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Ethernet

good degree of backward compatibility. Features such as


the 48-bit MAC address and Ethernet frame format have
inuenced other networking protocols. The primary alternative for some uses of contemporary LANs is Wi-Fi,
a wireless protocol standardized as IEEE 802.11.[5]

1 History

A Cat 5e connection on a laptop, used for Ethernet

Ethernet /irnt/ is a family of computer networking technologies commonly used in local area networks
(LANs) and metropolitan area networks (MANs).[1] It
was commercially introduced in 1980 and rst standardized in 1983 as IEEE 802.3,[2] and has since been rened to support higher bit rates and longer link distances. Over time, Ethernet has largely replaced competing wired LAN technologies such as token ring, FDDI
and ARCNET. It also has replaced the ATM circuitswitched technology rst developed in the early 1990s.
Ethernet enhancements since 2005 to support ber-optic
transmission over longer distances and also to support
much higher data rates (e.g. 40 Gbps, 100 Gbps) also are
beginning to adversely impact sales and new deployments
of SONET technology.

An 8P8C modular connector (often called RJ45) commonly used


on Cat 5 cables in Ethernet networks

Ethernet was developed at Xerox PARC between 1973


and 1974.[6][7] It was inspired by ALOHAnet, which
Robert Metcalfe had studied as part of his PhD
dissertation.[8] The idea was rst documented in a memo
that Metcalfe wrote on May 22, 1973, where he named
it after the disproven luminiferous ether as an omnipresent, completely-passive medium for the propagation of electromagnetic waves.[6][9][10] In 1975, Xerox
led a patent application listing Metcalfe, David Boggs,
Chuck Thacker, and Butler Lampson as inventors.[11] In
1976, after the system was deployed at PARC, Metcalfe
and Boggs published a seminal paper.[12][lower-alpha 1]

The original 10BASE5 Ethernet uses coaxial cable as a


shared medium, while the newer Ethernet variants use
twisted pair and ber optic links in conjunction with hubs
or switches. Over the course of its history, Ethernet data
transfer rates have been increased from the original 2.94
megabits per second (Mbit/s)[3] to the latest 100 gigabits
per second (Gbit/s). The Ethernet standards comprise
[6][14]
several wiring and signaling variants of the OSI physical Metcalfe left Xerox in June 1979 to form 3Com.
He convinced Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC),
layer in use with Ethernet.
Intel, and Xerox to work together to promote Ethernet
Systems communicating over Ethernet divide a stream as a standard. The so-called DIX standard, for Digiof data into shorter pieces called frames. Each frame tal/Intel/Xerox, specied 10 Mbit/s Ethernet, with 48contains source and destination addresses, and error- bit destination and source addresses and a global 16checking data so that damaged frames can be detected bit Ethertype-type eld. It was published on Septemand discarded; most often, higher-layer protocols trigger ber 30, 1980 as The Ethernet, A Local Area Network.
retransmission of lost frames. As per the OSI model, Eth- Data Link Layer and Physical Layer Specications.[15]
ernet provides services up to and including the data link Version 2 was published in November, 1982[16] and delayer.[4]
nes what has become known as Ethernet II. Formal
Since its commercial release, Ethernet has retained a standardization eorts proceeded at the same time and
1

