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EVOLUTIONARYPRODUCT
DEVELOPMENTINWORKINGCLASS
HOUSING

ArthurO.Eger

SUMMARY
Thewellknowneconomicalproductlifecycledescribesthetypicalpatternofa
productsturnoverovertime.Althoughithasbecomeacentralconceptinproduct
developmentandmarketing,ithasseverepracticallimitations.Probablyoneofthe
mostimportantlimitationsisthatitisapurelyquantitative,descriptiverelationship.
Itdescribesthemostprobablepatternovertimeintherelativegrowthanddeclineof
thenumberssoldofasuccessfulproductfromitsincubenceuntilitsextinction,butit
doesnotsayanythingaboutthequalitativechangesthattheproductundergoes
duringthedifferentphasesofitslifecycle.Inotherwords:itisimpossibletoexplain
thenatureofaproductsrenewalorthechangeinusersdemandsandwishes
duringthedifferentphasesoftheproductlifecycle.Inthispaper,thesixphasesof
theproductlifecyclearecomplementedwithasetofsixqualitativeproductphases,
whichallowsustoexplaininwhatphasesoftheproductlifecyclefunctionality,
design,pricing,productiontechnology,promotionstrategiesandpresentation,as
wellastheservicelevelandthesocialbehaviourofacompanyareimportant.Itwill
beshownthat,toacertainextent,themodelcanbeusedinarchitecture.

INTRODUCTION
OnJanuary23of2007,IvisitedProfessorRichardFoquwhowasamemberof
myPhDcommitteetodiscussmythesisonEvolutionaryProductDevelopment
thatIwasgoingtodefendonMay29ofthatsameyear.Oneofthethingshe
remarkedduringthismeetingwas,thathethoughtitpossiblethatmytheorywould
bevalidinarchitectureaswell.TheinvitationtocontributetohisLiberAmicorum
formedanexcellentopportunitytostudythispossibility.Itbecamesoonclearthat
architecturewasaconceptionthatwastoowide,soIscaleditdowntoworking
classhousing.Industrialdesignershaveanumberofmethodsandtechniquesat
theirdisposalthatarehelpfulwiththeirdesigntask,butforsometasks(forinstance,
thechoicefortheoveralldirectioninwhichproductinnovationshouldproceed),
theyhavetorelyforalargepartonexperienceandintuition.Inanearlierstudy
(Eger,2007),itwasshownthatthiswayofworking,howeverseeminglyintuitive,
nonethelessdisplayscertainregularitiesthatcanbegeneralizedintoamodelofsix
consecutivequalitativeproductphases,inwhicheachphasecanbedescribedby

meansoftenproductcharacteristics.Generallyspeaking,productswillfollowthese
productphasesinthesameorder.Theaimofthemodelistoimproveinsightintoa
productslifecycle.

PRODUCTPHASES
Economicproductlifecycle
Theconceptofproductphasesisrelatedtotheeconomicproductlifecycle.Both
consistofsixphases.Thefirstphaseoftheproductlifecycle,productdevelopment,
shows(essentiallyR&D)costsoftheproductbeforeitsintroduction.Thesecond
phase,thepioneeringphase,startsimmediatelyaftertheproductislaunchedonthe
market.Iftheproductisnotrejected,agrowthphasewillsetin,leadingtoan
increasedturnover.Fromnowon,imitationbyotherproducerswillleadto
increasingcompetition.Nextcomesthematurityphase,characterizedbydecreasing
growthinsalesratesandtheeliminationofweakercompetitors.Duringthenexttwo
phases,saturationanddecline,turnoverwillreachitspeak,afterwhichsaleswill
decreaseinabsoluteterms.Thisiscaused,forinstance,bytheemergenceof
substituteproducts.Duringthelastphase,theproductwillgraduallydisappear.
Sometimesaresidualmarketwillremainandanotherphasewillfollow:ossification
[1].Itshouldbenotedthatmost,butnotallproductspreciselyfollowthispattern,
andthatthepatternitselfmaybeinfluencedbyallkindsofexternalfactors.For
example,themandatorywearingofsafetybeltsinthebackofcarsmayresultin
doublingsalesofsafetybeltsduringashortperiodoftime,eveniftheproductitself
hasreacheditsmaturityphase.

