Invasive species effects on tropical forest fauna

In ecology, it is difficult to give a precise definition for tropical rainforests due

to differences in the regions in which they occur. However, Corlett and
Primack (2011) in their book Tropical Rain Forests, An Ecological and
Biogeographical Comparison have attempted to define the tropical
rainforest. They give a broad definition that allows for a wide range of
variation. The tropical rain forest can be defined as tall and dense evergreen
forests that make up the natural vegetation cover of the wet tropics. The
climate is hot, and dry seasons are short or absent; temperatures can reach
past 25 Celsius. Rainfall in tropical forests is over 250 mm per year
(Enchanted Learning, 2016).
Tropical forests are located 5 10 north and south of the equator, within
the Tropic of Cancer (23.5 N), and the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5 S) in the
area commonly known as the tropics (Enchanted Learning, 2016). Due to
variations on the planet, tropical rain forests are excluded from some areas
within this belt, for instance, East Africa (Corlett and Primack, 2011). Tropical
forests cover approximately 6 7 % of the earths surface (Enchanted
Learning, 2016).
In this paper, the effects of invasive species on tropical forest fauna are
highlighted. Tropical forests discussed in this paper are tropical, lowland
rainforests, occurring at altitudes below 900 1200 metres. Tropical montane
forests are not discussed, as these forests have their own distinctive
ecological characteristics (Corlett and Primack, 2011).
Invasive species are also known by various other terms, such as invasive
alien species, or non-native species. These are organisms that cause harm
ecologically and economically to the environment in which it was not
originally part of; they affect both natural resources and the benefits that
humans derive from these resources (National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, 2016). Invasive species are most often introduced by humans
into their non-native ranges, where they become established and spread in
the new territories (Vitousek et al., 1997). Invasive species not only affect
the food chains, but also affect other ecological processes and services, for
example nutrient cycling, and energy budgets (Charles and Dukes, 2007,
Mack et al., 2000).
Invasive plant species are thought to alter the properties of ecosystems at
many different levels (Gordon, 1998). Cronk and Fuller (2001) define an
invasive plant as one that spreads naturally (without human aid) in natural or

partially natural ecosystems, that causes changes in key processes. The

effects of invasive plants on tropical forest fauna include reduction in species
richness, abundance and diversity. Thus, the uniqueness of biological
communities is affected at various levels (Pysek et al., 2012). Invasive alien
plant species can also have effects on vital pollination and seed-dispersal
mutualistic plant-animal interactions (Traveset and Richardson, 2006).).
Species richness can be defined as simply the number of species present in a
sample, community or taxonomic group (Encyclopedia of Earth, 2014).
Hejda, Pysek and Jarosik (2009) found that the effects of invasive plant
species on species richness depended on the type of invasive species.
However, the cover and height of the invasive species, and the differences in
height and cover of invasive and native species affected the species diversity
and evenness, regardless of the species of invasives. (Hejda, Pysek and
Jarosik, 2009).
Invasive species also affect the genetic diversity of tropical forest fauna.
Genetic diversity is the variation in the genes of a population. Genetically,
invasive species may be more able to respond to natural selection than other
species (Lee, 2002). Invasions occur as stochastic events that involve small
populations that are able to survive the switch to a new habitat. Sometimes,
when a new species has invaded a new habitat, for example, a forest,
hybridization can occur. Hybridization occurs when two genetically different
species mate and produce offspring that may or may not be fertile. When
this occurs, genes are lost, thus, the genetic diversity of a population is
reduced.
Invasive alien species are often successful top predators due to their high
reproductive rates, short generations, and a generalized diet. Invasive
predators have both positive and negative effects. In populations such as
black rats and mongoose, the effects have been positive. However, invasive
species have devastated populations of snakes in other areas. Blackburn et
al (2004) stated that with every new introduced predator, there is an
increased chance of more species being lost to extinctions. An example of an
introduced species to the Caribbean is the small Indian mongoose. In the
early 1870s it was introduced to the islands as a form of biological control for
snakes and rats in sugar cane fields. They feed on anything, are small and
agile, and adapts quickly to its surroundings; hence it can make its home
anywhere. There are no natural predators of the mongoose on the islands
and it has a high fecundity. The native species have not evolved to combat
the mongoose and hence are easy prey to the mammal. While it is successful