3 EVOLUTION

resulted in the publication of IEEE 802.3 on June 23, ics Engineers (IEEE) started project 802 to standardize
1983.[2]
local area networks (LAN).[14][22] The DIX-group with
Ethernet initially competed with two largely proprietary Gary Robinson (DEC), Phil Arst (Intel), and Bob Printis
systems, Token Ring and Token Bus. Because Ethernet (Xerox) submitted the so-called Blue Book CSMA/CD
[15]
was able to adapt to market realities and shift to inexpen- specication as a candidate for the LAN specication.
sive and ubiquitous twisted pair wiring, these proprietary In addition to CSMA/CD, Token Ring (supported by
protocols soon found themselves competing in a mar- IBM) and Token Bus (selected and henceforward supket inundated by Ethernet products, and, by the end of ported by General Motors) were also considered as candidates for a LAN standard. Competing proposals and
the 1980s, Ethernet was clearly the dominant network
[6]
technology. In the process, 3Com became a major broad interest in the initiative led to strong disagreement over which technology to standardize. In December
company. 3Com shipped its rst 10 Mbit/s Ethernet
stan3C100 NIC in March 1981, and that year started selling 1980, the group was split into three subgroups, and [14]
dardization proceeded separately for each proposal.
adapters for PDP-11s and VAXes, as well as Multibusbased Intel and Sun Microsystems computers.[17]:9 This Delays in the standards process put at risk the market
was followed quickly by DECs Unibus to Ethernet introduction of the Xerox Star workstation and 3Coms
adapter, which DEC sold and used internally to build its Ethernet LAN products. With such business implications
own corporate network, which reached over 10,000 nodes in mind, David Liddle (General Manager, Xerox Oce
by 1986, making it one of the largest computer networks Systems) and Metcalfe (3Com) strongly supported a proin the world at that time.[18] An Ethernet adapter card posal of Fritz Rscheisen (Siemens Private Networks)
for the IBM PC was released in 1982, and, by 1985, for an alliance in the emerging oce communication
3Com had sold 100,000.[14] By the early 1990s, Ether- market, including Siemens support for the international
net became so prevalent that it was a must-have feature standardization of Ethernet (April 10, 1981). Ingrid
for modern computers, and Ethernet ports began to ap- Fromm, Siemens representative to IEEE 802, quickly
pear on some PCs and most workstations. This process achieved broader support for Ethernet beyond IEEE by
was greatly sped up with the introduction of 10BASE-T the establishment of a competing Task Group Local
and its relatively small modular connector, at which point Networks within the European standards body ECMA
Ethernet ports appeared even on low-end motherboards. TC24. On March 1982, ECMA TC24 with its corpostandard for
Since then, Ethernet technology has evolved to meet rate members reached an agreement on a[17]:8
CSMA/CD
based
on
the
IEEE
802
draft.
Because
[19]
new bandwidth and market requirements.
In addithe DIX proposal was most technically complete and betion to computers, Ethernet is now used to interconnect
appliances and other personal devices.[6] It is used in cause of the speedy action taken by ECMA which decisively contributed to the conciliation of opinions within
industrial applications and is quickly replacing legacy data
CSMA/CD standard was approved
transmission systems in the worlds telecommunications IEEE, the IEEE 802.3
in December 1982.[14] IEEE published the 802.3 stan[20]
networks. By 2010, the market for Ethernet equipment
dard as a draft in 1983 and as a standard in 1985.[23]
amounted to over $16 billion per year.[21]

Standardization

Approval of Ethernet on the international level was


achieved by a similar, cross-partisan action with
Fromm as the liaison ocer working to integrate with
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) Technical Committee 83 (TC83) and International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Technical Committee 97
Sub Committee 6 (TC97SC6). The ISO 8802-3 standard
was published in 1989.[24]

3 Evolution
Ethernet evolved to include higher bandwidth, improved
media access control methods, and dierent physical media. The coaxial cable was replaced with point-to-point
links connected by Ethernet repeaters or switches.[25]
Ethernet stations communicate by sending each other
data packets: blocks of data individually sent and delivAn Intel 82574L Gigabit Ethernet NIC, PCI Express x1 card
ered. As with other IEEE 802 LANs, each Ethernet station is given a 48-bit MAC address. The MAC addresses
In February 1980, the Institute of Electrical and Electron- are used to specify both the destination and the source of

