Zeitschrift fr Geomorphologie Vol.

55,1, 113
Stuttgart, March 2011

Article

Karstic morphology control in non-carbonate rocks:

Santana basin, middle Paraiba do Sul river valley, Brazil
Rogrio Uagoda, Andr Avelar, and Ana Luiza Coelho Netto
with 14 figures and 1 table

Summary. Hundreds of karstic features (n = 266) and gullies (n = 80) are indentified in an
area (56.3 km2) of non-carbonate rocks which include pure quartzite (Q), impure quartzite
(Qi) and gneiss (G) within the Santana Basin (286 km2), a part of Middle Paraiba do Sul River
Valley, southeastern Brazil. Karstic features include caves (n = 32), collapsed dolines (n = 23),
solution dolines (n = 209), Sinkholes (n = 02) and resurgences (n = 02). Gullies include active
gullies (n = 46) and stabilized gullies (n = 34). Other general features as knickpoints (n = 06)
and captured valleys (n = 03) were also indentified. We used GIS to study correlations between
the presence of features, precise lithology and relief to indentify possible controls. The results
suggest a lithological control on the karstic features with higher frequency of caves, collapsed
dolines, sinkholes and resurgences in pure quartzite (Q) and in areas with high relief, but there
is no lithological control on solution dolines. Gullies, knickpoints and captured valleys are also
not controlled by lithology or relief. The results suggest a fluvial control of gullies and depositional features in valley bottoms caused by headward erosion, after underground captures or
knickpoint disruption.
Key words: Karst geomorphology, non-carbonate karst, dolines

Introduction

The word karst was initially used to describe features controlled by acid solution
in carbonate rocks (Ford 1980) and similar features in other lithologies were called
pseudokarst. However, since Jennings (1983, 1997) the term karst has included features formed by both chemical and physical processes, even if they are not the result
carbonate acid solution. Many international case studies in non-carbonate rocks
under different climate types, described by Wray (2003), Martini (2004a, 2004b)
and Ford & Williams (2007), have considered the processes of silicate solution and
mechanic transportation of grains.
We have studied a non-carbonate karstic system in the Santana river basin
(286 km2) located within the middle Paraba do Sul river valley, SE-Brazil (fig. 1), that
drains gneiss and quartzites in a humid-tropical area. Karst features in meta-sedimentary rocks in this area were previously described (Avelar et al. press), but not
studied in detail. In a 56.3 km2 mapping area (1:10,000) various features are found,
including 42 caves, 23 collapse dolines, 209 solution dolines, as well as gullies, fans
2011 Gebr. Borntraeger Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart, Germany

DOI: 10.1127/0372-8854/2011/0055-0031
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0372-8854/11/0055-0031 $ 3.25

R. Uagoda et al.

and valley deposits. Our study aims to indentify possible lithological controls on
these features.
The quartzites and gneisses studied are part of the allochthonous Andrelndia
metasedimentary sequence at Ribeira Mobile belt, composed principally of biotitegneiss and quartzites organized in regional and local folds formed by three phases of
deformation (Heilbron et al. 1995). The climate is humid-tropical with concentration of rainfall in summer (Silva 2004).
Lithological mapping of a 56.3 km2 study area at 1:10,000 scale (Avelar et al.
press) shows that the gneiss (G 18.8 km2 or 33.5% of the area) is rich in biotite,

Fig. 1. a. Location of Paraiba do Sul basin in Brazil; b. Location of Santana basin in Paraiba
do Sul basin; c. Santana basin elevation map, with indication of the 56.3 km2 study area within
the basin (fig. 2).

