Digestive System

Your digestive system is uniquely designed to turn the food you eat into energy your body needs to
survive. Here's how it works.
Mouth
The mouth is the beginning of the digestive tract. In fact, digestion starts here as soon as you take the first bite of a
meal. Chewing breaks the food into pieces that are more easily digested, while saliva mixes with food to begin the
process of breaking it down into a form your body can absorb and use.
Throat
Also called the pharynx, the throat is the next destination for food you've eaten. From here, food travels to the
esophagus or swallowing tube.
Esophagus
The esophagus is a muscular tube extending from the pharynx to the stomach. By means of a series of contractions,
called peristalsis, the esophagus delivers food to the stomach. Just before the connection to the stomach there is a
"zone of high pressure," called the lower esophageal sphincter; this is a "valve" meant to keep food from passing
backwards into the esophagus.
Stomach
The stomach is a sac-like organ with strong muscular walls. In addition to holding the food, it's also a mixer and
grinder. The stomach secretes acid and powerful enzymes that continue the process of breaking down the food.
When it leaves the stomach, food is the consistency of a liquid or paste. From there the food moves to the small
intestine.
Small Intestine
Made up of three segments, the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum, the small intestine is a long tube loosely coiled in the
abdomen (spread out, it would be more than 20 feet long). The small intestine continues the process of breaking
down food by using enzymes released by the pancreas and bile from the liver. Bile is a compound that aids in the
digestion of fat and eliminates waste products from the blood. Peristalsis (contractions) is also at work in this organ,
moving food through and mixing it up with digestive secretions. The duodenum is largely responsible for continuing
the process of breaking down food, with the jejunum and ileum being mainly responsible for the absorption of
nutrients into the bloodstream.
Three organs play a pivotal role in helping the stomach and small intestine digest food:
Pancreas
Among other functions, the oblong pancreas secretes enzymes into the small intestine. These enzymes break down
protein, fat, and carbohydrates from the food we eat.
Liver
The liver has many functions, but two of its main functions within the digestive system are to make and secrete bile,
and to cleanse and purify the blood coming from the small intestine containing the nutrients just absorbed.
Gallbladder
The gallbladder is a pear-shaped reservoir that sits just under the liver and stores bile. Bile is made in the liver then
travels to the gallbladder through a channel called the cystic duct. During a meal, the gallbladder contracts, sending
bile to the small intestine.
Once the nutrients have been absorbed and the leftover liquid has passed through the small intestine, what is left of
the food you ate is handed over to the large intestine, or colon.
Colon (Large Intestine)
The colon is a 5- to 6-foot-long muscular tube that connects the cecum (the first part of the large intestine to the
rectum (the last part of the large intestine). It is made up of the ascending (right) colon, the transverse (across) colon,

the descending (left) colon, and the sigmoid colon (so-called for its "S" shape; the Greek letter for S is called the
sigma), which connects to the rectum.
Stool, or waste left over from the digestive process, is passed through the colon by means of peristalsis
(contractions), first in a liquid state and ultimately in solid form as the water is removed from the stool. A stool is
stored in the sigmoid colon until a "mass movement" empties it into the rectum once or twice a day. It normally takes
about 36 hours for stool to get through the colon. The stool itself is mostly food debris and bacteria. These bacteria
perform several useful functions, such as synthesizing various vitamins, processing waste products and food
particles, and protecting against harmful bacteria. When the descending colon becomes full of stool, or feces, it
empties its contents into the rectum to begin the process of elimination.
Rectum
The rectum (Latin for "straight") is an 8-inch chamber that connects the colon to the anus. It is the
rectum's job to receive stool from the colon, to let you know there is stool to be evacuated, and to hold
the stool until evacuation happens. When anything (gas or stool) comes into the rectum, sensors send
a message to the brain. The brain then decides if the rectal contents can be released or not. If they
can, the sphincters (muscles) relax and the rectum contracts, expelling its contents. If the contents
cannot be expelled, the sphincters contract and the rectum accommodates, so that the sensation
temporarily goes away.
Anus
The anus is the last part of the digestive tract. It consists of the pelvic floor muscles and the two anal sphincters
(internal and external muscles). The lining of the upper anus is specialized to detect rectal contents. It lets us know
whether the contents are liquid, gas, or solid. The pelvic floor muscle creates an angle between the rectum and the
anus that stops stool from coming out when it is not supposed to. The anal sphincters provide fine control of stool.
The internal sphincter keeps us from going to the bathroom when we are asleep, or otherwise unaware of the
presence of stool. When we get an urge to go to the bathroom, we rely on our external sphincter to keep the stool in
until we can get to the toilet.

Muscular System
While most people associate muscles with strength, they do more than assist in lifting heavy objects.
The 650 muscles in the body not only support movement controlling walking, talking, sitting,
standing, eating and other daily functions that we consciously perform but also help to maintain
posture and circulate blood and other substances throughout the body, among other functions.
Description of the muscular system
The nervous system controls the actions of the muscles, although some muscles, including the cardiac
muscle, can function autonomously. Muscles make up more than half of the weight of the human body,
and people who do heavy weight training often gain weight because muscle is about three times as
dense as fat.
The muscular system can be broken down into three types of muscles: skeletal, smooth and cardiac.
Skeletal muscles are the only voluntary muscle tissue in the human body and control every action that
a person consciously performs. Most skeletal muscles are attached to two bones across a joint, so the
muscle serves to move parts of those bones closer to each other.
Visceral, or smooth, muscle is found inside of organs such as the stomach, intestines, and blood
vessels. It is called a smooth muscle because unlike skeletal muscle, it does not have the banded
appearance of skeletal or cardiac muscle. The weakest of all muscle tissues, visceral muscles send
signals to contract to move substances through the organ. Because visceral muscle is controlled by the
unconscious part of the brain, it is known as involuntary muscle as it cannot be controlled by the
conscious mind.
Found only in the heart, cardiac muscle is responsible for pumping blood throughout the body. The
hearts natural pacemaker is made of cardiac muscle that signals other cardiac muscles to contract.
Like visceral muscles, cardiac muscle tissue is controlled involuntarily. While hormones and signals
from the brain adjust the rate of contraction, cardiac muscle stimulates itself to contract.