3.1

Shared media

each data packet. Ethernet establishes link level connections, which can be dened using both the destination and
source addresses. On reception of a transmission, the receiver uses the destination address to determine whether
the transmission is relevant to the station or should be ignored. Network interfaces normally do not accept packets addressed to other Ethernet stations. Adapters come
programmed with a globally unique address.[lower-alpha 2]
An EtherType eld in each frame is used by the operating system on the receiving station to select the appropriate protocol module (e.g., an Internet Protocol version such as IPv4). Ethernet frames are said to be selfidentifying, because of the frame type. Self-identifying
frames make it possible to intermix multiple protocols on
the same physical network and allow a single computer to
use multiple protocols together.[26] Despite the evolution
of Ethernet technology, all generations of Ethernet (excluding early experimental versions) use the same frame
formats.[27] Mixed-speed networks can be built using Ethernet switches and repeaters supporting the desired Eth- Older Ethernet equipment. Clockwise from top-left: An Ethernet
transceiver with an in-line 10BASE2 adapter, a similar model
ernet variants.[28]
Due to the ubiquity of Ethernet, the ever-decreasing cost
of the hardware needed to support it, and the reduced
panel space needed by twisted pair Ethernet, most manufacturers now build Ethernet interfaces directly into PC
motherboards, eliminating the need for installation of a
separate network card.[29]

3.1

Shared media

Ethernet was originally based on the idea of computers


communicating over a shared coaxial cable acting as a
broadcast transmission medium. The methods used were
similar to those used in radio systems,[lower-alpha 3] with
the common cable providing the communication channel likened to the Luminiferous aether in 19th century
physics, and it was from this reference that the name Ethernet was derived.[30]
Original Ethernets shared coaxial cable (the shared
medium) traversed a building or campus to every attached machine. A scheme known as carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) governed the way the computers shared the channel. This
scheme was simpler than the competing token ring or
token bus technologies.[lower-alpha 4] Computers are connected to an Attachment Unit Interface (AUI) transceiver,
which is in turn connected to the cable (with thin Ethernet the transceiver is integrated into the network adapter).
While a simple passive wire is highly reliable for small
networks, it is not reliable for large extended networks,
where damage to the wire in a single place, or a single bad connector, can make the whole Ethernet segment
unusable.[lower-alpha 5]

transceiver with a 10BASE5 adapter, an AUI cable, a dierent style of transceiver with 10BASE2 BNC T-connector, two
10BASE5 end ttings (N connectors), an orange vampire tap
installation tool (which includes a specialized drill bit at one end
and a socket wrench at the other), and an early model 10BASE5
transceiver (h4000) manufactured by DEC. The short length of
yellow 10BASE5 cable has one end tted with a N connector and
the other end prepared to have a N connector shell installed; the
half-black, half-grey rectangular object through which the cable
passes is an installed vampire tap.

net. Its successor, 10BASE2, called thin Ethernet or


thinnet, used the RG-58 coaxial cable. The emphasis
was on making installation of the cable easier and less
costly.[31]:57
Since all communications happen on the same wire,
any information sent by one computer is received by
all, even if that information is intended for just one
destination.[lower-alpha 6] The network interface card interrupts the CPU only when applicable packets are received: The card ignores information not addressed to
it.[lower-alpha 7] Use of a single cable also means that the
bandwidth is shared, such that, for example, available
bandwidth to each device is halved when two stations are
simultaneously active.[32]

Collisions happen when two stations attempt to transmit


at the same time. They corrupt transmitted data and require stations to retransmit. The lost data and retransmissions reduce throughput. In the worst case where multiple active hosts connected with maximum allowed cable
length attempt to transmit many short frames, excessive
collisions can reduce throughput dramatically. However,
a Xerox report in 1980 studied performance of an exThrough the rst half of the 1980s, Ethernets 10BASE5 isting Ethernet installation under both normal and artiimplementation used a coaxial cable 0.375 inches (9.5 cially generated heavy load. The report claims that 98%
mm) in diameter, later called thick Ethernet or thick- throughput on the LAN was observed.[33] This is in con-

