Market Reform Allauddin Khilji

These measures were enacted to regulate the activities of the traders who brought grain to
Delhi. The Sultan fixed the prices of all commodities from grain to cloths, slaves, cattle etc. A
controller of market (shahna-i-mandi) intelligence officers (barids) and secret spies
(munhiyan) were appointed. The grain merchants were placed under the Shahna-i-mandi.
For controlling the food prices, Alauddin Khilji tried to control not only the supply of food grains
from the villages, and its transportation to the city by the grain merchants (Karwanis or
banjaras) but also its proper distribution to the citizens.
His first effort was to see that there were sufficient stocks of food grains with the
government so that the traders did not try to hike up prices by creating an artificial scarcity or
indulging in profiteering (regarding). For this purpose royal stores were set up at Delhi.
Perhaps significant and lasting impact of these reforms was the furthering of the growth of a
market economy in the villages and bringing about a more integral relationship between
the town and the country, the furthering of the process of the internal restructuring of the
sultanate.
Though Alauddin Khiljis market reforms were oriented more towards administrative and
military necessities than internal restructuring but he adopted a holistic approach to see the
reform working properly. That is why he did not control the price of essential commodities
only, for those meant for direct use by the military.
Instead he tried to control the price of everything from caps to socks, from combs to needles,
vegetables, sweet meats to chapatis etc. Such widespread centralised control was found to
influence every section of the society.
The price, control system affected trade severely. The merchants were unable to realise
sufficient profits. The rule was enforced so rigidly that no corn-dealer, farmer or anyone else
could hold back secretly a mound or half a mound of grain and sell it far above the fixed price.
The horse merchants were so tightly controlled that, they were fed up with their lives and
wished for death. The severe punishments given to erring merchants made many to stop
business.
The cultivators most certainly would have been affected adversely by the low price of
food-grain and the high land-revenue. It seems they lost on the other hand what they gained
from one. Alauddin Khiljis policy was to leave the cultivator with so little as to barely enough
for carrying on cultivation and his food requirements.
As a result they were unable to take home the surplus produce even after paying 50 per cent
of their produce as land revenue. They were compelled to sell their grain at a low price to the
merchants who were permitted to purchase grain. The fear of the government was such that
the cultivators would sell even their wives and cattle to pay the land- revenue so many had
lost interest in agriculture.
The impact of Alauddin Khiljis market reforms on the contemporary society was immense. The
fact that articles were sold at cheap rates in Delhi made many to migrate to Delhi. Among
them were learned men and excellant craftsmen. As a result the fame of Delhi increased.
The people of Delhi were happy. They were prepared to follow the rules prescribed by the
state. They became more disciplined. Hence crime decreased. They benefited the state very
much.
This created an environment of socio-cultural development. Literature, the mirror of a
society, took a new life. A distinct type of literature was born in the khanqah (hospice) of
Nizamuddin Auliya. It is known as Malfuz (sufi) literature which gives mystic version of the
history between 1308 to 1322.
Market Regulations and Price Control:

1.

2.

1.
2.
3.

1.

2.
3.
4.

1.
2.

Reasons for the Reforms:

