Artificial Recharge of Groundwater

Technical Description
Artificial recharge is the planned, human activity of augmenting the amount of groundwater
available through works designed to increase the natural replenishment or percolation of surface
waters into the groundwater aquifers, resulting in a corresponding increase in the amount of
groundwater available for abstraction. Although the primary objective of this technology is to
preserve or enhance groundwater resources, artificial recharge has been used for many other
beneficial purposes. Some of these purposes include conservation or disposal of floodwaters,
control of saltwater intrusion, storage of water to reduce pumping and piping costs, temporary
regulation of groundwater abstraction, and water quality improvement by removal of suspended
solids by filtration through the ground or by dilution by mixing with naturally-occurring
groundwaters (Asano, 1985). Artificial recharge also has application in wastewater disposal,
waste treatment, secondary oil recovery, prevention of land subsidence, storage of freshwater
within saline aquifers, crop development, and streamflow augmentation (Oaksford, 1985).
A variety of methods have been developed and applied to artificially recharge groundwater
reservoirs in various parts of the world. Details of these methods, as well as related topics, can be
found in the literature (e.g., Todd, 1980; Huisman and Olsthoorn, 1983; Asano, 1985; CGWB,
1994). The methods may be generally classified in the following four categories (Oaksford,
1985):
(1) Direct Surface Recharge Technique (ASANO, 1985).
(2) Direct Subsurface Recharge Technique.
(3) Combination surface-subsurface methods, including subsurface drainage (collectors with
wells), basins with pits, shafts, and wells.
(4) Indirect Recharge Techniques.
Direct surface recharge techniques are among the simplest and most widely applied methods. In
this method, water moves from the land surface to the aquifer by means of percolation through
the soil. Most of the existing large scale artificial recharge schemes in western countries make
use of this technique which typically employs infiltration basins to enhance the natural
percolation of water into the subsurface (Dewan Mohamed et al., 1983). Field studies of
spreading techniques have shown that, of the many factors governing the amount of water that
will enter the aquifer, the area of recharge and length of time that water is in contact with soil are
the most important (Todd, 1980). In general, these methods have relatively low construction
costs and are easy to operate and maintain. Direct subsurface recharge techniques convey water
directly into an aquifer. In all the methods of subsurface recharge, the quality of the recharged
water is of primary concern. Recharged water enters the aquifer without the filtration and
oxidation that occurs when water percolates naturally through the unsaturated zone.

Direct subsurface recharge methods access deeper aquifers and require less land than the direct
surface recharge methods, but are more expensive to construct and maintain. Recharge wells,
commonly called injection wells, are generally used to replenish groundwater when aquifers are
deep and separated from the land surface by materials of low permeability. All the subsurface
methods are susceptible to clogging by suspended solids, biological activity or chemical
impurities. Recharge wells have been used to dispose of treated industrial wastewaters, to add
freshwater to coastal aquifers experiencing saltwater intrusion, and to force water under pressure
into permeable bedrock aquifers to arrest land subsidence resulting from extensive withdrawals
of groundwater, although with variable success (CGWB, 1994). In many places, including the
United States, Japan and Thailand, the use of injection wells is still considered experimental
(Dewan Mohamed et al., 1983).
Combinations of several direct surface and subsurface techniques can be used in conjunction
with one another to meet specific recharge needs.
Indirect methods of artificial recharge include the installation of groundwater pumping facilities
or infiltration galleries near hydraulically-connected surface waterbodies (such as streams or
lakes) to lower groundwater levels and induce infiltration elsewhere in the drainage basin, and
modification of aquifers or construction of new aquifers to enhance or create groundwater
reserves. The effectiveness of the former, induced recharge method depends upon the number
and proximity of surface waterbodies, the hydraulic conductivity (or transmissivity) of the
aquifer, the area and permeability of the streambed or lake bottom, and the hydraulic gradient
created by pumping. Using the latter technique, aquifers can be modified by structures that
impede groundwater outflow or that create additional storage capacity. Groundwater barriers or
dams have been built within river beds in many places, including India, to obstruct and detain
groundwater flows so as to sustain the storage capacity of the aquifer and meet water demands
during periods of greatest need. Construction of complete small-scale aquifers also seems
feasible (Helweg and Smith, 1978). Notwithstanding, indirect methods generally provide less
control over the quantity and quality of the water than do the direct methods.
Extent of Use
The concept of artificial recharge has been known for a long time. The practice began in Europe
during the early nineteenth century. However, the practice has rarely been adopted on a large
scale, with most large scale applications being found in countries such as the Netherlands,
Germany, and USA (Dewan Mohamed et al., 1983). Israel transports 300 million cubic metres of
water annually from north to south through the National Water Carrier System and stores twothirds of it underground (Ambroggi, 1977). The water is used to meet high summer demands and
offers a reliable source of supply during dry years. On the North Plain of China, which is prone
to droughts, water from nearby streams is diverted into underground storage areas with capacities
of about 500 million cubic metres. Several counties in Hebei Province are using artificially
recharged aquifers to combat sinking water tables (Widstrand, 1978). In India, subsurface
storage has caught on as a way of providing a reliable source of irrigation water. A number of
artificial recharge projects have been carried out in that country (CGWB, 1994) (see Case
Studies, Chapter 5).