4
trast with token passing LANs (token ring, token bus), all
of which suer throughput degradation as each new node
comes into the LAN, due to token waits. This report was
controversial, as modeling showed that collision-based
networks theoretically became unstable under loads as
low as 37% of nominal capacity. Many early researchers
failed to understand these results. Performance on real
networks is signicantly better.[34]

3 EVOLUTION
wiring already installed in commercial buildings provided
another opportunity to lower costs, expand the installed
base, and leverage building design, and, thus, twisted-pair
Ethernet was the next logical development in the mid1980s.
Ethernet on unshielded twisted-pair cables (UTP) began
with StarLAN at 1 Mbit/s in the mid-1980s. In 1987
SynOptics introduced the rst twisted-pair Ethernet at
10 Mbit/s in a star-wired cabling topology with a central hub, later called LattisNet.[14][36][37] These evolved
into 10BASE-T, which was designed for point-to-point
links only, and all termination was built into the device.
This changed repeaters from a specialist device used at
the center of large networks to a device that every twisted
pair-based network with more than two machines had
to use. The tree structure that resulted from this made
Ethernet networks easier to maintain by preventing most
faults with one peer or its associated cable from aecting
other devices on the network.

In a modern Ethernet, the stations do not all share one


channel through a shared cable or a simple repeater hub;
instead, each station communicates with a switch, which
in turn forwards that trac to the destination station. In
this topology, collisions are only possible if station and
switch attempt to communicate with each other at the
same time, and collisions are limited to this link. Furthermore, the 10BASE-T standard introduced a full duplex
mode of operation which has become extremely common. In full duplex, switch and station can communicate with each other simultaneously, and therefore modern Ethernets are completely collision-free.
Despite the physical star topology and the presence of
separate transmit and receive channels in the twisted pair
and ber media, repeater-based Ethernet networks still
3.2 Repeaters and hubs
use half-duplex and CSMA/CD, with only minimal activity by the repeater, primarily generation of the jam signal
in dealing with packet collisions. Every packet is sent to
every other port on the repeater, so bandwidth and security problems are not addressed. The total throughput of
the repeater is limited to that of a single link, and all links
must operate at the same speed.

3.3 Bridging and switching

A 1990s network interface card supporting both coaxial cablebased 10BASE2 (BNC connector, left) and twisted pair-based
10BASE-T (8P8C connector, right)

Main article: Ethernet hub


For signal degradation and timing reasons, coaxial
Ethernet segments have a restricted size. Somewhat
larger networks can be built by using an Ethernet repeater.
Early repeaters had only two ports, allowing, at most,
a doubling of network size. Once repeaters with more
than two ports became available, it was possible to wire
the network in a star topology. Early experiments with
star topologies (called Fibernet) using optical ber were
published by 1978.[35]
Shared cable Ethernet is always hard to install in oces
because its bus topology is in conict with the star topology cable plans designed into buildings for telephony.
Modifying Ethernet to conform to twisted pair telephone

Patch cables with patch elds of two Ethernet switches

Main articles: Ethernet switch and Bridging (networking)


While repeaters can isolate some aspects of Ethernet segments, such as cable breakages, they still forward all trafc to all Ethernet devices. This creates practical limits
on how many machines can communicate on an Ethernet
network. The entire network is one collision domain, and
all hosts have to be able to detect collisions anywhere on
the network. This limits the number of repeaters between

3.4

Advanced networking

the farthest nodes. Segments joined by repeaters have to MAC ooding.