The most important administrative reform introduced by Alauddin Khilji was aimed at the
regulation of the market and control of prices of essential commodities. A number of
factors prompted him to introduce these reforms:
He had to maintain a huge standing army with limited economic resources. The
cash
salary paid to the soldiers was not adequate for their comfortable living. The sultan was
unwilling to enhance the salary of the troops and officers due to paucity of resources. Thus, he
tried the alternative method of increasing the purchasing power of the tanka by regulation of
market and control of prices.
Besides, his numerous expeditions combined with Mongol invasions had exerted a
heavy burden on the state treasury. The dislocation of trade and traffic had resulted in the
scarcity of food grains and a steep rise in prices of essential commodities. To overcome all
these problems related to the economic principle of demand and supply
and prices, Alauddin regulated the market and fixed prices of all commodities of daily use,
from food grains to horses and from the cattle and slaves to foreign articles of luxury. He took
special measures to enforce the schedule of prices on all traders and
merchants.
Diwan-i-Riyasat:
The entire scheme of market regulation was entrusted to the care of diwan-i-riyasat. For
different trades separate markets were set up and each market was placed under a separate
shahna.
At Delhi, Alauddin set up three different markets:
One market was meant exclusively for food-grains,
a separate market for horses, cattle and slaves and
a third one for costlier articles such a foreign clothes, silks, perfumes, jewellery
etc.
Under the shahnas there were a number of barids, who checked prices, weights and measure
and supervised general arrangement of the market and sent daily reports to the sultan. The
shahna-i-mandi kept a daftar or a register of licensed dealers.
Difficulties in Implementing the Reforms:
There were certain problems, which were likely to occur due to such stringent regulations and
control of prices:
As the sultan had reduced the prices of all commodities, it was possible
that merchants might refuse to sell their goods at those prices or they might create
artificial scarcity and blame it on the price control.
Brokers lost their employment because prices had been permanently fixed. Having
lost their trade, they might instigate the traders to create difficulties.
Problems could also arise due to natural calamities such as droughts and famines.
The merchants might outwardly agree to conform to these regulations but they might
defraud the people by under-weighing, under measuring or substitution of a lower grade
article for a higher grade one.
Regulations:
To meet these difficulties, Alauddin issued detailed regulations. Merchants were classified
broadly into two categories:
the importers, who supplied the demands of local markets and
wholesalers and retailers, who had their shops in the market and dealt with the
customers.

1.
2.
3.

4.

Descriptive lists of merchants of both categories for each trade were prepared. Each one of
the merchants was asked to apply for the trading license. These merchants were required to
give an undertaking that they would bring the required commodities in sufficient quantity at
the proper time and to sell them at the prices fixed by the government. Once they gave
satisfactory undertaking, licenses were issued to them.
Costly and rare articles such as fine silks, woolens, brocades, cosmetics etc. could be
purchased only by special permits.
Alauddin inflicted severe punishment on those who violated the rules.
Measures to Implement the Regulations:
In order to have a regular supply of food grains, all peasants of the Doab region and the
country to a distance of 200 miles were ordered to pay land revenue in kind.
Further, they were ordered to sell their surplus grains to registered merchants at the
rate fixed by the government.
To guard against scarcity, in case of failure of crops due to famines and droughts,
Alauddin ordered grain to be stored in state granaries. Hoarding was strictly forbidden.
During emergency rationing was introduced.
Merchants were severely punished if even the slightest irregularity was detected.
Although in the beginning traders and merchants resisted the market regulations and price
control, later they reconciled themselves to low profits and obeyed the regulations as long
as Alauddin lived. The sultan assured the traders and merchants certain privileges and
facilities also. Though their margin of profit was reduced, there was no apprehension of loss in
any contingency. The sultan advanced them loans for purchase of commodities and if the cost
price was more than fixed price for sale, the trader was allowed a certain percentage on the
total sale and the entire loss of the transaction was borne by the state. Copies of schedules
of prices were supplied to shahnas, barids, traders and merchants and diwan-iriyasat.
The market regulations were, in all probability, enforced in the capital city and its
neighbourhood . These were not in force throughout the empire. Even if Alauddin desired to
implement these regulations throughout the empire, lack of proper and adequate agencies
might have prevented him to do so. These market regulations and price control have been
regarded by some historians as marvels of medieval statesmanship. The sultan was able to
check cheating and profiteering, but in the long run trade and agriculture suffered. He did not
allow any rise in prices. Due to his stern measures Alauddin could enforce order in the market.
The scheme of market regulations and price control died with him. His successors did not have
the will or the mechanism to implement them.