Muscles are further classified by their shape, size and direction. The deltoids have a triangular shape.
The serratus muscle, which originates on the surface of the second to ninth ribs at the side of the
chest and runs along the entire anterior length of the scapula, has a distinguishing saw-like shape.
The rhomboid major is a diamond shape.
Size can be used to differentiate similar muscles in the same region. The gluteal region contains three
muscles differentiated by size the gluteus maximus (large), gluteus medius (medium), and gluteus
minimus (smallest).
The direction in which the muscle fibers run can be used to identify a muscle. In the abdominal region,
there are several sets of wide, flat muscles. The muscles whose fibers run straight up and down are
the rectus abdominis, the ones running transversely (left to right) are the transverse abdominis, and
the ones running at an angle are the obliques. As any exercise enthusiast knows, obliques are among
the hardest muscles to develop and achieve six-pack abs.
Muscles can also be identified by their function. The flexor group of the forearm flexes the wrist and
the fingers. The supinator is a muscle that supinates the wrist by rolling it over to face palm up.
Abductor muscles in the legs adduct, or pull together, the limbs.
Diseases of the muscular system
There is no one type of doctor that treats muscular diseases and disorders. Rheumatologists,
orthopedists, and neurologists may all treat conditions which affect the muscles.
Because the muscular system impacts so many of the functions necessary to sustain life, any disease
or disorder can cause health problems, ranging from minor to severe. Not only do muscular disorders
affect mobility, but can result in many other functional abnormalities, such as the inability to breath,
swallow or speak.
Muscular dystrophy is a genetic disease that damages muscle fibers. The symptoms of muscular
dystrophy disease include weakness, loss of mobility and lack of coordination. More than 50,000
Americans suffer with one of the nine forms of the disease, which can occur at any time in a persons
life and has no cure.
Cerebral palsy impacts posture, balance and motor functions. Brain damage during or before
childbirth causes a loss of muscle tone, making it difficult to perform everyday tasks. It is one of the
most common congenital disorders.
Myasthenia gravis is a chronic autoimmune disease that results in muscle weakness and fatigue. A
breakdown of the neuromuscular junction causes the brain to lose control over these muscles, which
can result in difficulty breathing and swallowing,
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), often referred to as "Lou Gehrig's disease," is a progressive
neurodegenerative disease that affects nerve cells in the brain. It is a fatal disease that affects 30,000
Americans at any one time and leads to a loss of control over voluntary muscle movement, making it
increasingly difficult to swallow, breath and speak. The disease ultimately causes paralysis and death.
Fibromyalgia is a chronic disorder characterized by widespread muscle pain, stiffness, fatigue, and
tenderness in localized areas. While this is a difficult disease to pinpoint and diagnose and can mimic
many other medical problems, it has gained acceptance as a recognized health issue over the past
decade.

Skeletal System
The adult human skeletal system consists of 206 bones, as well as a network of tendons, ligaments
and cartilage that connects them. The skeletal system performs vital functions support, movement,
protection, blood cell production, calcium storage and endocrine regulation that enable us to move
through our daily lives.
Animals with internal skeletons made of bone, called vertebrates, are actually the minority, as 98
percent of all animals are invertebrates, meaning they do not have internal skeletons or backbones.
Human infants are born with 300 to 350 bones, some of which fuse together as the body develops. By
the time most children reach the age of 9 they have 206 bones.