all operate at the same speed, making phased-in upgrades The bandwidth advantages, the improved isolation of deimpossible.
vices from each other, the ability to easily mix dierent
To alleviate these problems, bridging was created to com- speeds of devices and the elimination of the chaining limmunicate at the data link layer while isolating the physical its inherent in non-switched Ethernet have made switched
layer. With bridging, only well-formed Ethernet packets Ethernet the dominant network technology.[38]
are forwarded from one Ethernet segment to another; collisions and packet errors are isolated. At initial startup,
Ethernet bridges (and switches) work somewhat like Eth- 3.4 Advanced networking
ernet repeaters, passing all trac between segments. By
observing the source addresses of incoming frames, the
bridge then builds an address table associating addresses
to segments. Once an address is learned, the bridge forwards network trac destined for that address only to
the associated segment, improving overall performance.
Broadcast trac is still forwarded to all network segments. Bridges also overcome the limits on total segments
between two hosts and allow the mixing of speeds, both
of which are critical to deployment of Fast Ethernet.
In 1989, the networking company Kalpana (acquired by
Cisco Systems, Inc. in 1994) introduced their EtherSwitch, the rst Ethernet switch.[lower-alpha 8] This works
somewhat dierently from an Ethernet bridge, where
only the header of the incoming packet is examined before it is either dropped or forwarded to another segment.
This greatly reduces the forwarding latency and the processing load on the network device. One drawback of this
cut-through switching method is that packets that have
been corrupted are still propagated through the network,
so a jabbering station can continue to disrupt the entire
network. The eventual remedy for this was a return to the
original store and forward approach of bridging, where
the packet would be read into a buer on the switch in
its entirety, veried against its checksum and then forwarded, but using more powerful application-specic in- A core Ethernet switch
tegrated circuits. Hence, the bridging is then done in
hardware, allowing packets to be forwarded at full wire Simple switched Ethernet networks, while a great improvement over repeater-based Ethernet, suer from sinspeed.
gle points of failure, attacks that trick switches or hosts
When a twisted pair or ber link segment is used and
into sending data to a machine even if it is not intended for
neither end is connected to a repeater, full-duplex Ethit, scalability and security issues with regard to switching
ernet becomes possible over that segment. In full-duplex
loops, broadcast radiation and multicast trac, and bandmode, both devices can transmit and receive to and from
width choke points where a lot of trac is forced down a
each other at the same time, and there is no collision dosingle link.
main. This doubles the aggregate bandwidth of the link
and is sometimes advertised as double the link speed (for Advanced networking features in switches and routers use
example, 200 Mbit/s).[lower-alpha 9] The elimination of the shortest path bridging and spanning-tree protocol, for excollision domain for these connections also means that all ample, to maintain the active links of the network as a
the links bandwidth can be used by the two devices on tree while allowing physical loops for redundancy, ensure
that segment and that segment length is not limited by port security and protection features such as MAC lockdown and broadcast radiation ltering, use virtual LANs
the need for correct collision detection.
to keep dierent classes of users separate while using the
Since packets are typically delivered only to the port they
same physical infrastructure, employ multilayer switchare intended for, trac on a switched Ethernet is less
ing to route between dierent classes, and use link agpublic than on shared-medium Ethernet. Despite this,
gregation to add bandwidth to overloaded links and to
switched Ethernet should still be regarded as an insecure
provide some redundancy.
network technology, because it is easy to subvert switched
Ethernet systems by means such as ARP spoong and IEEE 802.1aq (shortest path bridging) includes the use
of the link-state routing protocol IS-IS to allow larger net-

7 SEE ALSO

works with shortest path routes between devices. In 2012,


it was stated by David Allan and Nigel Bragg, in 802.1aq
Shortest Path Bridging Design and Evolution: The Architects Perspective that shortest path bridging is one of the
most signicant enhancements in Ethernets history.[39]

In IEEE 802.3, a datagram is called a packet or frame.


