Government of the Russian Federation

National Research University Higher School of Economics

Faculty of World Economy and International Affairs

Course Papers

The development and Prospects of Japanese Music Therapy

Written by
Azmi Muharom
Group MA-1

Moscow, 2016

The development and Prospects of Japanese Music Therapy

introduction
According Tokita and Hughes (2007.1) general view of Japan as a mono-ethnic and
mono-culture

society,

challenged. Category

whether
Japanese

in

ancient

itself

has

or

modern

been

times

questioned

is

being

by

many

researchers. As well as in Japanese music, Tokita and Hughes, citing amino found
facts when discussing Japan, we should talk not about Japan regions or the
Japanese people, but about the people who lived in the Japanese archipelago. If
Japan itself is not a solid entity, unable to Japanese music culture also considered a
monolithic entity. If a simple label Japanese music probably referring to any music
that can be found in Japan, then the phrase Japanese music will be concluded as
the music comes from, played or enjoyed by the Japanese.
There are so many types and genres of music in Japan, past and present, and is
practiced by people in Japan or by Japanese diaspora. It is hard to define
traditional (or classical, pre-modern, traditional) music, pop music and western
music in the context of Japan because of cultural hybridity. To say Japanese music
will take us on a broad category in any period (Tokita and Hughes, 2007, 1).
We must consider the question of cultural homogeneity with the musical culture of a
group which forms a significant part of contemporary Japanese nation, they are the
Japanese people of Okinawa, Ainu and Koreans in Japan. The idea of the
uniqueness (nihonjinron) of the popular postwar Japan and national identity suggests
some essential quality of Japaneseness eternal and unchanging idea. However, the
quality as it is difficult to support in terms of musical culture, which has continued to
evolve, adapt, involving various groups, and create an ambivalent attitude towards
the traditional in the early twenty-first century (Tokita and Hughes, 2007, 2).
Moving on to the global context, Tokita and Hughes quote from Appadurai that when
we speak of cultural flow between local and global context. Biwa music is local music
from Kyushu region until the end of the nineteenth century, but it has now become a
metropolitan music, like many other Japanese folk music genre. Moreover, Okinawa

Music not only claimed to be a significant music in Japanese music but even have an
impact on the world of music and club music scene worldwide. Japanese
contemporary music (Westernstyle) is located in an international context is no longer
a local context. Taiko drum group, for example, have sprung up in countries around
the world but is still recognized from Japan, taiko despite growing local flavor. In
terms of both import and export of culture, Japan now firmly embedded in a global
context (Tokita and Hughes, 2007, 2).
In the eighteenth century, it is hard to imagine finding research to write about
Japanese music, although no record of a particular genre. In the twentieth century,
especially after the war, the concept of Japanese music is defined differently to
Western music. Experts of Japanese music history usually define the subject as
hgaku (national music), contrary to ygaku (Western music). This case does not
cover other music in the world who are categorized minzoku ongaku (folk or folkloric
music). Furthermore, as economic growth in the wake of the Second World War that
brought the restoration of Japan fell, there is a shift in perspective that can relativize
hgaku not only against Western music, but also to the music of other cultures
(Tokita and Hughes, 2007, 3).
In this essay, the author will discuss about Japanese music therapy. History of music
therapy began in the United States since the early decades after World War II, in the
land of Uncle Sam, music therapy pioneered by a small number of specialists in
related fields. From about 1955, music colleges and university that based schools of
music began to incorporate the psychology of music in their curriculum, and the
concept of music therapy is often taught as an applied field. Teachers and students
who find themselves interested in music therapy began to organize regional study
groups and to seek opportunities to practice music therapy on a voluntary basis
(Ikuno, 2005, 1). This is similar to developments in Japan, now music colleges and
university that based school of music in Japan have formed Japan Federation of
Music Therapy (JFMT) and Japanese Music Therapy Association (JMTA).
1.

The development of Music Therapy in Japan

Mary Rikov (2005, 3) quotes from Carolyn Kenny, when asked about music therapy,
in the 1950s the answer is:

My God, here it is again. What am I going to say this time?

Every time it is a challenge, a task, an invitation to increase
my own understanding by assigning words to something
which is indescribable by nature and has the additional
aspect of being something different every time it happens.
Music therapy in the early years is limited by the strong dominance of behaviorism,
which applies to the study and practice of psychology.
Music therapy in the United States, was originally founded in the era of World War II,
when the music has been used as a therapeutic environment in a veterans
hospital. Music therapy is beginning to be a new concept in the medical and
psychological.