The skeletons of adult males and females have some variation, primarily to accommodate childbirth.
The female pelvis is flatter, more rounded and proportionally larger. A male's pelvis is about 90
degrees or less of angle, whereas a female's is 100 degrees or more.
While they become brittle when outside of the body, bones are very much alive inside the body, being
fed by a network of blood vessels from the circulatory system and nerves from the nervous system.
A typical bone has a dense and tough outer layer. Next is a layer of spongy bone, which lighter and
slightly flexible. In the middle of some bones is jelly-like bone marrow, where new cells are constantly
being produced for blood.
Teeth are considered part of the skeletal system but they are not counted as bones. Teeth are made of
dentin and enamel, which is strongest substance in your body. Teeth also play a key role in
the digestive system.
The skeletal system has two distinctive parts: the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.
The axial skeleton, with a total of 80 bones, consists of the vertebral column, the rib cage and the
skull. The axial skeleton transmits the weight from the head, the trunk and the upper extremities
down to the lower extremities at the hip joints, which help humans maintain our upright posture.
The appendicular skeleton has a total of 126 bones, and is formed by the pectoral girdles, the upper
limbs, the pelvic girdle and the lower limbs. Their functions are to make walking, running and other
movement possible and to protect the major organs responsible for digestion, excretion and
reproduction.
Diseases of the skeletal system
X-rays, MRIs, bone density tests and arthroscopy are some of the primary diagnostic tools used to
detect diseases and deformities of the skeletal system. Bone scans and bone marrow biopsies are
used to diagnose cancer.
Osteoporosis is a prevalent disease of the skeletal system, particularly among the elderly, resulting in
the loss of bone tissue. In osteoporosis, bone loses calcium, becomes thinner, and may disappear
completely.
Also common is scoliosis, a side-to-side curve in the back or spine, often creating a pronounced "C" or
"S" shape when viewed on an x-ray of the spine. This condition is typically becomes evident during
adolescence.
Arthritis is a group of more than 100 inflammatory diseases that damage joints and their surrounding
structures. Arthritis can attack joints, joint capsules, the surrounding tissue, or throughout the body.
It usually affects the joints of the neck, shoulders, hands, lower back, hips, or knees.
While leukemia is a cancer that primarily affects the blood, the skeletal system is involved as the
cancer starts in the marrow of the bone. With this type of cancer, abnormal white blood cells multiply
uncontrollably, affecting the production of normal white blood cells and red blood cells.
Bone cancer is another disease of the skeletal system. It may originate in the bones or spread there
from another part of the body. In the United States, bone cancer accounts for only about 1 percent of
cancer cases.
Bursitis is a disorder that causes pain in the body's joints. It most commonly affects the shoulder and
hip joints. It is caused by an inflammation of the bursa, small fluid-filled bags that act as lubricating
surfaces for muscles to move over bones.
Rickets, the result of insufficient amounts of vitamin D, calcium and phosphorous, can result in poor
bone development in children.
The skeletal system is also susceptible to breaks, strains and fractures. While bones are meant to
protect the bodys vital organs, it takes about 10 to 16 pounds of pressure to break an average bone.
Bones such as the skull and femur are much tougher to break.
Study of the skeletal system
Orthopedics is the medical specialty responsible for treating entire skeletal system. In the United
States, orthopedic surgeons have typically completed four years of undergraduate education and four
years of medical school. They then undergo residency training in orthopedic surgery. The American
Board of Orthopaedic Surgery oversees the certification process for this specialty. Many go on to
further specialize in specific areas, such as the spine, hand or sports injuries.
Humans have been dealing with injuries and disease from the beginning of time. Some important
milestones in the history of orthopedics include:

Hippocrates, the ancient Greek father of medicine, develops splints for fractures of the tibia.

During the Roman era, Galen (129-199 BC) describes the skeletal system and the surrounding
muscles. Medical experts of the time also develop the first artificial prostheses.

Ambroise Pare (1510-1590), the father of French surgery, develops techniques for
amputations and artificial limbs.

Antonius Mathysen (1805-1878), a Dutch military surgeon, in 1851 invents the plaster of Paris
(POP) bandage. A POP cast remains the primary method of fracture immobilization today.

In 1895, Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen accidentally discovers an image cast from his cathode ray
generator, projected far beyond the possible range of the cathode rays. He wins the Nobel
Prize for Physics in 1901 for his discovery of x-rays.

Sir Reginald Watson-Jones (1902-1972) publishes Fractures and Joint Injuries in 1940, which
remains a standard reference for several decades.

In 1949, H. Lowry Rush (1879-1965) uses stainless steel pins to treat long bone fractures.

Circulatory System
The circulatory system is an organ system that permits blood and lymph circulation to transport nutrients (such
as amino acidsand electrolytes), oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, blood cells, etc. to and from cells in the body to
nourish it and help to fight diseases, stabilize body temperature and pH, and to maintain homeostasis.
This system may be seen strictly as a blood distribution network, but some consider the circulatory system as
composed of the cardiovascular system, which distributes blood,[1] and the lymphatic system,[2] which returns
excess filtered blood plasma from the interstitial fluid (between cells) as lymph. While humans, as well as
other vertebrates, have a closed cardiovascular system (meaning that the blood never leaves the network
of arteries, veins and capillaries), some invertebrate groups have an open cardiovascular system. The more primitive,
diploblastic animal phyla lack circulatory systems. The lymphatic system, on the other hand, is an open system
providing an accessory route for excess interstitial fluid to get returned to the blood.[3]
Two types of fluids move through the circulatory system: blood and lymph. Lymph is essentially recycled blood
plasma after it has been filtered from the blood cells and returned to the lymphatic system. The blood, heart, and
blood vessels form the cardiovascular (from Latin words meaning 'heart'-'vessel') system. The lymph, lymph nodes,
and lymph vessels form the lymphatic system. The cardiovascular system and the lymphatic system collectively make
up the circulatory system.[2]
The Circulatory System is responsible for transporting materials throughout the entire body. It transports nutrients,
water, and oxygen to your billions of body cells and carries away wastes such as carbon dioxide that body cells
produce. It is an amazing highway that travels through your entire body connecting all your body cells.

Parts of the Circulatory System

The circulatory System is divided into three major parts:
1.

The Heart

2.

The Blood

3.

The Blood Vessels

The Heart
The Heart is an amazing organ. The heart beats about 3 BILLION times during an average lifetime. It is a muscle
about the size of your fist. The heart is located in the center of your chest slightly to the left. It's job is to pump your
blood and keep the blood moving throughout your body.
It is your job to keep your heart healthy and there are three main things you need to remember in order to keep your
heart healthy.

1.

Exercise on a regular basis. Get outside and play. Keep that body moving (walk, jog, run, bike, skate, jump,
swim).

2.

Eat Healthy. Remember the Food Pyramid and make sure your eating your food from the bottom to top.

3.