1.Theeconomicproductlifecycleandtheproductphases

Howqualitativeproductphasescanmapthestatusquoofaproduct
Introducingproductphasesopensupthepossibilitytoanalyzetherelationships
betweenthedifferentfieldsofindustrialdesignengineering:ergonomics,marketing,
constructionandstyling.Theformgivingofaproductcanbeanalyzedinrelationto
its(primaryandsecondary)functionality,itsergonomicqualities,itsproduction
technologyandthemarketingtechniquesthatareusedtoselltheproduct.To
demonstratethis,weproposesixqualitativeproductphasesperformance,
optimisation,itemisation,segmentation,individualisation,andawareness
complementarytothe(essentiallyquantitative)phasesoftheproductlifecycle[1,2].
Placedinchronologicalorder,amoreorlessgeneralpatternrevealsitself,which
enablestosomeextentthepossibilityofexplainingaproductsdevelopment.

2.Thesixproductphaseswiththeirproductcharacteristics.Tokeepthefiguresimple,theproduct
characteristicsareonlyshownattheItemisationphase

Eachproductphasecanbedescribedintermsoftenproductcharacteristicsofwhich
fourapplytotheproductitself;twoofthemtoitsmarket,andtheotherstoits
productiontechnology,itsmainpromotioninstruments,theservicesthat
accompanytheproductandtheethicalaspectsoftheproductinquestion.Theten
productcharacteristicsthatweproposeare:
1. Newness;
2. Functionality;
3. Productdevelopment;
4. Styling;
5. Numberofcompetitors;
6. Pricing;
7. Production;
8. Promotion;
9. Service;
10. Ethics.

CHARACTERISTICSOFTHEPRODUCTPHASES
Westatethateachofthesixproductphasesdisplaysatypicalpatternofproduct
characteristics.Inthissection,theseproductcharacteristicswillbemadeexplicitfor
eachproductphase.

Performance
Newproductsthatis:productsbasedonnewtechnologiesnormallysuffer
fromteethingtroublesforsometimewhentheyhavebeenputonthemarket.By
implication,improvementofprimaryfunctionality(i.e.,thetechnicalperformanceof
theproduct)isthemostimportantaspectofproductdevelopmentinthisphase.
Christensen(1997)statesthat,inthebeginning,newproducts(disruptive
innovations,ashecallsthem)performgenerallylesswellthantheproductsthey
willreplaceatalaterstage.Technicallynewproductsoftenstartasstatussymbols,
andusuallyperformworsethantheexistingalternatives.Thefirstcars,forexample,
weremuchlessreliablethanthecontemporaryhorsedrawncarriages,butdespite
theseshortcomings,somepeoplestillwantedtoownthem(Baudet1986).The
productcharacteristicsoftheproductphaseperformancecanbesummarizedas
follows(Eger,2007).Theproductistechnicallyspeakingnewandresultsfroma
technologypush.Theperformanceoftheproductisoftenpoor.Product
developmentisprimarilyaimedatimprovingtheperformance.Designinthe
limitedsenseofoverallformgivingisunimportant,andtherefore,product
aestheticsareofminorconcern.Theproductisputonthemarketbyamonopolistor
asmallnumberofheterogeneousoligopolists,socompetitionislow.Asa
consequence,thepriceperunitcanberelativelyhigh.Theproductisfrequently
producedbystandardmachineryequipment;itoftenhasmorepartsthanthe
numberthatwouldbetechnicallyfeasible,andassemblyismostlydonebyhand.
Theproductispromotedthroughfairs,freepublicityviapublicmedia,brochuresin
retailshops,etcetera.Thereisnoproperlyorganizedserviceorganizationsetupby
theproducer,andtheethicalbehaviouroftheproducingcompanyisofnoconcern
tothecustomer.