Later, Kenny explained music therapy theory that practiced

themselves and in their own circles. She broke trail and Reviews those Followed that
created the qualitative music therapy research milieu we in modern day (Rikov,
2005.4).
Hospitals and schools administration, however, was not initially interested in studying
about music therapy. They want a simple answer about the results and cost
effectiveness. Both of these institutions in the future will give answers to many kinds
of music therapy process and product of the researchers. Furthermore, researchers
theories from psychology, sociology, anthropology, physiology and psychoanalysis
are familiar with other professionals in the music therapy began to function as a
bridge to the development of music therapy. (Rikov, 2005.5)
We can conclude that the initial conceptual about music therapy is still very
less. Construction theory goes hand in hand with the needs of music therapy is slow,
cumbersome and less business value.
Regarding the development of music therapy in Japan, from its early emergence, we
have the term ongaku-Ryoho (music therapy) in Japanese, but for the first few
decades after World War II, music therapy pioneered by a small number of
specialists who enthusiastically followed the trend of music therapy in the
world. (Ikuno, 2001, 2). From about 1955, music colleges and university that based
schools of music began to incorporate the psychology of music in their
curriculum. The concept of music therapy is often taught as a field of applied

psychology of music. From 1967-1977, few organizations established music therapy

research. In 1987, the Tokyo Association for Music Therapy was established, this is
a significant event in the history of Japanese music therapy, because this
organization is identified as one of the music therapy practitioners. In 1990, signs of
growth in this field very much, with increasing number of specialists who are either
self-trained or who studied abroad now practice music therapy. Generalists in the
field of music, education, medicine and the art also made cooperation with music
therapy. In 1995, in order to connect communities that music therapy is widespread
throughout Japan, the Japan Federation of Music Therapy (JFMT) was established,
which was later reorganized as an academic association named JMTA in April 2001.
(Ikuno, 2005.3)
JMTA main tasks are: 1) standardization and effective education 2) a certification
system 3) health insurance application. JMTA organizes national conferences and
educational lectures, publishes academic journals, provide / renew certification of
music therapists, as well as explore the possibility of a more institutionalized system
certification. (Ikuno, 2001, 3)
Based on the site JMTA, it is known that JMTA at the end of 2004 has about 6200
members, with 9 branches nationwide. JMTA Association has certified its members
since 1996. In 2013, there were 2,426 certified JMTA therapies. In the Official
Website also explained that JMTA already held a dozen times JMTA conference,
Japan Music Therapy Society tournament, as well as preparing to host an
international music therapy in the 15th World Congress of music therapy
( http://www.jmta.jp/en/#ptop).
In the beginning of 2016 from www.japantimes.co gave article news that Japan
faces growing demands for geriatric care, some hospitals and municipalities are
turning to music therapy to help people living with dementia. Hospital Jikeikai Aomori
in Aomori Prefecture is among the medical institutions that have introduced music
therapy. Junichi Koeda, a doctor in charge of music therapy, said music can
sometimes help ease Patients pain when medication does not work. There are cases
in roommates Patients listen to music as recreation, but using it as therapy is
something else entirely, he said (japantimes.co).

2.

The workings of Music Therapy in Japan

Voices academic journal explained that JMTA as music therapy organization in

Japan to certify therapists (Ikuno, 2005, 4), this is done by the following work:
1.
The therapist participates in a lecture organized or approved by JMTA.
Collect number of points to have a few years of practical experience, to
apply through the regulated documents, and to be certified through
the final interview.
2.
To complement the music therapy program of JMT A at 19 schools
approved curriculum has a 4 year undergraduate level, to undergo a
written examination to be certified as a temporary music therapist, and
then practice under supervision in order to be certified as music therapist
after the final interview.
3.
Also there are cases where the local government has a system of
training and certifying their own. In some cases, it is not always true that this
certification is necessary to practice music therapy in Japan
As for the therapists that verified can do the job to the following parties:

Developmentally disabled children (mental retardation, autism, cerebral

palsy, etc.) in Welfare centers and training centers, independent groups,
clients / therapists home, etc.

Developmentally disabled adults (mental retardation, autism, cerebral

palsy, etc) in Welfare centers, vocational centers, residential institutions, etc.