Don't Smoke! Don't Smoke! Don't Smoke! Don't Smoke! Don't Smoke!
Back to Contents

The Blood
The blood is an amazing substance that is constantly flowing through our bodies.

Your blood is pumped by your heart.

Your blood travels through thousands of miles of blood vessels right within your own body.

Your blood carries nutrients, water, oxygen and waste products to and from your body cells.

A young person has about a gallon of blood. An adult has about 5 quarts.

Your blood is not just a red liquid but rather is made up of liquids, solids and small amounts of oxygen and
carbon dioxide.

Blood Cells
Red Blood Cells
Red Blood Cells are responsible for carrying oxygen and carbon dioxide. Red Blood Cells pick up oxygen
in the lungs and transport it to all the body cells. After delivering the oxygen to the cells it gathers up the
carbon dioxide(a waste gas produced as our cells are working) and transports carbon dioxide back to the
lungs where it is removed from the body when we exhale(breath out). There are about 5,000,000 Red Blood
Cells in ONE drop of blood.
White Blood Cells (Germinators)
White Blood Cells help the body fight off germs. White Blood Cells attack and destroy germs when they
enter the body. When you have an infection your body will produce more White Blood Cells to help fight an
infection. Sometimes our White Blood Cells need a little help and the Doctor will prescribe an antibiotic to
help our White Blood Cells fight a large scale infection.
Platelets
Platelets are blood cells that help stop bleeding. When we cut ourselves we have broken a blood vessel
and the blood leaks out. In order to plug up the holes where the blood is leaking from the platelets start to
stick to the opening of the damaged blood vessels. As the platelets stick to the opening of the damaged
vessel they attract more platelets, fibers and other blood cells to help form a plug to seal the broken blood
vessel. When the platelet plug is completely formed the wound stops bleeding. We call our platelet plugs
scabs.
Plasma
Plasma is the liquid part of the blood. Approximately half of your blood is made of plasma. The plasma
carries the blood cells and other components throughout the body. Plasma is made in the liver.
Where are the blood cells made?
The Red Blood Cells, White Blood Cells and Platelets are made by the bone marrow. Bone marrow is a soft tissue
inside of our bones that produces blood cells.
The Blood Vessels
In class we talked about three types of blood vessels:
1.

Arteries

2.

Capillaries

3.

Veins

Arteries
Arteries are blood vessels that carry oxygen rich blood AWAY from the heart. Remember, A A Arteries Away,
A A Arteries Away, A A Arteries Away.
Capillaries
Capillaries are tiny blood vessels as thin or thinner than the hairs on your head. Capillaries connect arteries
to veins. Food substances(nutrients), oxygen and wastes pass in and out of your blood through the capillary
walls.
Veins
Veins carry blood back toward your heart.

Respiratory System
The human respiratory system is a series of organs responsible for taking in oxygen and expelling
carbon dioxide. In terrestrial animals, this is accomplished by breathing. The human body needs
oxygen to sustain itself. A complete lack of oxygen is known as anoxia and a decrease in oxygen is
known as hypoxia. After four to six minutes brain cells without oxygen brain cells are destroyed and
an extended period of hypoxia leads to brain damage and ultimately death.
In humans, the average rate of breathing is dependent upon age. Newborns up to 6 weeks take 30 to
60 breaths per minute, while the average resting respiratory rate for adults is 12 to 20 breaths per
minute. Physical exertion also has an impact on respiratory rate and healthy adults can average 45
breaths per minute during strenuous exercise.
Description of the respiratory system
The primary organs of the respiratory system are lungs, which function to take in oxygen and expel
carbon dioxide as we breathe. Red blood cells collect the oxygen from the lungs and carry it to the
parts of the body where it is needed. During the process, the red blood cells collect the carbon dioxide
and transport it back to the lungs, where it leaves the body when we exhale.
The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs in the alveoli, the tiny sacs that are the basic
functional component of the lungs. The alveolar walls are extremely thin (about 0.2 micrometers).
These walls are composed of a single layer of epithelial cells and the pulmonary capillaries.
The trachea, also called the windpipe, filters the air that is inhaled. It branches into the bronchi, which
are two tubes that carry air into the lungs.
The diaphragm, a dome-shaped muscle at the bottom of the lungs, controls breathing. When a breath
it taken, it flattens out and pulls forward, making more space for the lungs. During exhalation, the
diaphragm expands and forces air out.
Diseases of the respiratory system
Common diagnostic tools for diagnosing respiratory disease include chest x-ray, pulmonary function
test and CT scan. A bronchoscopy is performed by inserting a bronchoscope into the airways usually
through the nose or mouth to examine for bleeding, tumors, inflammation or other abnormalities.
Diseases and conditions of the respiratory system can be caused by the inhalation of foreign bodies
such as cigarette smoke, chemicals, allergens and other irritants. Not all people will develop
respiratory ailments as a result of environmental factors, as genetics also play a role in the
development of respiratory diseases.
Asthma causes breathing difficulties due to inflammation of bronchi and bronchioles, this causes a
restriction in the airflow into the alveoli. Air pollution, tobacco smoke, factory fumes, cleaning
solvents, infections, pollens, foods, cold air, exercise, chemicals and medications are some common
asthma triggers.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is the intersection of three related conditions chronic
bronchitis, chronic asthma, and emphysema. It is a progressive disease that makes in increasingly
difficult for sufferers to breath.
Lung cancer is often associated with smoking, but the disease can affect non-smokers as well. Like all
cancers, lung cancer is caused by the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells.
Some other ailments involving the respiratory system are respiratory infections, including tuberculosis,
pneumonia and influenza.
Study of the respiratory system
Pulmonologists, a sub-specialty of internal medicine, treat the respiratory system, including the lungs.
Because of the critical nature of the respiratory system, pulmonologists work in hospitals as well as in
private practice. A pulmonologist must first be certified by the American Board of Internal Medicine
and then obtain additional training in the sub-specialty.
Some milestones in the study of the respiratory system include:

13th century: Anatomist and physiologist Ibn Al-Nafis advances his theory that the blood must
have passed through the pulmonary artery, through the lungs, and back into the heart to be
pumped around the body. This is believed by many to be the first scientific description of
pulmonary circulation.