Optimisation
Inthesecondphase,productdevelopmentisbroadenedtoincludeergonomic
aspectsandissuesofreliabilityinuseandsafety.Theproductphaseoptimisationis
characterizedasfollows.Althoughtheproductistechnicallyspeakingstillnew,
consumerawarenessoftheproductstartstodevelop.Theperformanceofthe
productisreasonable,butproductdevelopmentisstillaimedatimproving
performance.Otheraspects,likeincreasedreliability,improvementofaspectsof
ergonomicsandsafetyarebecomingseriousconsiderations.Thenumberof
competitorsstartstogrow.Thepriceperunitisstillrelativelyhigh,butincreasing
competitioncreatesatendencytowardslowerprices.

Itemisation
BothWindermereAssociates(Christensen,1997)andMannandDewulf(2002)find
that,whenproducershaveimprovedtheirproducttothepointthattheysatisfy
generallyacceptedstandardsoffunctionalityandreliability,theedgeofcompetition
shiftstoconvenience.Buyerswillpreferthoseproductsthatarethemostconvenient
touseandespeciallyinthebusinesstobusinessmarketsellersthatare
convenienttodealwith.Withmassproducedproducts,personalsellingbecomes
impossible.Thegrowthofthemarketislessthan5%andthenumberofcompetitors
increases.Astheproductrangegrows,pricesfallandpromotioncostsincrease.
Communicationchannelschangefrompersonalsellingstrategiestodirect
marketing,and(paid)print,TVandradioadvertising.Productdevelopmentis
aimedatimprovingperformance,reliability,ergonomics,humaninterfacesand
safety.Anendeavoursetsintodevelopextrafeaturesandaccessories,including
specialeditionsoftheproductthataredevelopedfordifferenttradechannelsand
targetgroups.Designbecomesmoreimportant,andproductaestheticsbecomea
majorconcern.Thenumberofcompetitorsisstillgrowing,butthemarkethas
usuallynotyetdevelopedintoaperfectlycompetitivemarket(homogeneous
polypoly).Thenumberofproductpartsdecreases,andmechanicand/orautomatic
assemblybecomesmoreimportant.Ifneeded,wellorganizedserviceorganizations
aresetuptosupporttheproduct.

Segmentation
Inthefirstthreeproductphases(i.e.,performance,optimisationanditemisation)the
focuswasonimprovedfunctionality,reliability,ergonomicsandsafety.An
endeavourtoaddextrafeaturesandaccessoriesinordertodifferentiatetheproduct
fromitscompetitors,setsinsomewhereinthethirdstage.However,thereisanend
tothiskindofdevelopments.Actually,therecomesatimewhentheperformance
offeredisactuallymorethantheperformancerequired.Forrelativelyuncomplicated
products,suchasfurnitureandtrinkets,thepossibilitiestoaddfeaturesor
accessoriesarelimited.Moreover,forinnovatorsandearlyadopters,products
becomelessattractiveduringthelatterproductphases.Themarketshareissuch,
thattheproductisconsideredtobeaccepted.Owningtheproductisnolonger
distinctive,asitdoesnotofferanyformofstatus.Addingemotionalbenefitstoa
productisnowapossibility.

Characteristicsoftheproductphasesegmentationare:almostallmembersofthe
targetgroupknowtheproductfromtheirownexperienceorhaveatleastheardof
it.Astheproduct,technicallyspeaking,entersthedomainofsomedominant
design(or,alimitednumberofdominantdesigns),productdevelopmentisaimed
ataddingextrafeaturesandaccessories,includingspecialeditionsoftheproductfor
differenttradechannelsandtargetgroups.Designhasreachedastageofcomplete
integrationofthedifferentpartsoftheproductintoacompletelyunifiedand
recognizableformanddesignfocusshiftsfromformgivingpropertoexpressive

features,aimedatincreasingemotionalbenefits.Themarketapproachesperfect
competition.Aspricesapproachaveragetotalcosts,pricedecreasescometoahalt.
Promotionandadvertisingareoftenintensiveandcostly,byintensiveadvertisingin
variousmassmedia.

