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REFERENCE
Muffler, L. J. P., Editor, 1979. Assessment of
Geothermal Resources of the United States 1978,
Geological Survey Circular 790, United States
Department of the Interior, 1979.
Sanyal, Subir K. and Steven J. Butler (2004),
National Assessment of U.S. Enhanced Geothermal
Resources Base A Perspective,
Trans.,
Geothermal Resources Council, Palm Springs,
California, Volume 28, August September, 2004,
pp 233-238.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author wishes to thank Allan Jelacic of DOE for
raising the issue of classification, the GEA for giving
the author the opportunity to prepare this white paper,
Steven Butler of GeothermEx for his generous
assistance in preparation of the graphics, authors
colleagues at GeothermEx for their critical review of
this paper, and the Board of Directors of GeothermEx
for financing this study.
Class of
Resource
Reservoir
Temperature
Mobile Fluid
Phase in
Reservoir
1. Non-electrical
Grade
< 100C
Liquid water
2. Very Low
Temperature
3. Low
Temperature
4. ModerateTemperature
100C to
< 150C
150C to
< 190C
190 to
< 230C
Liquid water
Liquid water
Liquid water
Production
Mechanism
Artesian selfflowing wells;
pumped wells
Fluid State at
Wellhead
Liquid water
Pumped wells;
self-flowing
wells (only at
the highertemperature
end of the
range)
Self-flowing
wells
Steam-water
mixture (initial
enthalpy equal to
that of saturated
liquid at
reservoir
temperature)
Pumped wells
Applicable
Power
Conversion
Technology
Unusual
Development or
Operational
Problems
Direct Use
Binary
Calcite scaling in
production wells
and stibnite
scaling in binary
plant are
occasional
problems
Single-stage
Flash; Two-stage
Flash; Hybrid
Calcite scaling in
production wells
occasional
problem;
alumino-silicate
scale in injection
system a rare
problem
Class of
Resource
5. High
Temperature
Reservoir
Temperature
230C to
< 300C
6. Ultra High
Temperature
300C+
7. Steam Field
240C (33.5
bar-a pressure;
2,800 kJ/kg
enthalpy)
Mobile Fluid
Phase in
Reservoir
Liquid water;
Liquiddominated twophase
Liquiddominated twophase
Steam
Production
Mechanism
Fluid State at
Wellhead
Self-flowing
wells
Steam-water
mixture (initial
enthalpy equal to
or higher than
that of saturated
liquid at
reservoir
temperature);
saturated steam
Self-flowing
wells
Steam-water
mixture (initial
enthalpy equal to
or higher than
that of saturated
liquid at
reservoir
condition);
saturated steam;
superheated
steam
Self-flowing
wells
Saturated or
superheated
steam
Applicable
Power
Conversion
Technology
Unusual
Development or
Operational
Problems
Single-stage
Flash; Hybrid
Silica scaling in
injection system;
occasionally
corrosion;
occasionally high
NCG content
Single-stage Flash
Direct steam
Occasionally high
NCG content or
corrosion or silica
particulate deposition
on turbine blades
Table 2. Distribution of Identified Hydrothermal Systems in the U.S. among the Resource Classes*
Reservoir
Temperature
No. of Identified
Systems
Reserves in Identified
Systems
134
8,000 MWe
3. Low Temperature
34
5,500 MWe
11
4,300 MWe
8,200 MWe
300C+
2,000 MWe
230C to 240C
1,000 MWe
188
29,000 MWe
Resource Class
4. Moderate Temperature
5. High Temperature
6. Ultra High Temperature
7. Steam Field
Total:
* Excluding systems in National Parks
Class
4
Liquid
Class
5
Class
3
100
300 OC
Class
2
Pressure (barabs)
Class
6
Class 7
(240 OC)
Class
1
230 OC
190 OC
10
Two-Phase
Vapor
150 OC
100 OC
Steam Fraction
0%
500
1000
1500
100%
2000
2500
3000
Enthalpy (kJ/kg)
Figure 1: Classification Scheme on Pressure-Enthalpy-Temperature Diagram for Water.
3500
Class 6
2000
1800
1600
1400
Class 5
1200
1000
Class 7
800
600
Class 4
400
200
Class 3
Class 2
0
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
275
300
325
350
375