1897: Gustav Killian uses a rigid esophagoscope to extract a pork bone from a farmers
bronchus.

1898: A. Coolidge performs the first bronchoscopy in the United States at the Massachusetts
General Hospital.

1905: Looking to improve the care of tuberculosis patients by sharing their experiences and
discoveries, a small group of physicians form what becomes the American Thoracic Society.

1907: In Philadelphia, Chevalier Jackson develops and improves the instruments for
bronchoscopy and esophagoscopy.

1963: James Hardy of the University of Mississippi performs the first human lung transplant.
The patient lives for 18 days.

1964: Shigeto Ikeda develops a prototype of what was to be the first flexible bronchoscope.

1983: Joel D. Cooper, a thoracic surgeon, performs the first successful lung transplant in
Toronto.

1986: Cooper performs the first successful double lung transplant.

Urinary System
The urinary system also known as the renal system produces, stores and eliminates urine, the
fluid waste excreted by the kidneys. The urinary system includes two kidneys, two ureters, the
bladder, two sphincter muscles and the urethra.
Description of the urinary system
The urinary system works with the lungs, skin and intestines to maintain the balance of chemicals and
water in the body. Adults eliminate about a quart and a half (1.42 liters) of urine each day, depending
on the amount of fluid consumed and fluid lost through perspiring and breathing. Certain types of
medications, such as diuretics that are sometimes used to treat high blood pressure, can also affect
the amount of urine a person produces and eliminates. Certain beverages, such as coffee, can also
cause increased urination in some people.
The primary organs of the urinary system are the kidneys, which are bean-shaped organs that are
located just below the rib cage in the middle of the back. The kidneys remove urea waste product
formed by the breakdown of proteins from the blood through small filtering units called nephrons.
Each nephron consists of a ball formed of small blood capillaries, called a glomerulus, and a small tube
called a renal tubule. Urea, together with water and other waste substances, forms the urine as it
passes through the nephrons and down the renal tubules of the kidney.
From the kidneys, urine travels down two thin tubes, called ureters, to the bladder. The ureters are
about 8 to 10 inches long (20 to 25 centimeters).
Muscles in the ureter walls continuously tighten and relax to force urine away from the kidneys. A
backup of urine can cause a kidney infection. Small amounts of urine are emptied into the bladder
from the ureters about every 10 to 15 seconds.
The bladder is a hollow muscular organ shaped like a balloon. It sits in the pelvis and is held in place
by ligaments attached to other organs and the pelvic bones. The bladder stores urine until you are
ready to empty it. A normal, healthy bladder can hold up to 16 ounces (almost half a liter) of urine
comfortably for 2 to 5 hours.
To prevent leakage, circular muscles called sphincters close tightly around the opening of the bladder
into the urethra, the tube that allows urine to pass outside the body. The only difference between the
female and male urinary system is the length of the urethra. In females, the urethra is about 1.5
inches (3.8 cm) to 2 inches (5.1 cm) long and sits between the clitoris and the vagina. In males, it

runs the length of the penis, is about 8 inches (20 cm) long and opens at the end of the penis. The
male urethra is used to eliminate urine as well as semen during ejaculation.
Nerves in the bladder send signals when it needs to be emptied. The sensation to urinate becomes
stronger as the bladder reaches its limit. At that point, nerves from the bladder send a message to the
brain that the bladder is full, and your urge to empty your bladder intensifies. When you urinate, the
brain signals the bladder muscles to tighten while simultaneously signaling the sphincter muscles to
relax.
Diseases of the urinary system
Kidney diseases are treated by a nephrologist, who completes a three-year residency in internal
medicine after medical school. That is followed by a two-year (or longer) fellowship in nephrology.
Urologists treat ailments involving the urinary tract in both males and females, including the kidneys,
adrenal glands, ureters, bladder and urethra. Urologists also treat the male reproductive organs, while
gynecologists often treat urinary diseases or disorders in females, including yeast infections.
Nephrologists and urologists often work with endocrinologists or oncologists, depending on the
disease.
Urinary tract infections (UTIs) occur when bacteria enters the urinary tract and can affect the urethra,
bladder or even the kidneys. While UTIs are more common in women, they can occur in men. UTIs are
typically treated with antibiotics.
Interstitial cystitis (IC), also called painful bladder syndrome, is a chronic bladder condition that
doesnt have a known cause. It can cause bladder scarring, and can make the bladder less elastic. A
typical result is that the bladder cannot hold as much urine.
Prostatitis is a swelling of the prostate gland and, therefore, can only occur in men. Often caused by
advanced age, symptoms include urinary urgency and frequency, pelvic pain and pain during
urination.
Kidney stones are clumps of calcium oxalate that can be found anywhere in the urinary tract. Kidney
stones can cause pain in the back and sides, as well as blood in the urine.
Kidney failure, also called renal failure, can be a temporary (often acute) condition or can become a
chronic condition resulting in the inability of the kidneys to filter waste from the blood. Acute cases
may be caused by trauma or other damage, and may recover over time with treatment. However,
renal disease may lead to chronic kidney failure, which may require dialysis treatments or even a
kidney transplant.
Bladder cancer is diagnosed in about 67,000 Americans each year and is more frequent in men. The
symptoms, including back or pelvic pain, difficulty urinating and urgent/and or frequent urination,
mimic other diseases or disorders of the urinary system.