Individualisation
Extrapolationofsegmentation(continuousfinetuningofproductsoneversmaller
targetgroups)ultimatelyleadstoaproductwelltunedupononeindividual.Recent
developmentsininformationandproductiontechnologymakethiskindof
individualisationevenmorepossible.Thesedevelopmentsimplythefollowing
changesincharacteristicsintheproductphaseindividualisation.Inordertomake
theproductdiscerniblefromitscompetitors(i.e.toescapeinsomewayfromthe
dominantdesign),productdevelopmentisaimedatextrafeaturesandaccessories,
includingspecialeditionsoftheproductfordifferenttradechannelsandtarget
groups,andontopofthat,deliberatelygearedtomasscustomisationandco
creation,allowingthecustomertoinfluencethefinalresult.Themarketstartstoshift
fromahomogeneouspolypolyintoaheterogeneouspolypoly.Althoughprices
approachaveragetechnicalproductioncostsofthedominantdesign,cocreationand
masscustomisationofferpossibilitiestorealizehigherprices.Interactivemediaare
usedtocustomisetheproducttotheneedsoftheindividualcustomer.Theethical
behaviouroftheproducingcompanystartstobecomeofsomeimportancetothe
customer.

Aproblemwiththisproductphaseisthatindividualisationisnotpossibleforeach
product.Complicatedproducts,suchascars,arealreadycustomisedtosomeextent,
butchoicesofarislimited.AsystemwherebyacustomercansubmitaRALnumber
forthedesiredcolourofhiscarhasyettobedeveloped.Forlesscomplicated,low
pricedandmassproducedproducts,suchasdiaries,spectaclecases,writing
utensils,etc.,possibilitiesareevenmorelimitedalthoughitispossibletoorder
theseproductswithonesownnameprintedonthem,forexample.

Awareness
In1997,marketresearchbureauInter/Viewstudiedaspectsofsocalledresponsible
entrepreneurship(Sikkema,1997).Theresultssuggestedthatconsumersarewilling
tocontributetoabetterenvironmentandarewillingtohelpsolvingsocietal
problemsbychangingtheirconsumptionpatterns,butonlyifthiscanbedone
withoutmucheffort,andonlyifitdoesnotleadtodecreaseofconsumersatisfaction
andtoanincreaseinfinancialburden.Ontheotherhand,thisresearchalsoshowed
thatpeopledoexpectcompaniestoplayanactiveroleinsolvingcommonsocietal
problems.AccordingtoHafkamp(1997),acompanycansuccessfullytempt
consumersespeciallythosewhoarecommittedtopurchasingluxuryproducts
byofferingthemthepossibilitytoshowtheirethicalinvolvementbyacquiring
productsthatclaiminsomewaytobemoreenvironmentallyorsociallybeneficial

thantheircompetitors.Thisleadstoslightchangesinthecharacteristicsofthelast
productphase,awareness.Theadditionofextrafeaturesandaccessories,including
specialeditionsoftheproductfordifferenttradechannelsandtargetgroups,has
notstopped,butbecomesofsecondaryconcern.Designisfocuseduponthe
enhancementofexpressivefeatures,aimedatincreasingemotionalbenefits,but
whenthesebenefitsstarttoincludeethicalconcerns,thiscanleadtoasuddenleap
intoasceticandsoberforms.Themarketapproachesaheterogeneouspolypoly.Co
creationandmasscustomisationofferpossibilitiestorealizehigherprices.This
tendencyisreinforcedevenmorebyproductclaimsonsocietalandenvironmental
issues.Theproducingcompanyexplicitlycommunicatescompanyethicsinits
promotioncampaigns.Theethicalbehaviouroftheproducingcompanydoes
influencetosomeextentconsumerschoices.Thecompanycanforinstancebe
successfulwithproductsthatbecomemoreattractiveduringuse(positiveaging).