The elderly (Alzheimers disease, vascular dementia, preventive

activities, etc.) in Residential homes, day care centers, group homes,
hospitals, etc.

Psychiatric Patients disorder (schizophrenia, depression, etc.): in

Hospitals, day care centers, etc.

Terminal care Patients: Hospices, terminal care wards, etc.

Currently, the placement of Japanese music therapists has spread to a broad

spectrum. There is a place where music therapy has been recognized as a
professional field beyond music for recreational. In a strict sense, the latter case
cannot be defined as a therapy for participants who are too big and the irregularity
of their participation, but this placement is often a great potential in the placement of
long-term music therapy (Ikuno, 2005, 5).

Sakurabayashi, professor of psychology at Tokyo University for the Arts, which is

one of the pioneers and leaders of major music therapy in Japan have analyzed the
phenomenon of the development of music therapy through three possibilities. First,
because the society reached the peak of industrialization, participants experienced
high levels of stress, because the work environment automatized, fragmented and /
or systematic tend to ignore and relieving ones humanity. Secondly, in highly
developed societies, the concept of Fukushi or social care and well-being extend to
every member of society regardless of the growing economic status in Japanese
society. Third, music education itself began to change leads to music therapy. Since
1960, children have been educated in Western classical music, and as a result,
college graduates majoring in western music is that music therapy helped develop
(Ikuno, 2001, 3).
These facts that certainly rise are the standard of the public to appreciate music in
general, as well as music therapy in particular. This provides the basis for the
acceptance of music therapy as Japanese culture, it also makes music education in
Japan in very performance-oriented and competitive. (Ikuno, 2001, 3).
Tentative conclusion while achieved now is, Japanese music therapists now have an
attitude that is completely open to music therapy in different cultures, demanding and
also build solid confidence in their own traditions. Only this attitude will provide the
foundation for creating a new identity
4.

Prospects of Japanese Music Therapy

As we can see from the previous discussion about Japanese music therapy, music
therapy of Japan has developed rapidly during the 1990s and early 2000s. As a
result, the recognition of the general population has increased, the number of
professionals and students has grown, until the music therapy activities have spread
throughout Japan. This is achieved by the work of early generations of faithful are on
the basis of social background is rich, the music therapy.
Rika Ikuno in Development and Prospect of Music Therapy in Japan explained that
the Rapid Development is being occurred, it can be seen from the four trends that
prospective: Japanese culture, Japanese clinical perspective, the academic
community and professional societies.

First, When viewed Japanese culture then it will be found that the traditional
Japanese culture supports music therapy. Japanese traditional customs such as
codes of conduct on conscious and unconscious levels, acceptance of the influence
of the appeal of American culture and European culture are playing a leadership
role, as well as cultural exchanges with Asian countries, which also included
Japanese culture as Neotraditional.
All of this is a mixture that influences each other. None of them had a major force in
our daily lives. It seems that nearly all Japanese have unique features such as the
ability to use different culture according to different parts of their lives (Ikuno, b,
2005, 3).
Second, the prospect can be seen from the clinical side. In a clinical perspective,
one of the important themes of Japanese music therapy seems to be in the concept
of group and individual. They utilize traditional Japanese values Wa (harmony)
to support the welfare of the Japanese people. Japanese people place a high value
and specialized in the group, and a history of emotional or practical for it is very
long and deep.
Therefore, when this topic is analyzed and summarized by the western music
therapy methods, the Japanese music therapists need special study and
understanding (Ikuno, b, 2005, 3). Especially after an accelerated growth of the
economy, self-expression and self-realization has also become an important
value for many Japanese. Although the number is not too many, the methods are not
necessarily matured yet. We can say the Japanese music therapy cannot be
equated with Western methods of music therapy (Ikuno, b, 2005, 4).
If we look closely, the orientation of individual Japanese people today cannot be
separated from the traditional cultural orientation of the group were very down to
earth. People who live in a prosperous family seem to be able to feel good
balance. Instead, the confusion occurs in families from oppressed group. Groups
and individuals anywhere in this case require clinical sessions in a unique way to
Japanese culture. Music is one factor that could have a huge potential to be
cultivated in relation to this.