Endocrine System
The endocrine system is the collection of glands, each of which secretes different types of hormones
that regulate metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sexual function, reproduction,
sleep and mood, among other things.
The word endocrine derives from the Greek words "endo," meaning within, and "crinis," meaning
secrete.
Description of the endocrine system
The endocrine system is made of eight major glands, which are groups of cells that produce and
secrete chemicals. A gland selects and removes materials from the blood, processes them, and
secretes the finished chemical product for use somewhere in the body. Almost every organ and cell in
the body is affected by the endocrine system.

A group of glands that signal each other in sequence are usually referred to as an axis. One example
is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, which coordinates interactions among the hypothalamus,
the pituitary gland and the adrenal, also called "suprarenal" glands, which are small, conical organs on
top of the kidneys.
The endocrine system sends signals throughout the body, much like the nervous system, but unlike
the immediate responses triggered by the nervous system, the effects can take a few hours or weeks.
Hormones released from endocrine tissue into the bloodstream where they travel to target tissue to
elicit a response.
Endocrine glands are vascular and generally do not have ducts, using intracellular vacuoles, or
granules, to store hormones. They differ from, exocrine glands salivary glands, sweat glands and
glands within the gastrointestinal tract which have ducts or a hollow lumen.
The endocrine system gets some help from organs such as the kidney, liver, heart and gonads, which
have secondary endocrine functions. The kidney, for example, secretes hormones such as
erythropoietin and renin.
Diseases of the endocrine system
Hormone levels that are too high or too low are an indication of a problem with the endocrine system.
Hormone diseases also occur if your body does not respond to hormones in the appropriate ways.
Stress, infection and changes the blood's fluid and electrolyte balance can also influence hormone
levels.
The most common endocrine disease in the United States is diabetes, a condition in which the body
does not properly process glucose. This is due to the lack of insulin or, if the body is producing insulin,
it is not working effectively.
Hormone imbalances can have a significant impact on the reproductive systems, particularly in
women. Endocrinologists treat patients with fertility issues and also assess and treat patients with
health concerns surrounding menstruation and menopause.
Hypothyroidism occurs when the thyroid gland does not produce enough thyroid hormone to meet the
bodys needs. Insufficient thyroid hormone can cause many of the bodys functions to slow or shut
down completely.
Thyroid cancer begins in the thyroid gland and starts when the cells in the thyroid begin to change,
grow uncontrollably and eventually form a tumor.
Hypoglycemia, also called low blood glucose or low blood sugar, occurs when blood glucose drops
below normal levels. This typically happens as a result of treatment for diabetes when too much
insulin is taken. While it can occur in people not undergoing treatment for diabetes, it is fairly rare.
A metabolic disorder occurs when there is an imbalance of substances needed to keep the body
functioning hormone levels may be too high or low. Metabolic disorder when some organs, such as
your liver or pancreas, become diseased or do not function normally. Diabetes is an example.
The bones can be impacted by hormones. Osteoporosis and Osteomalacia (rickets), which causes
bones to soften, come under the guise of endocrinologists.
What is an endocrinologist?
After completing four years of medical school, endocrinologists finish four years of medical school and
then spend three or four years in an internship and residency program. These specialty programs
cover internal medicine, pediatrics, or obstetrics and gynecology.
They spend two or three more years learning how to diagnose and treat hormone conditions. Overall,
an endocrinologist's training will take more than 10 years. They are certified by the American Board of
Internal Medicine. Endocrinologists typically specialize in one or two areas of endocrinology, such as
diabetes or infertility.
Some milestones in the study of the endocrine system:
200 B.C. The Chinese began isolating sex and pituitary hormones from human urine and using them
for medicinal purposes

1025 Iranian author Nabipour I., in medieval Persia, Avicenna (980-1037) provided a detailed
account on diabetes mellitus in "The Canon of Medicine" (c. 1025), described the abnormal appetite,
the collapse of sexual functions and the sweet taste of diabetic urine.
1835 Irish doctor Robert James Graves described a case of goiter with exophthalmos. The thyroid
condition Graves' disease was later named after him.
1902 William Bayliss and Ernest Starling performed an experiment in which they observed that acid
instilled into the duodenum caused the pancreas to begin secretion, even after they had removed all
nervous connections between the two.
1889 Joseph von Mering and Oskar Minkowski observed that surgically removing the pancreas
resulted in increased in blood sugar, followed by a coma and eventual death.
1921 Otto Loewi in 1921 discovered neurohormones by incubating a frog's heart in a saline bath.
1922 Leonard Thompson, a 14-year-old boy, was the first person with diabetes to receive insulin.
Drug maker Eli Lilly soon started mass production of insulin.