WORKINGCLASSHOUSING
Inthissection,aretrospectivecasesurveyofworkingclasshousingintheUK,
Belgium(Socialewoningbouw)andtheNetherlands(Volkshuisvesting)willbe
described.TheUKwaschosenbecausetheproblemhousingmanypeoplethat
cametothecitiesaftertheindustrialrevolutionstartedthere.Belgiumwaschosen
becauseRichardFoqulivesthere,andtheNetherlandswerechosenbecauseIlive
there,whichmeanstheinformationwaseasytoaccess.Itissupposedthatthe
historyinothercountrieswillnotdiffermuch,butthishasnotbeenverified.

Performance
Oneoftheconditionsofthetheoryofproductphasesisthatthereiscompetition.
BeforethePublicHealthActof1848,workingclasshousingwas,inthedoctrineof
laissezfaire,lefttothefreemarket.Tarn(1973)describesthesituationinthecitiesin
Englandasfollows.

Englandledtheindustrialrevolution,itstownswerelargeranduglierthanthoseofanyothercountry,they
werefilledwithgreatmillsandfactoriesbelchingforthacridsmokeandfumes.()Now,forthefirsttime,they
constitutedaseparaterecognisableandarticulateclass,livingtogetherinwelldefinedghettoseithernewlyrun
upbyspeculativebuildersaroundthegatesoftheworks,orinoldcourtstakenoverandoveroccupied()to
leavethetownwaslikeescapingfromhellitself.(Tarn,1973,p.xiii)

Bymidcentury,townswereplacesofpoverty,illhealth,disease,inadequatewater
supplies,nonexistentdrainageandgarbagecollection.Theseverityofthesituation
speaksfromanofficialaccountbyacitymissionary.

Onmydistrictisahousecontainingeightrooms()theparlourmeasures18ft.by10ft.()inthisoneroom
slept,onthenightprevioustomyenquiry,27maleandfemaleadults,31children,andtwoorthreedogs,
makinginall58humanbeingsbreathingthecontaminatedatmosphereofacloseroom.(Hansard,1851)

3.TheBagniggeWellsestate,thefirstdevelopmentoftheS.I.C.L.C.Architect:HenryRoberts.(Source:Tarn,
1973)

ThelargequantityofhousesthatwerebuiltinEnglandinthisperiodresultedfrom
speculativedevelopmentsthatweremostofthetimestotallyuncontrolled.
Before1850,therewereafewexamplesofpublicconcern,financedfrom
philanthropyandoftenfosteredbyasenseofguilt.AnexamplewastheBagnigge
Wellsestate,builtbytheSocietyforImprovingtheConditionsoftheLabouring
Classes[3].

Thehistoryofpublichousing(Volkshuisvesting)inBelgiumstartedhalfwaythe
nineteenthcentury.Citiesweregrowingrapidlyduetotheindustrialrevolution.

ThenumberofinhabitantsofBrussels(anditssurroundings)grewfrom260.000in
1850to760.000in1900(DePauw,2006).Theconsequencewasanenormoushousing
shortage.In1868,agroupofprivatepersonsstartedacharitableorganizationthe
SocitAnonymedesHabitantsOuvriresdanslAgglomrationBruxelloisethat
builtworkingclasshousinginSintGillis,Anderlecht,Vorst,Molenbeekand
Schaarbeek[4].In1889,thefirstLawofPublicHousingwaspassed.Basedonthis
lawitwaspossibletolendmoneyatalowrateofinterest.Thankstothislaw,over
60.000ratherbasichousingswerebuiltinBelgium,between1890and1914.