Packet is used to describe the overall transmission unit
and includes the preamble, start frame delimiter (SFD)
and carrier extension (if present).[lower-alpha 10] The frame
begins after the start frame delimiter with a frame header
Ethernet has replaced InniBand as the most popular sys- featuring source and destination MAC addresses and a
eld giving either the protocol type for the payload prototem interconnect of TOP500 supercomputers.[40]
col or the length of the payload. The middle section of the
frame consists of payload data including any headers for
other protocols (for example, Internet Protocol) carried
4 Varieties of Ethernet
in the frame. The frame ends with a 32-bit cyclic redundancy check, which is used to detect corruption of data
in transit.[43]:sections 3.1.1 and 3.2 Notably, Ethernet packets
Main article: Ethernet physical layer
have no time-to-live eld, leading to possible problems
in the presence of a switching loop.
The Ethernet physical layer evolved over a considerable time span and encompasses coaxial, twisted pair
and ber-optic physical media interfaces, with speeds
from 10 Mbit/s to 100 Gbit/s, with 400 Gbit/s ex- 6 Autonegotiation
pected by late 2017.[41] The rst introduction of twistedpair CSMA/CD was StarLAN, standardized as 802.3 Main article: Autonegotiation
1BASE5;[42] while 1BASE5 had little market penetration, it dened the physical apparatus (wire, plug/jack,
pin-out, and wiring plan) that would be carried over to Autonegotiation is the procedure by which two connected
devices choose common transmission parameters, e.g.
10BASE-T.
speed and duplex mode. Autonegotiation is an optional
The most common forms used are 10BASE-T, feature, rst introduced with 100BASE-TX, while it is
100BASE-TX, and 1000BASE-T. All three utilize also backward compatible with 10BASE-T. Autonegotitwisted pair cables and 8P8C modular connectors. They ation is mandatory for 1000BASE-T.
run at 10 Mbit/s, 100 Mbit/s, and 1 Gbit/s, respectively.
Fiber optic variants of Ethernet oer high performance,
better electrical isolation and longer distance (tens of
kilometers with some versions). In general, network 7 See also
protocol stack software will work similarly on all
varieties.
5-4-3 rule

Frame structure

Chaosnet
Ethernet crossover cable
Fiber media converter
Industrial Ethernet
List of device bit rates
LocalTalk
Metro Ethernet
PHY (chip)
Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet (PPPoE)

A close-up of the SMSC LAN91C110 (SMSC 91x) chip, an embedded Ethernet chip.

Power over Ethernet (PoE)


Sneakernet

Main article: Ethernet frame


Wake-on-LAN (WoL)

Notes

[1] The experimental Ethernet described in the 1976 paper


ran at 2.94 Mbit/s and has eight-bit destination and source
address elds, so the original Ethernet addresses are not
the MAC addresses they are today.[13] By software convention, the 16 bits after the destination and source address elds specify a packet type, but, as the paper says,
dierent protocols use disjoint sets of packet types.
Thus the original packet types could vary within each different protocol. This is in contrast to the EtherType in
the IEEE Ethernet standard, which species the protocol
being used.
[2] In some cases, the factory-assigned address can be overridden, either to avoid an address change when an adapter
is replaced or to use locally administered addresses.
[3] There are fundamental dierences between wireless and
wired shared-medium communications, such as the fact
that it is much easier to detect collisions in a wired system
than a wireless system.
[4] In a CSMA/CD system packets must be large enough to
guarantee that the leading edge of the propagating wave
of the message gets to all parts of the medium and back
again before the transmitter stops transmitting, guaranteeing that collisions (two or more packets initiated within a
window of time that forced them to overlap) are discovered. As a result, the minimum packet size and the physical mediums total length are closely linked.
[5] Multipoint systems are also prone to strange failure modes
when an electrical discontinuity reects the signal in such
a manner that some nodes would work properly, while others work slowly because of excessive retries or not at all.
See standing wave for an explanation. These could be
much more dicult to diagnose than a complete failure
of the segment.
[6] This one speaks, all listen property is a security weakness of shared-medium Ethernet, since a node on an Ethernet network can eavesdrop on all trac on the wire if it
so chooses.
[7] Unless it is put into promiscuous mode.
[8] The term switch was invented by device manufacturers and
does not appear in the 802.3 standard.
[9] This is misleading, as performance will double only if trafc patterns are symmetrical.
[10] The carrier extension is dened to assist collision detection
on shared-media gigabit Ethernet.