Bhakti and Sufi Movement

The Bhakti and Sufi Movement in India played an important role in bringing harmony between
the Hindus and the Muslims.
Bhakti Movement
The Bhakti Movement was a reform movement in Hinduism. It occupies a significant position in
bringing about harmony and normal relationships between the Hindus and Muslims.
The development of the Bhakti cult first began in South India in the 7th-8th century in order to
bridge the gulf between the Shaivas and the Vaishnavas. It stood for intense personal devotion
and complete self-surrender to God. It believed in the unity of godhead, brotherhood of man
and equality of all religions. The roots of the Bhakti Movement can be traced to the
Upanishads, the Puranas and the Bhagvad Gita. Shankaracharya is reputed to have been the
first and principal exponent of this reform movement.

After the advent of Islam, the necessity of making Hinduism a living active force in the life of
the common people was felt deeply. Islam with its liberal outlook, equality of status among its
followers, and concept of one God, posed great threat to Hindu society that was suffering from
ritualism, rigid caste system, evils of untouchability and multiplicity of gods and goddesses. In
this situation many lower class Hindus were attracted by the catholic outlook of Islam in these
respects. They were also tempted to adopt Islam which could afford them better status in
society and a less cumbersome religion. But at this critical juncture the preachers of Bhakti
Movement tried to bring harmony among various religons. The often condemned the Hindu
Caste System. Though the Bhakti cult had a long tradition, it was during this time that the cult
grew to a new dimension.
Features of Bhakti Movement
Its proponents preached the unity of the god-head and emphasized that devotion to
God and faith in him led to salvation. It also laid stress on equality of all human beings
and universal brotherhood. The other tenets of the Bhakti cult were purity of heart and
honest behaviour. The basic features of this cult thus had many similarities with those of
Sufism. This helped greatly in checking the growth of Islam in India.
Impact of Bhakti Movement
The Bhakti movement became popular among the common masses as its teachings were
preached in the form of hymns in various popular languages. In this accessible form Bhakti
ideas were spread among wide strata of the population and the hymns frequently became folk
songs. Amongst the leaders of the Bhakti movement, Ramananda, Kabir, Ramanuja, Sri
Chaitanya, Nanak etc. were prominent.
Sufi Movement
The Sufi Movement had twofold aims:
1.
To make their own spiritual progress and
2.
To serve the mankind.
Sufism, which started as a reform movement, laid emphasis on free-thinking, liberal ideas
and toleration. They believed in the equality of all human beings and brotherhood of man.
Their concept of universal brotherhood and the humanitarian ideas of the Sufi saints attracted
the Indian mind. A movement similar to Sufism, called the Bhakti cult, was already afoot in
India on the eve of the Muslim conquest of the country. The liberal-minded Sufis were,
therefore, welcomed in India. The Sufi movement proved very helpful in bridging the gap
between the followers of the two religions and in bringing the Hindus and the Muslims
together.
The Sufi movement gained impetus during the reign of Akbar who adopted a liberal religious
policy under the influence of the Sufi saints.
Abul Fazal had mentioned the existence of 14 Silsilahs in India. A close link that existed
between the leader or Pir and his murids or disciples was a vital element of the Sufi system.
The Sufism reached India in the 12th century A.D. Its influence grew considerably during the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. In India, Chisti and Suhrawardi Silsila were most
prominent.
Chisti order was founded in India by Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti. His dargah at Ajmer became
a centre of veneration for both the Muslims and Hindus. After his death in 1236 A.D., his
devotees continued to celebrate an annual Urs festival at Ajmer. But the most famous Sufi
saint of the Chisti order was Nizamuddin Auliya. He led a simple austere life and lived in Delhi.
By his vast learning, religious knowledge, and tolerant attitude to all religions, he earned
devotion of both the Hindu and Muslim masses.
The Sufi Movement in India helped in establishing peace and amity among the Hindus and
Muslims.