IntheNetherlands,thedevelopmentofpublichousingstartedwiththehousingact
(Woningwet)of1901.Thislawwasananswertothemiserablesituationinthe
workingclassquartersattheendofthenineteenthcentury(Anon,2001).The
motivationbehindthislawwasmainlythepublichygiene.Atfirstonlysmall
changeswerecarriedoutinthehousesthatwereconstructed.Itwasnolonger
allowedtobuildplaceswithoutfreshair,suchasalcovesandcupboardbeds.Inthe
firstyearsafterthepassageofthelaw,onlyfewhouseswerebroughtabout.Itoften
dependedonthepersonaleffortsofcivilservantsorstatesmenwhetheritwas
possibletobuild.Theappearanceofthehouseswassoberandtraditional.Tothe
extentthattheperformanceoftheproductwasoftenpoor,andthatpriceswere
relativelyhigh,workingclasshousingfollowedthetheoryofproductphases.One
canevensaythatitresultedfromatechnologypush,althoughitwasnotoneinthe
buildingindustry,butitwastheindustrialrevolutionitself.Therequestforhousing
wassohigh,thatanysquaremetercouldbeusedandthatpeoplerentingthem
couldbe(andwere)exploited.

4.Linthoutwijk,Schaarbeek(1870).(Source:DePauw,2006)

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Optimisation
OnMarch30,1847,LordMorpethintroducedthefirstversionofthePublicHealth
ActintheUK.TheBillshowedevidenceofhastypreparationandfacedarough
passage.OnJuly8,thegovernmentwithdrewtheBill.Thefollowingyear,on
February10,MorpethintroducedarevisedBill,whichwasintendedtohave
amongstothersthefollowingeffect:tomakepublicsewers,torequireownersor
occupierstoprovidehousedrains,tocleansestreets,tocleanse,coverorfillup
offensiveditches,toprovidesufficientsupplyofwater,toalterdrains,privies,water
closets,andcesspoolsbuiltcontrarytotheAct,tomakebyelawswithrespecttothe
removaloffilth,andtheemptyingofprivies.ThebattleforthepassageofthisBill
wasasgreatasinthepreviousyear.Duringthedebate,thefollowing,rather
shockingpassageappearedinTheEconomist.

Inourcondition,sufferingandevilarenaturesadmonitions;theycannotbegotridof;andtheimpatient
attemptsofbenevolencetobanishthemfromtheworldbylegislation,beforebenevolencehaslearnedtheirobject
andtheirend,havealwaysbeenmoreproductiveofmoreevilthangood.(TheEconomist,1848)

AlthoughtheBillwaspassed,itshouldbeemphasizedthatthedegreeofsuccess
wassmall.Until1875,mostbuildingsforworkingclasshousingthatwerebetterin
thesensethattheywerewellbuilt,hadgoodventilation,drainage,andanample
supplyofwaterandweresometimesdesignedbyanarchitect,wereinitiativesfrom
(personal)charity,orfromorganisationsliketheS.I.C.L.C.However,in1890,Tarn
(1973)speaksofhouseswithavarietyoftypesandstandardsofaccomodation()onthe
groundfloorwereshopswithlivingaccommodationarrangedinthereararoundsmall
yards.(Tarn,1973,p.101).Thebuildingsbecamemorevisuallyattractiveandthere
wereexperimentswiththefaades.Forinstance,castironbalconieswere
constructedtoavoidthemonotonousregularityofthebarracklikebuildingsof
earlierdecades.After1905,somearchitectsadoptedamodifiedclassicstyleinan
attempttogetawayfromtheratherponderousandoppressivequalityoftheearlier
housingblocks.