Nervous System
The nervous system is a complex collection of nerves and specialized cells known as neurons that
transmit signals between different parts of the body. Vertebrates animals with backbones and spinal
columns have central and peripheral nervous systems.
The central nervous system is made up of the brain, spinal cord and retina. The peripheral nervous
system consists of sensory neurons, ganglia (clusters of neurons) and nerves that connect to one
another and to the central nervous system.
Description of the nervous system
The nervous system is essentially the bodys electrical wiring. It is composed of nerves, which are
cylindrical bundles of fibers that start at the brain and central cord and branch out to every other part
of the body.
Neurons send signals to other cells through thin fibers called axons, which cause chemicals known as
neurotransmitters to be released at junctions called synapses. A synapse gives a command to the cell
and the entire communication process typically takes only a fraction of a millisecond.
Sensory neurons react to physical stimuli such as light, sound and touch and send feedback to the
central nervous system about the bodys surrounding environment. Motor neurons, located in the
central nervous system or in peripheral ganglia, transmit signals to activate the muscles or glands.
Glial cells, derived from the Greek word for "glue," support the neurons and hold them in place. Glial
cells also feed nutrients to neurons, destroy pathogens, remove dead neurons and act as traffic cops
by directing the axons of neurons to their targets. Specific types of glial cells (oligodendrocytes in the
central nervous system and Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system) generate layers of a fatty
substance called myelin that wraps around axons and provides electrical insulation to enable them to
rapidly and efficiently transmit signals. [Countdown: 10 Things You Didn't Know About the Brain]
Diseases of the nervous system
There are a number of tests and procedures to diagnose conditions involving the nervous system.
Aside from MRIs and CT scans, an electroencephalogram (EEG) is often used to record the brain's
continuous electrical activity by attaching electrodes to the scalp. Positron emission tomography (PET)
is a procedure that measures the metabolic activity of cells.
A spinal tap places a needle into the spinal canal to drain a small amount of cerebral spinal fluid that is
tested for infection or other abnormalities.
A number of nerve disorders can affect the nervous system, including vascular disorders such as
stroke, transient ischemic attack (TIA), subarachnoid hemorrhage, subdural hemorrhage and
hematoma, and extradural hemorrhage.

The nervous system can also experience functional difficulties, which result in conditions such as
epilepsy, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Huntington's
chorea, and Alzheimer's disease.
Infections such as meningitis, encephalitis, polio, and epidural abscess can also affect the nervous
system.
Structural disorders such as brain or spinal cord injury, Bell's palsy, cervical spondylosis, carpal tunnel
syndrome, brain or spinal cord tumors, peripheral neuropathy, and Guillain-Barr syndrome also strike
the nervous system.
Study of the nervous system
The branch of medicine that studies and treats the nervous system is called neurology and doctors
who practice in this field of medicine are called neurologists. Once they have completed medical
training, neurologists complete additional training for their specialty and are certified by the American
Board of Psychiatry and Neurology.
Neurosurgeons perform surgeries involving the nervous system and are certified by the American
Association of Neurological Surgeons.
There are also physiatrists, who are physicians who work to rehabilitate patients who have
experienced disease or injury to their nervous systems that impact their ability to function.

Reproductive System
The reproductive system is a collection of organs that work together for the purpose of producing a
new life. Scientists argue that the reproductive system is among the most important systems in the
entire body. Without the ability to reproduce, a species dies.
The major organs of the reproductive system include the external genitalia and internal organs,
including gonads that produce gamete, which is a cell that fuses with another cell during conception in
organisms that reproduce sexually. Substances such as fluids, hormones, and pheromones are also
important to the effective functioning of the reproductive system.
The male reproductive system consists of two major parts: the testes, where sperm are produced, and
the penis. In humans, both of these organs are outside the abdominal cavity. Having the testes
outside the abdomen facilitates temperature regulation of the sperm, which require specific
temperatures to survive. If the testicles remain too close to the body, the higher temperature will
likely harm the spermatozoa, making conception more difficult or impossible. The testes are carried in
an external pouch known as the scrotum, where they normally remain slightly cooler than body
temperature to facilitate sperm production.
The two major parts of the female reproductive system are the vagina and uterus which act as the
receptacle for semen and the ovaries, which produce the female's ova. The vagina is attached to
the uterus through the cervix, while the Fallopian tubes connect the uterus to the ovaries. In response
to hormonal changes, one ovum, or egg or more in the case of multiple births is released and
sent down the Fallopian tube during ovulation. If not fertilized, this egg is eliminated as a result of
menstruation.
The fertilization of the ovum with the sperm occurs only at the ampullary-isthimic junction, which is
why intercourse does not always result in pregnancy.
At the time of conception, the ovum meets with spermatozoon, where a sperm may penetrate and
merge with the egg, resulting in fertilization. While the fertilization usually occurs in the oviducts, it
can also happen in the uterus itself. The egg then becomes implanted in the lining of the uterus,
where it begins the processes of embryogenesis and morphogenesis. When the fetus is mature enough
to survive outside of the womb, the cervix dilates and contractions of the uterus propel it through the
birth canal.
Diseases of the reproductive system
There are many parts of the male and female reproductive systems that can be affected by cancer. In
females, cancer can attack the uterus, ovaries, breast and cervix, among other organs. Males can
develop prostate, testicular and penile cancer.