Impact of Sufism
The liberal ideas and unorthodox principles of Sufism had a profound influence on Indian
society. The liberal principles of Sufi sects restrained orthodox. Muslims in their attitude and
encouraged many Muslim rulers to pursue tolerant attitude to their non-Muslim subjects. Most
Sufi saints preached their teachings in the language of common man that contributed greatly
to the evolution of various Indian languages like Urdu, Punjabi, Sindhi, Kashmiri and Hindi. The
impact of Sufi Movement was deeply felt on some renowned poets of the period, like Amir
Khusrau and Malik Muhammad Jayasi who composed poems in Persian and Hindi in praise of
Sufi principles

Important Classical Dances; Features and famous

personalities
Bharatnatyam
Bharatnatyam is one of the most popular classical Indian dances. Bharatnatyam is more
popular in South Indian states of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. Bharatnatyam dance is
almost 2,000 years old. It is believed that Bharatnatyam was revealed by Lord Brahma to
Bharata, a famous sage who then codified this sacred dance in a Sanskrit text called the Natya
Shastra. The Natya Shastra is one of the fundamental treatises on Indian drama and
aesthetics.
Kathak
Kathak is one of the most important classical dances of India. Kathak is said to be derived from
the word katha, meaning "the art of storytelling." The Kathak dance form originated in north
India and was very similar to the Bharatnatyam dance form. In ancient India, there were
Kathakars or bards who used to recite religious and mythological tales to the accompaniment
music, mime and dance.
Kathakali
Kathakali is the classical dance form of Kerala. The word Kathakali literally means "Story-Play".
Kathakali is known for its heavy, elaborate makeup and costumes. In fact, the colorful and
fascinating costumes of Kathakali have become the most recognized icon of Kerala.
Kathakali is considered as one of the most magnificent theatres of imagination and creativity.
Kathakali dance presents themes derived from the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and
other Hindu epics, mythologies and legends.
Kuchipudi
Kuchipudi is one of the classical dance forms of the South India. Kuchipudi derives its name
from the Kuchipudi village of Andhra Pradesh. In the seventeenth century the Kuchipudi
village was presented to the Brahmins, who were experts in staging dance and drama.
Kuchipudi exhibits scenes from the Hindu Epics, legends and mythological tales
through a combination of music, dance and acting. Like other classical dances,
Kuchipudi also comprises pure dance, mime and histrionics but it is the use of speech that
distinguishes Kuchipudi's presentation as dance drama.
Manipuri
Manipuri is one of the six major classical dances of India. Manipuri dance is indigenous to
Manipur, the North eastern state of India. The Manipuri dance style is inextricably woven into
the life pattern of Manipuri people. The most striking part of Manipur dance is its
colorful decoration, lightness of dancing foot, delicacy of abhinaya (drama), lilting music
and poetic charm. The Manipuri dance form is mostly ritualistic and draws heavily from the
rich culture of the state of Manipur.

Mohiniattam
Mohiniattam is a classical dance form of Kerala. Mohiniattam is derived from the words
"Mohini" (meaning beautiful women) and "attam"(meaning dance). Thus, Mohiniattam dance
form is a beautiful feminine style with surging flow of body movements. Mohiniattam dance in
Kerala developed in the tradition of Devadasi system, which later grew and developed a
classical status.
Odissi
Odissi is one of the famous classical Indian dances from Orissa state. The history of Odissi
dance is almost two thousand years old. Odissi is a highly inspired, passionate, ecstatic and
sensuous form of dance. Like most of the South Indian classical dances of India Odissi too had
its origin in the Devadasi tradition. The state of Orissa has a great cultural history.