The1920swerethemostimportantyearsfortheworkingclasshousinginBelgium.
Inthisperiod,gardenquarters,suchasLogisFloralinWatermaalBosvoorde[5],
CitModerneinSt.AgathaBerchem,andKapelleveldinSt.LambrechtsWoluwe,
werebuilt,butalsocheap,compactbuildingsinthecitycentresemerged.Butfrom
1926on,thebuildingactivitiesslacked,becausetheconstructionofgardenquarters
wasconsideredtobetooexpensive,andtoconsumetoomuchspace.Another
reasonwasthattheliberalgovernmentstrivedforprivatepossessionofhouses(De
Pauw,2006).

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5.Floral,WatermaalBosvoorde.(Source:DePauw,2006)

IntheNetherlands,thehousingconstructionalmostcompletelystoppedduringthe
FirstWorldWar.Whentheconstructionofbuildingsstartedagain,thegovernment
exertedalotofinfluence.Typicalprojectswerelargescalebuildingblocks.
ExamplesarethebuildingsofBerlageinAmsterdam,VanElmptinGroningenand
thefirstbuildingsoftheAmsterdamSchool[6].Themostimportantaspectwasnot
thefloorplan,butthefaadeandthewayitmatcheditssurroundings.Duringthe
depression,thenumberofprojectsdecreased,buttwoimportantdevelopments
startedjustthen:rowbuildingandmultistoreybuilding.Bothdevelopmentswere
continuedafterthewar,butbecauseofthepoorqualityofthesebuildings,many
havebeenbroughtdownorthoroughlyrenovated.

Itemisation
ItlookslikethatinthebeginningofthetwentiethcenturyinEngland,adominant
designbecamediscernible:acottagewithtwolevels,threebedroomsand,forthe
largertypes,abathroom.

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6.HetSchip,Spaarndammerbuurt,Amsterdam,architect:M.deKlerk(Illustration:MichielWijdeveld)

Developmentcontinueduntil1911,butlatterlythedemandwasforsmallerhousesatrentswhichthepoorest
classcouldafford,sinceprivateenterprisecateredveryadequatelyfortheartisanwhocouldaffordanormal
housewiththreebedrooms.(Tarn,1973,p.138)

Inthe1950sintheNetherlands,theemphasiswasincreasinglyputonbuildingfast
andcheap,aswellasbuildingasmanyhousesaspossible.Thekeywordswere
increaseinscaleandstandardisation.Completeresidentialneighbourhoodswere
setup,includingplaygroundsandparksforrecreation.Thistendencycontinuedin
the1960s.Inthisperiod,largescaleprojectssuchastheBijlmermeer(Amsterdam)
andHoogCatharijne(Utrecht)weredeveloped(Anon,2001).Theresultwas
uniformity.Architectsstartedtobreakthroughthistrendbytryingtocreate
withinthelimitspostulatedbytheDutchrulesvariationsbydesigningunusual
housingtypes,bycreatingpublicgardensandbyadjustingtheplanoftheareato
theexistingsituation.

Segmentation
Alreadyin1885thereissomeawarenessofsegmentation.Tarn(1973)mentionsa
publicationthatsays:wemusttaketheworkingclassasofvariousdegrees;the
upper,middleandlowerofthelabouringclasses.

Inthe1970s,theattentiononthecontinentshiftstomoreattentiontothe
individual.Thedevelopmentprojectsbecomesmaller.TheDutchgovernment
makesfundsavailableforexperimentalbuilding.Inpublichousing,experimentsare
carriedoutwithregardtothedesignanduseofmaterials.ExamplesareKasbah(in
Hengelo)andtheBolwoningen(insHertogenbosch)[7].Suitablehousingis
developedforelderlypeople,forsinglesandforsmallfamilies.InBelgiumthe

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numberofworkingclasshousingseemstoremainlow,althoughitisdifficulttofind
detailedinformation(DeMeyer,R.enM.Smets,1982)[8].