Operation and Maintenance

To ensure the effective and efficient operation of an artificial recharge system, a thorough and
detailed hydrogeological study must be conducted before selecting the site and method of
recharge. In particular, the following basic factors should be considered: the locations of
geologic and hydraulic boundaries; the transmissivity, depth to the aquifer and lithology, storage
capacity, porosity, hydraulic conductivity, and natural inflow and outflow of water to the aquifer;
the availability of land, surrounding land use and topography; the quality and quantity of water to
be recharged; the economic and legal aspects governing recharge; and the level of public
acceptance.
Level of Involvement
Because of the technical complexity involved in siting and regulating artificial recharge, this
technology is generally implemented at the governmental level.
Costs
Rushton and Phadtare (1989) describe artificial recharge pilot projects in both alluvial and
limestone aquifers in Mehsana area of Gujarat, India. Recharge was accomplished using
spreading channels, percolation tanks and injection wells. Table 11 presents a summary of the
initial and operational costs for the various schemes. The most expensive scheme, an injection
well feeding an alluvial aquifer, had initial and operating costs per unit volume of recharged
water of $100/m3.
TABLE 11. Costs of Various Artificial Recharge Schemes in India ($/m3).
Artificial Recharge Structure

Initial Cost

Running Cost

Injection well (alluvial area)

100

100

Spreading Channel (alluvial area)

10

Percolation Tank (alluvial area)

Injection well (limestone area)

21

Spreading Channel (limestone

area)

It is apparent from Table 11 that injection wells in hard rock areas are less expensive since they
tend to be shallower and have a lesser risks of clogging. Percolation tanks appeared to be least
expensive in terms of initial construction costs; this would be the case in areas where the tanks
already exist. In such cases, the initial cost only involves the cleaning of the bed of the tank. For
economic reasons, the main uses of artificially recharged water are likely to be providing water
for domestic needs, industry and environmental conservation. Because of its relatively high cost,
recharged water is not generally suited for irrigation for a total crop, but it can be used to provide
supplemental irrigation water for rain-fed crops or to provide additional water to crops at a
crucial growth stage during periods of water shortage. As a general rule in this regard,

groundwater must be efficiently used and effectively applied such that the net benefits from its
use are maximized over time. Guidelines for the socio-economic and financial appraisal of
artificial recharge projects in developing countries, necessary to assess these net benefits, are
provided by CGWB (1994).
Suitability
Groundwater recharge methods are suitable for use in areas where aquifers exist. Typically,
unconfined aquifers are recharged by surface injection methods, whereas confined aquifers are
generally recharged through subsurface injection. Surface injection methods require relatively
flat or gently sloping lands, while topography has little effect on subsurface recharge methods.
Aquifers best suited for artificial recharge are those which can absorb and retain large quantities
of water. In temperate humid climates, the alluvial areas which are best suited to artificial
recharge are areas of ancient alluvium, the buried fossil river-beds and interlinked alluvial fans
of their main valley and tributaries. In the arid zone, recent river alluvium may be more
favourable than in humid zones. In these areas, the water table is subject to pronounced natural
fluctuations. Surface recharge methods are best suited to these cases. Coastal dunes and deltaic
areas are also often very favourable areas for artificial recharge schemes. Dense urban and
industrial concentrations in such areas may render artificial recharge schemes desirable,
generally using subsurface recharge wells to inject surface water into the aquifers.
When the quantity and availability of recharge water is highly variable, such as in an intermittent
stream, any of the surface application methods are suitable. Basin and pit techniques have the
greatest advantages because they can be designed to accommodate expected flood flows. In
contrast, shafts and wells have little storage capacity and, therefore, require a more uniform
supply of water. Indirect methods, such as induced recharge, are virtually unaffected by changes
in surface water flows because the rate of recharge is controlled by extraction rates (Oaksford,
1985).
The physical, chemical and biological quality of recharge water also affects the selection of
recharge method. If suspended solids are present, surface application techniques tend to be more
efficient than subsurface techniques where they can result in clogging of injection wells. It is also
important that the recharge water be chemically compatible with the aquifer material though
which it flows and the naturally occurring groundwater to avoid chemical reactions that would
reduce aquifer porosity and recharge capacity. Toxic substances must not be present in the
recharge water unless they can be removed by pretreatment or chemically decomposed by a
suitable land or aquifer treatment system. Similarly, biological agents, such as algae and bacteria,
can cause clogging of infiltration surfaces and wells, limiting the subsequent use of the recharged
water.
Effectiveness of the Technology
Various artificial recharge experiments have been carried out in India by different organizations,
and have established the technical feasibility of the artificial recharge of unconfined, semiconfined and confined aquifer systems. However, the most important, and somewhat elusive,
issue in determining the utility of this technology is the economic and institutional aspects of