Both genders can develop sexually transmitted diseases, including genital herpes, gonorrhea and
syphilis. HIV/AIDS, a disease of the immune system, is not exclusively transmitted through sexual
contact; sexual activity is one of the ways that the HIV virus is spread.
While genital human papillomavirus (HPV) is commonly associated with females, it is the mostly
commonly sexually transmitted infection and most sexually active people in the United States, male
and female, will have HPV at some time in their lives. In most people it causes no problems, but in
women it can result in cervical cancer and genital warts and in men it can cause penile and anal
cancer and genital warts.
For females, one of the more common disorders of the reproductive system is a vaginal yeast
infection, which is caused by a yeast fungus in the vagina.
Endometriosis is a condition involving colonization of the abdominal/pelvic cavity with islands of
endometrial tissue. If endometrial tissue flushes up the uterine tube during menstruation and spills
into the abdomen, the clots of endometrial tissue can attach to abdominal organs such as the bladder,
rectum, intestinal loops and then cycle along with the uterus in response to monthly changes in
ovarian hormones.
Pelvic inflammatory disease is a condition where bacteria can make their way up the vagina, through
the uterus, and traverse the uterine tubes which open into the abdominal cavity.
In women with a prolapsed uterus, the ligaments that hold the uterus in proper position so that it does
not prolapse, or herniate, into the vagina, have failed.
Infertility is defined as a couple's inability to conceive after one year of regular intercourse.
In males, infertility is a condition in they produce no sperm cells (azoospermia), too few sperm cells
(oligospermia), or if their sperm cells are abnormal or die before they can reach the egg. Chronic
problems with ejaculation (sperm released at orgasm) also contribute to male infertility. In rare
cases, infertility in men is caused by an inherited condition, such as cystic fibrosis or chromosomal
abnormalities.
Men can also experience epididymitis, which is an inflammation of the epididymis, the tube that lies on
and around each testicle and plays a role in the transportation, storage, and maturation of sperm
cells.
Another condition of the male reproductive system is hypogonadism, which occurs when the testicles
do not produce enough testosterone.
In women, infertility is defined as a disorder of the reproductive system that hinders the body's ability
to ovulate, conceive, or carry an infant to term.
Reproductive conditions are treated by a variety of specialists. In women, many issues are treated by
obstetricians/gynecologists and for males urologists handle many disorders of their reproductive
systems. There are also infertility experts that treat couples who are unable to conceive and
endocrinologists who treat hormonal disorders.

Hormones and the menstrual cycle

The menstrual cycle is complex and controlled by many different glands and the hormones they produce. A brain
structure called the hypothalamus causes the nearby pituitary gland to produce certain chemicals, which prompt the
ovaries to produce the sex hormones oestrogen and progesterone.
The menstrual cycle is a biofeedback system, which means each structure and gland is affected by the activity of the
others. The four main phases of the menstrual cycle are menstruation, the follicular phase, ovulation and the luteal
phase.

Menstruation
Menstruation is the elimination of the thickened lining of the uterus (endometrium) from the body through the vagina.
Menstrual fluid contains blood, cells from the lining of the uterus (endometrial cells) and mucus. The average length
of a period is between three days and one week, depending on the individual.
Sanitary pads or tampons are used to absorb the menstrual flow. Both pads and tampons need to be changed
regularly (at least every four hours). Using tampons has been associated with an increased risk of a rare illness
called toxic shock syndrome.

Follicular phase
The follicular phase starts on the first day of menstruation and ends with ovulation. Prompted by the hypothalamus,
the pituitary gland releases follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). This hormone stimulates the ovary to produce around
five to 20 follicles (tiny nodules or cysts), which bead on the surface.
Each follicle houses an immature egg. Usually, only one follicle will mature into an egg, while the others die. This can
happen at around day 10 of a 28-day cycle. The growth of the follicles stimulates the lining of the uterus to thicken in
preparation for possible pregnancy.

Ovulation
Ovulation means the release of a mature egg from the ovarys surface. This generally happens at mid-cycle, around
two weeks or so before menstruation starts. During the follicular phase, the developing follicle causes a rise in the
level of oestrogen. The hypothalamus in the brain recognises these rising levels and releases a chemical called
gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH). This hormone prompts the pituitary gland to produce raised levels of
luteinising hormone (LH) and FSH.
Within two days, ovulation is triggered by the high levels of LH. The egg is funnelled into the fallopian tube and
towards the uterus by waves of small, hair-like projections. The life span of the typical egg is only around 24 hours.
Unless it meets a sperm during this time, it will die.

Luteal phase
During ovulation, the egg bursts from its follicle, but the ruptured follicle stays on the surface of the ovary. For the next
two weeks or so, the follicle transforms into a structure known as the corpus luteum. This structure starts releasing
progesterone, along with small amounts of oestrogen. This combination of hormones maintains the thickened lining of
the uterus, awaiting a fertilised egg to stick (implant).
If a fertilised egg implants in the lining of the uterus, it produces hormones (including human chorionic gonadotrophin,
the hormone that is detected in a urine test for pregnancy) that are necessary to maintain the corpus luteum. The
corpus luteum keeps producing raised levels of progesterone that are needed to maintain the thickened lining of the
uterus.
If pregnancy doesnt happen, the corpus luteum withers and dies, usually around day 22 in a 28-day cycle. The drop
in progesterone levels causes the lining of the uterus to fall away. This is known as menstruation. The cycle then
repeats.

Common menstrual problems

Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) - hormonal events before a period can trigger a range of
side effects in women at risk, including fluid retention, headaches, fatigue and irritability.
Treatment options include exercise and dietary changes.

Dysmenorrhoea - or painful periods. It is thought that the uterus is prompted by certain

hormones to squeeze harder than necessary to dislodge its lining. Treatment options include
painkillers and the oral contraceptive pill.
Menorrhagia - or heavy menstrual flow. If left untreated, this can cause anaemia. Treatment

options include oral contraceptives to regulate the flow.

Amenorrhoea - or absence of menstrual periods. This is considered abnormal, apart from
during pre-puberty, pregnancy, lactation and menopause. Possible causes include low or high
body weight and excessive exercise.