7.Sphericalhouses(Bolwoningen)builtinsHertogenboschin1985.Architect:DriesKreijkamp

8.ThenumberofprivatehousescomparedtothenumberofpublichousesbuiltinBrussels
between1989and2004.(Source:DePauw,2006)

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9a.Two(originallyidentical)housingblocksinEnschede

Individualisation
Attheendofthenineteenthcentury,alreadythefirstsignsofindividualizationcan
beperceived.

TheidentityoftheindividualhadbeenlostinaGeorgianterracebehindreticent,similarfaades,designedto
produceaharmoniousstreetorsquare,ratherthantoglorifytheseparatenessofeachhouse.Therisingclass
whopossessedthemoneytoownandbuildsuchhouseswerenownolongercontentwiththisreticence;they
requiredthattheirsocialadvancementshouldbemoreostentatiouslyparadedbyashowyindividualistichouse.
(Tarn,1973,153)

IntheNetherlandsinthe1980sand90s,moreattentionispaidtoarchitecture.The
consequencesoftheenergycrisisoftheseventiesbecomenoticeableinbuilding
projects.Inmanyprojects,bothprivateandsocialhousesareeffectedtocreatea
goodsocialmixofresidents.Therisingcostsofthesocialtenementhousesare
compensatedbythebenefitsoftheprivatehouses.Anewdevelopmentisthe
buildingofshellsthatoffertheinhabitantstoinfluencetheplanoftheirfuturehome.
ItlookslikethereisalmostacenturybetweenindividualizationinEnglandandin
theNetherlands.Figure9makesitveryclearthatthewishtoindividualiseones
houseexists[9a,b].

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InrecentyearsintheNetherlands,wildbuilding(HetWildeBouwen)hasbeen
introduced.Anythinggoesincertainareas,aslongaspeoplesticktothelegal
regulationsconcerningconstruction,ventilation,isolation,etc.Roombeek(in
Enschede)isanexampleofsuchanarea[10].

Awareness
Asalreadymentionedintheprevioussection,theenergycrisesledtorenewalinthe
buildingofhouses,forexamplebyisolationandotherenergysavingmeasures.
Inthelastdecadeofthetwentiethcentury,specialgreenbuildingquarters
(Milieuwijken)weredevelopedintheNetherlands.ExamplesaretheEcowijkinthe
districtWesterpark(Amsterdam)[11]andOikos(inEnschede).

CONCLUSIONS
Themarketofprivateandsocialhousingisdifferentinseveralwaysfromthe
marketofproducts.Firstofall,thereisthelocationofthehouse.Thisisanaspect
thatisnotrelevantforproducts,butveryimportantwithhouses.Itmeans,for
instance,thatpeoplesometimesdonthavemuchtochooseunlesstheyarewillingto
acceptlongtravellingdistancestoandfromtheirwork.Then,therearemore
governmentalrulesandregulationsforhousingthanformostotherproducts.And
finally,itiseasytoindividualiseahouse;mostofthetimeseasierthanto
individualiseaproduct.Despiteallthesedifferences,onthebasisofthislimited
study,itcanbeconcludedthatitlooksliketheproductphasesalsoappearin
workingclasshousing.Asisthecasewithmostproducts,thefindingsrevealthatit
isdifficulttodrawafinelinebetweentheendofoneproductphaseandthe
beginningofthenext,andthatsomeproductphasesoverlaponeanotherforlong
periodsoftime.Itwouldbeinterestingtofurtherstudytheproductcharacteristics,
andtoinvestigateifthetheoryappliesforinstancetobusinesspremisesas
well.

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9b.andwhatpeopledidtoindividualisethem

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10.ExamplesofHetWildeBouweninRoombeek,Enschede

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10.ExamplesofHetWildeBouweninRoombeek,Enschede

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11.ThegreenbuildingquarterWesterparkinAmsterdam.Urbanarchitect:KeesChristiaans

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
IwouldliketothankthearchitectPieterDurieuxforhelpingmefindmywayinthe
literatureonarchitecture,andFleurvanOosterzeeandLauraLeeforturningmy
translatedDutchintoEnglish.

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