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Karstic morphology control

quartz, feldspar and garnet with traces of sillimanite and tourmaline, with a strong
metamorphic foliation and grainsize 2 mm to 5 mm. Quartzites are described in two
lithotypes: coarse quartzite (Q 28.1 km2 or 49.9% of the area), 95% quartz, with
grainsize between 3mm and 8 mm, being of uniform aspect with poorly defined foliation; and, impure quartzite (Qi 9.32 km2 or 16.5% of the area) with quartz and
feldspars associated and traces of muscovite with fine grainsize between 1 mm and
3 mm. The gneiss (G) is at the top of the stratigraphic sequence changing to an impure
quartzite (Qi) and at the base, to coarse quartzite. Topographically there are inversions because the gneiss (G) is in the lower parts (4001,000 m) and quartzites (Q &
Qi) control the higher parts (1,0001,800 m).
The stratigraphy is organized in regional recumbent folds causing sub-horizontal dip foliation in many areas. Sub-horizontal foliation, intersected by a predominantly vertical set of fractures, promotes water infiltration on hill crests and exfiltration in middle and low positions of hill-slopes, possibly promoting solution and
removal of material, as well as generating conduits and caves entirely oriented by
structures. The solution and removal of material by water flow begins the breakdown
of layers of quartz and the collapse of walls and roofs, with the generation of large
amounts of coarse sand and formation of windows and dolines (Avelar et al. press).
In other areas of the middle Paraiba do Sul river valley Filizola & Boulet
(1996) and Coelho Netto (2003), suggest that dolines on interfluves are formed by
geochemical subsidence controlled by geological structure. The authors also suggest
these dolines could remain open by continued removal of material and generate concave up topographic hollows or valley heads.
2

Materials and methods

Features recognized in aerial photos and field trips were plotted on a 1:10,000 (56.3 km2)
topographic map. The classification of karst features follows descriptions of Jennings
(1997) and Ford & Williams (2007): caves, solution dolines, collapse dolines, karren
areas, captured (dry) valleys, sinkholes, resurgence, poljes (swamp areas) and mogotes
(towers). Gully erosion, dominated by action of overland flow, including both active
and stable gullies, was also indentified as well as knickpoints and dry valleys.
Following the method of topographic classification, including basin relief, of
Meis et al. (1982), 2 and 3 order sub-basins were delimited and three relief classes
were defined: 100 meters, 101 to 250 meters and 251 meters. The geoprocessing
between karst features and gullies with lithology (Avelar et al. press) and relief was
made with the software ArcGis 9.2. The graphs of occurrence (n) and frequency
(n/km2) were generated with the software BrOffice.Org Calc 2009.
3

Results and Discussion

3.1 Karstic features

3.1.1 Caves
Thirty two caves were mapped in the 56.3 km2 study area (fig. 2, 3 and 4), as well as
another ten known caves outside the mapped area. The principal caves have lengths
up to 100 meters, with horizontal or vertical patterns controlled by rock structures.

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It is common to find chambers around 6 meters in height. The caves are associated
with other karst features including canyons, collapse dolines, windows, conduits and
karrens. A speleological description is not the objective of this study, but a good
description of the caves can be found in Silva (2004), who studied a quartzite karst
system in Conceio de Ibitipoca, 30 km north of Santana basin, still in the Andrelandia metasedimentary sequence.

Fig. 2. 1 : 10,000 map of the field study area, showing classes of relief and lithology superimposed by mapped features, including location of figures of this paper. See location in fig. 1.

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Karstic morphology control

To investigate structural control of the caves (fig. 3) Avelar et al. (in press) have
identified two main sets of sub-vertical fractures, NW-W and SE-E, that are perpendicular to the main dip. Avelar et al. (in press) also identify a sub-horizontal foliation with a dominant fall to the NW and SE, that controls the parallel growth of caves.
Inside the caves, it can be observed that there is strong structural control by the
intersection of sub-vertical fractures with sub-horizontal foliation, causing collapsed
blocks (fig. 4a), formation of columns controlled by corrosion in layers with mineral
variation, micaceous or siliceous (fig. 4b); and deposition of oxides in conduits by
water percolation, with red color (fig. 4c). Similar features are described by Doerr
(1999) in caves of the Tepui Mountains in Venezuela.
3.1.2 Karrens and external features
Karren zones can be vertical or horizontal (fig. 5a) and occur linked with other features such as conduits, dolines, windows and tunnels (fig. 5b) in quartzite karstic systems (Q and Qi).
3.1.3 Dolines
Two types of dolines are recognised: collapse dolines and solution dolines (figs. 6 and
2). Collapse dolines (n = 23) occur in outcrops associated with caves, have clean walls
and floor and are deeper than wide; solution dolines (n = 209) have soft edges, are
covered by soil, have deep weathering profiles and are wider then deep. Solution
dolines can be found directly in the tops of hills (n = 155), or on hillslopes close to
the top (n = 54). There are ferruginous crusts rich in goethite at the divide of solution
dolines. The presence of crust fragments in the base of a Quaternary soil sequence of
dolines shown by Uagoda (2009) suggests that the dolines are younger than the
crusts. The disposition of soil also suggests that it was formed within a pre-existing
doline, so older soil layers could have been removed previously by processes such as
solution and deflation, as demonstrated by Pillans & Walker (1995) in their study
of dolines formed on basalt in southeastern Australia.

