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Fig. N: O
verview of the various production processes
4.1.1 Cold forming (cold extrusion)
In modern fastening technology the majority of fasteners are made using the cold forming procedure. In this
procedure, the fastener is formed, usually in multistage
processes, by pressure forging, cold extrusion and reducing, or a combination of these procedures. The term solid
or cold forming was coined for this type of production.
This procedure is usually used for large quantities,
because, from an economic aspect, it is the most rational
method.
Finishing
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Fixed die
External
diameter
of the thread
Thread cutting on an automatic lathe with a taper tap
Running die
Chamfer course on
thread forming
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4.3.3 Annealing
The glass-hard and therefore brittle material cannot be
used in practice in this condition. The material must be
heated up again to a minimum temperature specified
in the standard, in order to reduce the distortions in the
microstructure. It is true that this measure reduces the hardness that was reached beforehand (but this is much higher
than the values of the untreated material), but greater
ductility is achieved. This procedure is an important aid for
manufacturers to make screws that satisfy the requirements
demanded by users.
4.3.4 Case hardening
This procedure is used among other things for tapping
screws, thread grooving and self-drilling screws. In this
case, very hard surfaces are decisive, so that these screws
are able to make their own thread automatically. The
screw core, in contrast, is soft.
Steels with a carbon content of 0.05% to 0.2% are used
for these types of screws. The steels are heated and kept
for a long time in an atmosphere that gives off carbon
(e.g. methane). The carbon diffuses into the surface zones
and in this way increases the local carbon content. This
process is known as carburisation. Finally, the material is
quenched and in this way hardened in the surface zones.
This has the advantage that the surface is very hard, but
sufficient ductility remains in the core of the screw.
4.3.5 Stress relief annealing
There are a number of different annealing procedures
which have different effects in each case on the microstructure and the states of stresses in the material. One
very important procedure in the context of fasteners is
stress relief annealing (heating to approx. 600C and
maintaining this temperature for a long period). The strain
hardening created on cold forming can be reversed by
stress relief annealing. This is particularly important for
screws in strength classes 4.6 and 5.6, because here
there has to be a large elongation of the screw.
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4.3.6 Tempering
Tempering is the thermal treatment of high strength components (strengths 1000 MPa or hardnesses 320 HV)
with the aim of minimising the risk of hydrogen embrittlement. Tempering must be carried out at the latest 4 hours
after the conclusion of the galvanic surface treatment. The
minimum temperature depends on the strength classes or
on the materials that are used.