One of the mysteries of clinical in music therapy in Japanese culture also takes place
through the unique role of language and expression. Japanese language and the
expression is very different from English and western culture. Japanese tend to
deepen the presence of someone with refraining words, and spoke of the most
expressive with keep silence For Japanese, not only what has been said and the
way it has been said counts; what has carefully not been said and the actions taken
when saying and not saying are included in the area of expression. (Ikuno, b, 2005,
5).
Third, the prospect of music therapy currently placed on the Academic
community. The development of Japanese music therapy in the 1990s to the 2000s
seems to be important for the academic community. Japanese academic community
has a habit to accept and imitate the model rather than think and create its own
form. For example in the education system of traditional Japanese performing arts
such as Kabuki, students and academics are trained from an early age to carefully
watching and mimic the performance of precursors.
Here is a taboo to question the model or to create a style of his own unless he
actually approved as an independent professional. Similarly, in music therapy is a
relatively new field in education, there are no exceptions so that scholars will
continue to preserve it (Ikuno, b, 2005, 5).
In practice, people see a therapist junior automatically follows the structure of the
senior therapist. And in the academic conferences, there is a strange kind of selfsatisfactory feeling in some presenters Merely to imitate the form of scientific
medicine papers, without thoroughly discussing the content of the therapy process
(Ikuno, b, 2005, 5).
The fourth, or the last. The prospect of music therapy also located in the professional
community. Now, from a professional perspective, the establishment of the social
position of a music therapist still be the main agenda. Most Japanese music
therapists work part-time with the payment of a stable or even without this payment.
This situation not only affects the income of life, but also the mental stability as a
music therapist (Ikuno, b, 2005, 6).

In general, many of the Asian countries are economy centered society in a different
sense from Western

countries. Due

to

historical

circumstances,

economic

development has a first and most urgent priority. Things like music therapy can
easily insulted by the prejudice that it is something that does not contribute to
economic wealth. In such an environment, a professional society of music therapy
feel more pressured to establish a higher position in the economic society not only
for his own life, but also for the benefit of music therapy itself (Ikuno, b, 2005, 6).
However,

social

position

cannot

be

achieved

with

any

economic

independence. What about the competence and maturity as a profession? In

development, there are still many gaps that Japan must face the music therapist. In
modern Japan, professional and academic community have to fight in a position of
social, political authority and using historical role to make emotional / collusive
connections about Japanese music therapy (Ikuno, b, 2005, 6).
4.

Conclusion

There are so many types and genres of music in Japan, past and present, and is
practiced by people in Japan or by Japanese diaspora. In modern day Japanese
music have an impact on the world of music and club music scene worldwide.
Japanese contemporary music is located in an international context. In the context of
Music therapy in Japan also have same situation.
Music therapy in the early years is limited by the strong dominance of behaviorism,
which applies to the study and practice of psychology. Music therapy in the United
States, was originally founded in the era of World War II, when the music has been
used as a therapeutic environment in a veterans hospital. Music therapy is beginning
to be a new concept in the medical and psychological. In Japan In 1987, the Tokyo
Association for Music Therapy was established, this is a significant event in the
history of Japanese music therapy, then .In 1995, in order to connect communities
that music therapy is widespread throughout Japan, the Japan Federation of Music
Therapy (JFMT) was established, which was later reorganized as an academic
association named JMTA in April 2001.
Rika Ikuno from JMTA explained that the Rapid Development is being occurred, it
can be seen from the four trends that prospective: Japanese culture, Japanese

clinical perspective, the academic community and professional societies. However,

In modern Japan, professional and academic community have to fight in a position of
social, political authority and using historical role to make emotional / collusive
connections about Japanese music therapy.

Bibliography
Ikuno, R. (2005a). Development and Prospect of Music Therapy in Japan. Voices: A
World Forum for Music Therapy, 5.
Ikuno, R. (2005b). Fact Sheet of Music Therapy in Japan. Voices: A World Forum for
Music Therapy, 5.
Ikuno, R. (2001). Music Therapy Growth in Japan: The Richness and the Confusion
of Transition. Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy, 1.
Rykov, M. (2005). One Size Fits All, or What is Music Therapy Theory For? Voices:
A World Forum for Music Therapy, 5.
Tokita, Alison McQueen and Hughes, David W. (2007) Context and change in
Japanese music. In: The Ashgate research companion to Japanese music.
Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Limited, pp. 1-33. (SOAS Musicology Series)
http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2016/02/11/national/science-health/music-therapyincreasingly-recognized-japan-hospital-patients-elderly/#.V1ylvbt97IU
http://www.jmta.jp/en/#ptop