Fig. 3. a. Cave entrance in coarse quartzite (Q) showing control by sub-horizontal foliation
and well defined sub vertical fractures (location UTM: 7565536s, 614669e, 975 meters above
sea level); b. Cave entrance in impure quartzite (Qi), showing the same control with apparent
smooth anticlinal fold (UTM: 7564157s, 617997e, 975 m/a. s. l.).

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Fig. 4. a. Structural control in cave chamber, with fallen block on floor; b. Column in impure
quartzite, with well marked foliation; c. Oxide deposition by water percolation in duct; (UTM:
7564524s, 6172169e, 1,005 m/a. s. l.).

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Karstic morphology control

3.1.4 Sinkholes, resurgences, swamp and towers

Two swamp areas (poljes) are identified (fig. 7a). These features are limited by mountains and escarpments and drained by rivers that submerge in sinkholes. The disposition of these features associated with dry and active valleys suggests a process of
underground capture controlled by hydraulic gradient. Isolated hills inside the
swamps are classified as residual forms (towers or hums) see fig. 7b.

Fig. 5. a. Karren zone, in area of recharge, showing rounded ridges in quartzite outcrop, with
a 1,5 m man as scale (UTM: 7570562s, 614965e, 1,550 m/a. s. l.); b. A 6 meter high tunnel in
quartzite (Q), with the same man as scale indicated by white arrow (UTM: 7570512s, 614220e,
1,430 m/a. s. l.).

Fig. 6. Black line indicates a solution type doline at top of an impure quartzite (Qi) hill; White
line indicates a collapse type doline (UTM: 7565604s, 618603e, 985 m/a. s. l.).

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Two sinkholes associated with resurgences are identified in Santana River valley
(fig. 8a, b and 2), both in pure quartzite (Q). The average distance between the sinkhole and the resurgence is around 100 meters, with an average hydraulic relief of
around 7 meters. Figure 8a shows one sinkhole with an active vortex and fig. 8b shows
a resurgence.

Fig. 7. a. Swamp area bounded by the white line, drained by a sinkhole (UTM: 7565662s,
617168e, 840 m/a. s. l.). b. White arrow shows a residual hill or tower isolated in a swamp area,
shown by the white line (UTM: 7564752s, 621266e, 770 m/a. s. l.).

Fig. 8. a. Straight arrows show the Santana river flow direction drained by a sinkhole, with
vortex shown by the curved arrow (UTM: 7565673s, 614722e, 895 m/a. s. l.); b. The resurgence
area of the same river, 100 m distance and 7 m below, shown by white line. The white arrows
show the flow direction (UTM: 7565535s, 614590e, 888 m/a. s. l.).

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3.2 Gullies and depositional features

Active and stabilized gullies are identified (figs. 9a, b and 2), with adjacent depositional fans in valley bottoms. Field observations suggest that gully erosion is dominated by the action of overland flow different from that occurring in the Bananal
River basin (Coelho Netto 2003), 90 km south, because it does not have a seepage
erosion component.
3.3 Knickpoints and captured valleys
The major knickpoints (n=6) are identified on the map (fig. 10a and 2) and represent
an energy range inside the Santana basin. The major dry or captured valleys today are
totally aggraded without river flow and channel incision (fig. 10b). The position of
sinkholes, knickpoints and captured valleys suggest that the process of captures can
be surficial or underground.
3.4 Feature controls
The 1 :10,000 scale map (fig. 2) shows the superimposition of lithological and relief
shapes with karstic features and gullies, as well as captured valleys and knickpoints.
The number of karstic features (n = 266) is much higher than the number of gullies
(n = 80). The density of karstic features (4.75/km2) is therefore around four times the
density of gullies (1.42/km2).
Sinkholes (n = 2) are restricted to coarse quartzite, while main knickpoints (n =
6) have not lithological control. These two types of feature have dry valleys upstream,
presumably the result of river capture, by knickpoint retreat or sinkhole development.
Table 1 and fig. 11, summarise the relationships between lithology and the occurrence (n) of karstic features, with concentration of caves and collapse dolines in coarse
quartzite (Q) and solution dolines in impure quartzite (Qi) and gneiss (G).