Important Personalities
Mallika Sarabhai
Mallika Sarabhai, a multifaceted personality, is a noted Kuchipudi and Bharatnatyam
dancer. She has immensely contributed to the fields of acting, writing and publishing. She is a
social activist and has participated in many socio-developmental projects initiated by the
United Nations. Mallika Sarabhai has also received the "French Palme D'or'', the highest
civilian award of France.
Pandit Birju Maharaj
Birju Maharaj is a leading exponent and torch-bearer of the Kalka-Bindadin gharana of
Lucknow. He is the only son and disciple of Shri Achhan Maharaj and is a familiar face of
Indian Kathak dance all over the world. He has performed in almost all the countries of the
globe.
Rukmini Devi Arundale
Rukmini Devi Arundale was a reputed dancer and choreographer of Bharatnatyam, an
Indian classical dance form. Her charismatic personality and contribution to the renaissance of
Indian Classical music attained her niche in the arena of Indian culture. It is believed that
Rukmini Devi had declined the chair of the President of India, once offered by Morarji
Desai, the then Prime Minister of India.
Shovana Narayan
Shovana Narayan is a Kathak Maestro and an outstanding dancer. She is an incarnation of
the great artistic and social traditions of India. She created a new and innovative style of
performing arts by enriching it with a deeper and wider canvas of expression and dimensions.
Sonal Mansingh
Sonal Mansingh is an eminent Indian classical dancer and a leading exponent of
Bharatnatyam, Kuchipudi, and Chhau. Besides being a dancer, Sonal Mansingh is a wellknown choreographer, teacher, orator and a social activist. For her contributions in the field of
"Classical dancing" she has received accolades from many national and international
organizations.
Yamini Krishnamurthy
Yamini 'Poornatilaka' Krishnamurthy, better known as Yamini Krishnamurthy is a renowned
Kuchipudi and Bharatnatyam dancer. She is also considered as the torch-bearer of the

Kuchipudi form of dance. She started her career with a dance performance in 1957, at the age
of seventeen years.

Features of Indian Classical Dance

Indian classical dance breaks a new ground of perception and
opens entirely a new vision of reality. It has various postures, the
mudras or the hand movements depicting particular meaning.
All dance forms are thus structured around the nine rasas or
emotions.
These primary emotions are also referred as the Sthayibhavas.
They are as follows.
Shringara - Love
Hasya - Mirth
Veera - Heroism
Roudra - Anger
Bhayanaka - Terror
Bheebatsa - Disgust
Adbhuta - Wonder
Karuna - Compassion
Shanta - Tranquility
The Vatsalya or the parental fondling rasa is also sometimes included as one of the
stayibhava.

Religious Policy of Akbar

Th Religious Policy of Akbar was liberal. Akbar was born and brought up in comparatively
liberal surrounding. Bairam Khan, who subsequently became Akbars guardian and protector,
was a Shia Muslim. Bairam Khan is responsible for molding his conduct and shaping his early
policy. Akbars most notable tutor, Abdul Latif, taught him the principle of universal
peace which Akbar never forgot. Thus, the early environment influenced the Akbars
religious views in the direction of liberalism.
He never really gave evidence of narrow religious bigotry.
Even before Akbar was twenty he abolished the pernicious practice of enslaving the
prisoners of war . Profoundly religious in the correct sense of the term, he often pondered
over the problems of life and death, and on completing his twentieth year he was seized with
remorse caused by the difficulty of reconciling religion with politics. On the completion of my
twentieth year, said Akbar, I experienced an internal bitterness and from the lack of spiritual
provision for my last journey, my soul was seized with exceeding sorrow.
The spiritual awakening became responsible for radical changes in the religious policy of
Akbar. He first of all abolished the pilgrimage tax (1563) on Hindu Pilgrims visiting their
holy shrines, in all parts of his empire. Next, he abolished the jiziya in 1564, and thus
created a common citizenship for all his subjects. After this he gradually removed all other
restrictions relating to public worship of non-Muslims, including the building of temples and
churches. He allowed his Hindu queens to install and worship images in his own palace.
Mughal Emperor Akbar placed all the faiths in his empire on a footing of equality. In order to
show respect to the religious sentiments of the Hindus who formed a vast majority of the
countrys population, Akbar forbade the use of beef in the royal kitchen and
prohibited animal slaughter for many days in the year. He personally almost gave up meat
eating.