in the control of rats and snakes, it also poses a threat to other species such
as birds, especially those that nest on the ground. It preys on iguanas in
addition to other reptiles. The mongoose has been responsible for amphibian
and reptile extinctions in Puerto Rico and other Caribbean islands. It has also
been linked to the extinction of five endemic vertebrate species in Jamaica
(Sonia DiFiore, 2001).
In the Caribbean, an example of an introduced invasive species is the
chytrid fungus, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, which affects amphibian
populations globally. Batrchocytrium dendrobatidis is thought to have spread
globally from South Africa, through the use of frogs in hospitals and
laboratory tests (Soto-Azat et al., 2009, Alemu et al., 2008). The entire
Caribbean region has a suitable climate for the prevalence of the chytrid
fungus. The fungus was also discovered to be present in the frog species
Mannophryne olmonae (Bloody Bay Poison Frog). This species was classified
as Critically Endangered by the IUCN in 2006, but was later reclassified as
Vulnerable (IUCN Red List, 2013). Alemu et al (2008) investigated the effects
of the fungus on frog populations in Tobago. Chytridiomycosis has been
found to be endemic to the species, with approximately 20% prevalence, and
no associated clinical diseases. Three widely separated locations in Tobago
were sampled and it was found that there were strong positive signals from
16 of 84 samples.
Invasive earthworms have had positive effects on the decomposition of leaf
litter in Puerto Rican tropical forests. Liu and Zou (2002) found that invasive
earthworms caused the decomposition rate of leaf litter to increase in the
tropical forests of Puerto Rico. It was found that invasive earthworms
combined the mineral soil with the forest floor, thus reducing the storage of
carbon as well as the carbon: nitrogen ratios in the upper layers of the soil
(Bohlen et al., 2004b, Hale et al., 2004). The effects of earthworm invasions
in the forest floor include an overall increase in the biomass of microbes in
the soil of sites with a thick floor (Groffman et al., 2004), and also increases
of fauna in the soil food web, particularly microarthropods (McLean and
Parkinson, 2000).
In another case, Wardle et al. (2001) found that invasive species had adverse
effects on the soil fauna in New Zealand forests. Over the past 220 years,
feral goats and deer were introduced to New Zealands forests. The browsing
mammals caused significant alterations to the plant communitys species
composition, the composition of leaf litter, and species composition of leaflitter dwelling faunal groups. It was found that the browsing mammals

effects on the composition of faunal communities correlated with the effects

on diversity of plants. The habitat diversity of the litter layer, as well as the
diversity of fauna in the soil was also reduced. Mammal browsing effects on
gastropod and diplopod diversity correlated with the effects on litter layer
habitat diversity (Wardle et al., 2001).
On Christmas Island, ODowd, Green and Lake (2003) investigated the effects
of crazy ants in the rain forest ecosystems on the island. The crazy ant
Anoplopis gracilipes caused rapid and catastrophic changes on the islands
forests. The red land crab was the dominant consumer on the forest floor.
The crazy ant caused the crab to become extirpated due to invasion by the
ant. The crabs were overwhelmed by the sheer numbers of the ants, as well
as the ants spraying formic acid into their eyes and mouthparts. Indirect
effects were seedling releases, enhanced seedling species richness, and
slower rates f breakdown of litter. Other effects were new associations
between the ant and honeydew-secreting insects in the forest canopy which
speeded up and intensified impacts of the invasion. The high density of
foraging ants on the canopy also caused an increase in the population
densities of insects and the growth of canopy mould. The authors predicted
that with the absence of the red crab, increased secondary invasions may
take place. These changes may lead to an invasional meltdown on the island
(ODowd, Green and Lake, 2003).
It has been suggested that invasive species should be eradicated. The
question is what will be the consequences of eradications. Are forest
ecosystems resilient enough to cope with the loss of more species? Ruscoe
et al (2011) points out that with the eradication of invasive forest animals
there may be the unintended release of mesopredators. For example, the
eradication of rats caused competitive release of mice in New Zealand
forests.
Eradication of invasive species may have serious, unintended and
unforeseen consequences on a forest ecosystem. It may be best to leave the
invasive species alone, and not do anything, as this may cause more harm
than good in the long term.

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