Fig. 9. a. Active gully in a quartzite hill of high relief, demarcated by the black line (UTM:
7565228s, 615665e, 890 m/a. s. l.); b. White line shows a depositional fan in a swamp area,
formed by gullies (black lines) in a impure quartzite hill (UTM: 754230s, 618898e,
910 m/a. s. l.).

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The relief analysis (table 1, fig. 12) shows a concentration of caves and collapse
dolines in classes of high and medium relief, suggesting that quartzites (Q and Qi)
can maintain higher reliefs. The frequency of solution dolines in the low relief class
( 101 m) is consistent with the occurrence of gneiss in these lowlands.
The occurrence and frequency of gullies (table 1, fig. 13), indicates an association
of active gullies with impure quartzite (Qi). However, there no such association for

Fig. 10. a. Four meter high knickpoint in fractured pure quartzite (Q) with clear sub horizontal foliation (UTM: 7564841s, 620626e, 775 m/a. s. l.); b. Reverse of a captured valley, showing a relief inversion inside the aggraded valley. The black line shows the aggraded level, with
people indicated by the white arrow. The white line demarcates a younger erosional level,
4 meters below (UTM: 7566096s, 6179673e, 865 m/a. s. l.).

Table 1.

Distribution of features by lithology and relief; o = occurrence (n), f = frequency

(n/km2). Relief classes in meters (m).
Lithology
G

Feature

Relief

Qi
f

100

101250
o

250

Caves

0.0

0.4

28

1.7

0.0

12

0.5

20

0.8

Collapse
doline

0.0

0.8

15

0.7

0.0

0.3

16

0.6

Solution
doline

84

2.9

48

5.1

77

4.0

31

3.3

119

5.0

59

2.5

0.4

21

2.2

15

0.5

0.7

20

0.8

19

0.8

15

0.7

0.5

14

0.5

0.6

23

0.9

0.2

Active
gullie
Stabilized
gullie

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11

stable gullies, which were probably caused by river processes and valley evolution
regardless of lithology. There is no apparent relationship between gullies and relief
(table 1, fig. 14), although it is obvious that gullies are developed in hills.

Fig. 11.

Occurrence (n) and frequency (n/km2) of karstic features by lithology.

Fig. 12.

Occurrence (n) and frequency (n/km2) of karstic features by relief.

Fig. 13.

Occurrence (n) and frequency (n/km2) of gullies by lithology.

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Fig. 14.

Occurrence (n) and frequency (n/km2) of gullies by relief.

Conclusions

The dominance of karstic features (n = 266), in relation to gullies (n = 80), suggests a

strong karstic component in the Santana basin. The results show a lithological control of karstic features with sinkholes, resurgences, caves and collapse dolines concentrated in areas of pure quartzite and high relief. Solution dolines, with soil formation, are found in all lithologies and relief classes, with high concentration in impure
quartzite. The results also suggest a relationship between quartzites (Q) and high
relief ( 250 m), because these have similar occurrence of features. The processes of
doline formation will be described in a subsequent paper.
Gullies activated by the action of overland flow do not show a strong control by
either lithology or relief, suggesting that these features are activated in response to
energy changes in valley floors caused by underground captures or knickpoint disruptions, with subsequent headward erosion and stream incision. A lack of lithological control in the distribution of dry valleys upstream of sinkholes and knickpoints
confirms this expected fluvial dynamic of valley floors.
The apparent non-existence of fluvial terraces in valley floors, linked to aggradation by depositional fans could be caused by the inefficiency of rivers and streams
to transport in suspension and deposit the coarse quartzite grains that are predominant in the basin. Once opened, the sinkholes could also promote an increase of headward erosion in the swamps and hills upstream because of their inefficiency to retain
sediments.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge Professor Brad Pillans (Australian National University)
for improving the draft of the paper and for help in the English translation. The research was
supported by the Brazilian scientific council: Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientfico e Tecnolgico (CNPq) and Fundao de Amparo Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro
(FAPERJ).

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13

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Addresses of the authors: R. Uagoda, Programa de Ps Graduao em Geografia, Instituto de
Geocincias, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro. E-Mail: uagoda@yahoo.com.br A. de
Souza Avelar, Departamento de Geografia. Instituto de Geocincias, Universidade Federal
do Rio de Janeiro. E-Mail: andreavelar@acd.ufrj.br A. L. Coelho Netto, Departamento de
Geografia. Instituto de Geocincias, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro. E-Mail:
ananetto@acd.ufrj.br.

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