The emperor adopted many Hindu beliefs and practices, such as, the transmigration of
Soul and the doctrine of Karma. He began to celebrate many Hindu festivals, such
as Raksha Bandhan, Dushera, Diwali, Shivratri and Vasant. Sometimes he would put
the Hindu paint-mark (Tilak) on his forehead. He opened the highest services to non- Muslims.
Thus, he inaugurated an era of complete religious toleration.
Akbar, in his personal life, continued to be a good and tolerant, Muslim. Akbar offered his daily
five prayers and go through other observances of his religion. He sought the company of
Muslim religious men and every year devoutly performed the pilgrimage to the mausoleum of
Sheikh Moinuddin Chishti at Ajmer.
Akbar held discussions with the Brahmin scholars, Purushottam and Devi, and reputed
theologians of other faiths in the balcony of his bedroom during the night. He had respect
for all the faiths including Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism and
Christianity.
Mughal Emperor Akbar was highly influenced by Hinduism. Akbar was acquainted with many
Hindu beliefs and practices. But as Akbar was anxious to acquire first-hand knowledge of the
principles and doctrines, of that religion as given in the Shrutis and Smritis, he associated
himself with prominent Hindu scholars, notable among them being Purushottam and Devi.
They were drawn to the balcony of the private apartments of the royal palace during the night
in order to explain to the emperor the mysteries of Hindu religion.
The Hindus but their scholars and chiefs looked upon the great emperor Akbar as one of
themselves. The religious policy of Akbar served the interests of all the religion and culture.
Akbar ardently desired religious unity India, and, therefore, he founded a religion of his own,
named Din-i-Ilahi. Din-i-Ilahi was founded with the laudable object of bringing to an end
religious bitterness and conflict. It is no wonder that Akbar failed to realize that both the
Hindus and Muslims were so orthodox in that age that it was unthinkable for them to give up
their hereditary beliefs and practices.

Sher Shah Suri

Sher Shah Suri or Sher khan, was the founder of Sur dynasty in India. Born in 1486,he was the
son of a jagirdar of Sasaram, Bihar. His original name was Farid. He left his home at the age
of 15 and went to Jaunpur. There he studied Arabic and Persian languages.
He had very good administrative skills as a result he was appointed by his father to manage
his jagir, but due to some reasons he left it and joined the service of Mughal Emperor Babar. In
1522 he joined the service of Bahar Khan, governor of Bihar at that time. He was given the
title of Sher Khan by Bahar Khan, for the courage and gallantry shown by him in killing a
tiger single-handedly. Later Bahar Khan appointed him as a deputy governor and tutor of his
son Jalal Khan. He again joined the service of Babur but came back. As Jalal Khan was a minor
so Sher Khan was the virtual ruler of Bihar. In 1531, he asserted his freedom from the
Mughal ruler Humayun. He fought many battles with him, initially capturing Gaur in Bengal
and finally getting the throne of Delhi after the battle of Kannauj in 1540. In 1538, Sher Khan
attacked Bengal and defeated Ghiyashuddin Shah. In 1539, Sher Khan and Humayun
fought the battle of Chausa. Sher Khan became the Sultan of Delhi, throwing
Humayun out of India. He was then titled as Sher Shah.
He continued to expand his empire and in a very short span of time his kingdom extended
from Indus in the west to Bengal in the east. He was a brave soldier and a military genius, he
made bunkers using sand bags in the battle of Mevat.
He was a very able administrator and is remembered for his rule and the reforms he

introduced. His administration was very efficient but a bit strict. He divided his empire into
provinces known as Sarkars, these were further sub-divided into Parganas and these
were again divided into smaller units. He is believed to be the first one to introduce
"Rupaiya" and "paisa' in place of "Tanka". He is also credited with the introduction of
custom duty, which is followed even today.
He built many inns, mosques and laid down the network of roads the most famous
among them being the Grand Trunk Road. He also had a refined taste in architecture, it is
evident in the Rohtas Fort built by him.
He continued his administrative as well as military activities simultaneously. He besieged the
strong fort of Kalinjar in Bundelkhand where he died at in an accidental explosion of
gunpowder in 1545. Though he ruled India for a short period of five years but changes made
by him had the everlasting impact on the lives of people. He is considered to be the most
successful ruler of medieval India. In the opinion of S.A. Rashid, as an able general,
consummate soldier, as a determined ruler Sher Shah stand head over shoulders above the
other rulers. So great was his personality that his greatest enemy, Humayun, on his death
referred to him as "Ustad-I-Badshahan", teacher of kings. Sher Shah Suri was succeeded by
his son Jalal Khan who later adopted the name of Islam Shah. He built a magnificent tomb of
his father, Sher Shah Suri at Sasaram, Bihar.