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11

EXTERNAL LINKS

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Measured performance of an Ethernet local network.
Communications of the ACM. ACM Press. 23 (12): 711
721. doi:10.1145/359038.359044. ISSN 0001-0782.
[34] Boggs, D.R.; Mogul, J.C. & Kent, C.A. (September
1988). Measured capacity of an Ethernet: myths and
reality (PDF). DEC WRL.
[35] Eric G. Rawson; Robert M. Metcalfe (July 1978).
Fibemet: Multimode Optical Fibers for Local Computer
Networks (PDF). IEEE Transactions on Communications.
26 (7): 983990. doi:10.1109/TCOM.1978.1094189.
Retrieved June 11, 2011.

[39] Allan, David; Bragg, Nigel (2012). 802.1aq Shortest Path


Bridging Design and Evolution : The Architects Perspective. New York: Wiley. ISBN 978-1-118-14866-2.
[40] HIGHLIGHTS - JUNE 2016. June 2016. Retrieved
2016-08-08. InniBand technology is now found on 205
systems, down from 235 systems, and is now the second
most-used internal system interconnect technology. Gigabit Ethernet has risen to 218 systems up from 182 systems,
in large part thanks to 176 systems now using 10G interfaces.
[41] Adopted Timeline (PDF). IEEE 802.3bs Task Force.
2014-05-19. Retrieved 2015-02-24.
[42] 1BASE5
Medium
Specication
(StarLAN)".
cs.nthu.edu.tw. 1996-12-28. Retrieved 2014-11-11.
[43] 802.3-2012 - IEEE Standard for Ethernet (PDF).
ieee.org. IEEE Standards Association. 2012-12-28. Retrieved 2014-02-08.

10 Further reading
Digital Equipment Corporation; Intel Corporation;
Xerox Corporation (September 1980). The Ethernet: A Local Area Network. ACM SIGCOMM
Computer Communication Review. 11 (3): 20.
doi:10.1145/1015591.1015594. Version 1.0 of the
DIX specication.
Ethernet Technologies. Internetworking Technology Handbook. Cisco Systems. Retrieved April 11,
2011.
Charles E. Spurgeon (2000). Ethernet: The Denitive Guide. O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-1565-926608.

11 External links
IEEE 802.3 Ethernet working group
IEEE 802.3-2015 standard

12
12.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses


Text

Ethernet Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet?oldid=746137958 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Mav, The Anome, Amillar,
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Glenn, Cstanners, Harvester, Schneelocke, Ehn, Crissov, Wikiborg, Oakad, Colin Marquardt, The quark, Wik, Zoicon5, Judzillah, Tpbradbury, Mrand, Furrykef, Itai, Khalad, Thue, Indefatigable, Cluth, Lumos3, Phil Boswell, TimBovee, Robbot, Chealer, Sander123,
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Flyer22 Reborn, Herberthuber, Cjdaniel, Oxymoron83, Gopher23, Lightmouse, Fratrep, Engineerism, Gyanlakhwani, Svick, Rapaporta,
Xnatedawgx, Tiny plastic Grey Knight, C0nanPayne, Martarius, ClueBot, Bootleggingly mcbootleg, The Thing That Should Not Be,
H0serdude, EoGuy, Nnemo, Mightyms, Excirial, Eeekster, Thingg, 7, Versus22, Sobelbob, Johnuniq, SoxBot III, SF007, Diskdoc, Stickee,
Rror, Pgallert, Kevmcs, Facts707, Weitzhandler, Zodon, 1stJahman, Dsimic, Kbdankbot, Bookbrad, Addbot, Applemacintosh10, Mortense,
DOI bot, Gnalk, Tothwolf, EjsBot, Amore proprio, Fieldday-sunday, CanadianLinuxUser, Cst17, MrOllie, Download, SoSaysChappy,
Swapdisk, LinkFA-Bot, Manish soni, Tide rolls, AtomEdge, Lightbot, Krano, Mmiszka, Legobot, Publicly Visible, Luckas-bot, Yobot,
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