artificial groundwater recharge. Experiences with full-scale artificial recharge operations in India
and elsewhere in Asia are limited. As a consequence, cost information from such operations is
incomplete. The available data, from certain hydrological environs in which recharge
experiments have been initiated and/or are in progress, suggest that the cost of groundwater
recharge can vary substantially. These costs are a function of availability of source water,
conveyance facilities, civil constructions, land, and groundwater pumping and monitoring
facilities (CGWB, 1994).
Advantages
As surface water augmentation methods, such as dams and diversions, have become more
expensive and less promising in terms of environmental considerations, the prospects of storing
surplus surface water underground and abstracting it whenever and wherever necessary appears
to be more effective technology. In urban areas, artificial recharge can maintain groundwater
levels in situations where natural recharge has become severely reduced.
Disadvantages
There are a number of problems associated with the use of artificial recharge techniques. These
include disadvantages related to aspects such as recovery efficiency (e.g., not all of the added
water may be recoverable), cost effectiveness, contamination risks due to injection of recharge
water of poor quality, clogging of aquifers, and a lack of knowledge about the long term
implications of the recharge process. Hence, careful consideration should be given to the
selection of an appropriate site for artificial recharge in a specific area.
Cultural Acceptability
Cultural considerations, stemming from socio-economic concerns, often enter into the selection
of a recharge method and site. The availability of land, land uses in adjacent areas, public
attitudes, and legal requirements generally play a role in defining the acceptability of artificial
recharge in a given setting. In urban areas, where land availability, costs and uses in adjacent
areas may pose restrictions, injection wells, shafts or small pits requiring highly controlled water
supplies and little land area may be preferable to larger scale, surface spreading recharge
methods. Surface recharge facilities generally require protected property boundaries, regular
maintenance, and continuous surveillance if they are to be acceptable to the public.
Further Development of the Technology
The recharge process is extremely complex, and, due to the numerous factors affecting the
process, is only partly understood. The studies on artificial recharge techniques are mostly sitespecific and descriptive in nature, which gives little insight into the potential success of
implementing this technology in other locations. Thus, there is a need for further research and
development of artificial recharge techniques for a variety of conditions. In addition, the
economic, managerial and institutional aspects of artificial recharge projects need to be studied
further.

Information Sources
Contacts
Professor Ashim Das Gupta, Water Engineering and Management Program, Asian Institute of
Technology, Post Office Box 4, Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Bangkok, Thailand, Tel. 66 2 516
0110, Fax: 66 2 516 21 26, E-mail: remc@ait.ac.th.
Bibliography
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236(5):21-27.
Asano, T. 1985. Artificial Recharge of Groundwater. Butterworth Publishers, Boston, 767 pp.
CGWB (Central Ground Water Board) 1994. Manual on Artificial Recharge of Ground Water.
Technical Series-M, No. 3. Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India, 215 pp.
Helweg, O.J. and G. Smith 1978. Appropriate Technology for Artificial Aquifers. Groundwater,
16(3):144-148.
Huisman, L. and T.N. Olsthoorn 1983. Artificial Groundwater Recharge. Pitman Publishing Inc.,
Massachusetts, 320 pp.
Oaksford, E.T. 1985. Artificial Recharge: Methods, Hydraulics, and Monitoring, In: Artificial
Recharge of Groundwater, T. Asamo, editor. Butterworth Publishers, Boston, pp. 69-127.
Rushton, K.R. and P.N. Phadtare 1989. Artificial Recharge Pilot Projects in Gujarat, India, In:
Groundwater Management: Quantity and Quality, IAHS Publication No. 188, pp. 533-545.
Todd, D.K. 1980. Groundwater Hydrology. Second Edition. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 535
pp.
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Developing Countries. Pergamon Press, New York.