Fig. 6 differs
Figs. 7 and 8
Figs. 9
;
(UO)
also
flush
and 12 have
extra strength
is
particularly for
in
this
the
case
largest,
and comes
sliding-door.
mouldings.
its
flllets,
and projecting
stile.
and 10 have
screwed together.
is
mouldings.
have sunk-panels, with the largest mouldings upon the
the latter being
Figs. 11
panel moulding
more
it
only in the form of
beyond the face of the
fillets
the
fillet;
which adapts
its
sunk-panels
with
their
the
fillets
This construction
required.
On
is
these
stile,
these
have
small
mouldings
on
their
panels
and
adapts them for sliding-doors.
framed
into
the
necessary when
stiles,
the
which are
doors
are
of
in
two
large
thicknesses,
dimensions,
examples the mouldings are bold and eSective.
or
sfijLSk'm
a am aioan Axcb.'
KosenthalsLiUiP-KiU
(JLOSSAUV
147
V.
Vault.
An
arched roof, so constructed that the stones or other materials of which

posed support and keep each other in their places.
Vermiculated Rustics.
Vestibule.
Vice;
(in
Volute.
An
ante-hall, lobby, or
Gothic.)
The
Stones worked
or tooled so as to appear as
if
it
is
com-
eaten by worms.
porch.
spiral staircase.
scroll in the Ionic capital.
w.
The
of walls; mostly paneled.
Wall-Plates. Pieces of timber
placed
form the supports
Well. The space occupied by a
of
the space
Wainscot.
lining
so
as to
flight
of the
steps, is
called
stairs;
left
to the roof of a building.

in the centre,
the well-hole.
z.
An ornament
ZoPHORUS. See
Zigzag.
Frieze.
so called
from
its
resemblance to the letter Z.
beyond the ends
GEOMETRICAL DEFINITIONS.
A
A
A
A
A
A
POINT
that which has neither length, breadth, nor thickness, but position only.
which has length, without breadth or thickness.
line is that
same direction between any two of
right or straight line preserves the
curve or curved line changes

surface
plane
any two of
a surface, such that, if
is
points.
direction at every point.
its
that which has length and breadth, without
is
its
any height or thickness.
points be joined
its
by a
straight line, that line
wholly in the surface.
will lie
When
side
is
one straight line meets another straight
any more than on the
formed
other, the angle
line,
without being inclined to
and the two
called a rightangle,
is
on the one
it
lines
are
said to be perpendicular to each other.
An
An
angle less than a rightangle
angle greater than a rightangle
A
A
tagon
polygon
one of
a nonagon
six,
trapezium
bus has
its
opposite
sides
is
a hexagon
its
one of four
sides,
one of seven, a heptagon
all
its
is
is
said
to
and
equal
and
irregular polygon
polygon
sides parallel
sides
parallel,
regular polygon
a quadrilateral which has no two of
opposite
square has
An
a triangle
is
by
all sides
lines.
a quadi-ilateral
one of
one of eight, an octagon
five,
a pen-
one of nine,
one of ten, a decagon.
which has two of
A
A
an obtuse angle.
is
a portion of a plane terminated on
is
polygon of three sides
lateral
an acute angle.
is
sides parallel
its
a parallelogram has
parallel
its
angles
not
its
a trapezoid
rightangles
a quadri-
is
opposite sides parallel
a rhom-
a rectangle
has
its
angles rightangles.
its
sides equal.
one whose sides and angles are equal to each other.

is
one whose sides and angles are not equal.
be inscribed in a circle when the vertices of
its
angles
in the cir-
lie
cumference.
A
which
circle
is
is
a portion of
a plane bounded on every side by a curved
equidistant from a point within, called the centre;
the centre to the circumference
on both
sides
chord
circle included
arc
and two
sect
it.
by the cu-cumference
is
between an arc and

radii
drawn
to
its
The circumference of
and the chord of 60
(148)
an arc
a right line which joins
observed that an angle of 45

angle;
the diameter
its
chord;
a circle
is
the radius
is
every point of
a right line drawn from
a line passing through the centre, and terminated
any part of the circumference.
is
the
extremities;
is
line,
extremity of an arc
a sector
a line
is
is
a segment
is
part of a
the
the part of a circle included between an
tangent to a circle which does not inter-
divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees
an angle of 60
is
the half of a rightangle
is
equal to the radius of the
circle.
is
it
will
be
two-thirds of a right-
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A SERIES OF DESIGNS FOE DOMES, ROOFS AND SPIRES,

THE FIVE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE,

A NUMBER OF USEFUL GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS,

WITH ARCHITRAVES, DOOR MOULDINGS,

THE WHOLE BEING

Siilg-si^ Car^fullg ^rcparcb plates,

ACCOMPANIED BY EXPLANATORY TEXT AND GENERAL ESSAYS, TO WHICH

APPENDED A COPIOUS GLOSSARY.

SAMUEL SLOAN, ARCHITECT,

STIBTTRBAN ARCHITECTURE," ETC.

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1859, by

work on Constructive Architecture suggested

idea of publishing a practical

author while engaged

suggestion was natural.

were teeming from the

mechanic would prove no

might well be supposed

have hitherto been published

extent, local and peculiar.

fewer are pos-

have been generally accustomed to consider foreign publi-

though possessing many things valuable

they were not designed

characterized this branch

works on every other branch of science

a volume specially designed to meet the wants of the practical builder or

sessed of any considerable degree of merit.

seasonable than useful.

cations as our standards;

preparation of the material for a large volume of architectural designs.

themselves, are yet not

elucidate methods of practice which are, to a considerable

improvement and invention which has of

ago have become obsolete, while numerous

methods and appliances are

terms in general acceptance a few

of which no mention can be found in the most recent of European authorities.

examples of forms generally esteemed the most useful

There has been no straining

yet reliable construction

creations of the ancients

have devoted much more space than

These are original and

Our numerous roof examples

to the illustration of those

Everything presented has been selected

and tested capability.

and are suggestive of many new

that pertains to the builder's art

usually given in works of similar character and pretension.

impressed with the importance of this subject to

connected with or engaged

the art of building,

building, been neglected.

more important parts of geometrical construction, as applied

While we have omitted many of the comparatively

this description usually

useless problems with

Sloan's Constructive Architecture

Sloan's Constructive Architecture