The Battle of Tarain Muhammad Ghori and his Invasion on India

The Ghoris started as vassals of Ghazni but became independent after the death of Mahmud.
Taking advantage of the decline of the Ghaznavid empire, Muizzuddin Muhammad popularly
known as Muhammad Ghori brought Ghazni under their control. Having made his position
strong and secure at Ghazni, Muhammad Ghori turned his attention to India. Unlike Mahmud of
Ghazni, he wanted to conquer India and extend his empire in this direction. In 1175,
Muhammad Ghori captured Multan and occupied whole of Sind in his subsequent expeditions.
In 1186 he attacked Punjab, captured it from Khusru Malik and annexed it to his dominions.
The annexation of Punjab carried his dominion eastward to the Sutlej and led his invasion of
the Chauhan kingdom.
The Battle of Tarain (1191-1192)
Realizing their grave situation, the Hindu princes of north India formed a confederacy under
the command of Prithiviraj Chauhan. Prithviraj rose to the occasion, and defeated Ghori in the
battle of Tarain near Delhi in 1191 A.D. Muhammad Ghori felt greatly humiliated by this defeat.
To avenge this defeat he made serious preparations and gathered an army of 1,20,000 men.
He came with this large force to Lahore via Peshawar and Multan. He sent a message to
Prithviraj asking him to acknowledge his supremacy and become a Muslim. Prithviraj rejected
this proposal and prepared to meet the invader. He gathered a large force consisting of
3,00,000 horses, 3000 elephants and a large body of foot soldiers. Many Hindu rajas and
chieftains also joined him. In the ensuing Second Battle of Tarain in 1192, Muhammad Ghori
thoroughly routed the army of Prithiviraj, who was captured and killed.
The second battle of Tarain was a decisive battle. It was a major disaster for the
Rajputs. Their political prestige suffered a serious setback. The whole Chauhan
kingdom now lay at the feet of the invader. The first Muslim kingdom was thus
firmly established in India at Ajmer and a new era in the history of India began.
After his brilliant victory over Prithiviraj at Tarain, Muhammad Ghori returned to
Ghazni leaving behind his favourite general Qutb-uddin Aibak to make further
conquests in India. Aibak consolidated his position in India by occupying places like Delhi and

Meerut. In 1193 he prepared the ground for another invasion by Muhammad Ghori. This
invasion was directed against the Gahadavala ruler Jayachandra. Muhammad routed
Jayachandras forces. Kanauj was occupied by the Muslims after the battle of Chandawar. The
Battles of Tarain and Chandawar contributed to the establishment of Turkish rule in India.
Causes for the failure of Hindu kingdoms
The causes for the downfall of Hindu states have to be analysed historically. The most
important cause was that they lacked unity. They were divided by factions. The Rajput
princes exhausted one another by their mutual conflicts. Secondly, many Hindu states were
declining in power. Their military methods were out of date and far inferior to those of
Muslims. Indians continued to rely on elephants while the Muslims possessed quick-moving
cavalry. The Muslims soldiers had better organization and able leaders. Their religious zeal and
their greed for the greater wealth of India provided stimulus to them. Among the Hindus, the
duty of fighting was confined to a particular class, the Kshatriyas. Moreover, the Hindus were
always on the defensive, which was always a weak position.

Mohammad bin Tuglaq

On account of his Utopian schemes and their failures, Muhammad Tughlaq has been often
given bad epithets like blood thirsty, a visionary, a lunatic and a tyrant. He has been
called a mixture of opposites and a complex person..Because of the following scheme he is
called as the man of ideas.
1. Heavy taxation in the Doab
2. Transfer of the capital
3. Issue of token currency
4. Bribing to Mongols
5. Plan to conquer Khurasan and Iraq
6. The Quarajal expedition
7. The Deccan Policy.