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JOINING PROCESSES &

EQUIPMENT

Note:
Study each manufacturing process under the
following headings;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Working / Method / Procedure


Labeled Diagram / Schematic Illustrations
Advantages
Disadvantages
Specific Application Areas

INTRODUCTION
Joining Processes: Processes by which individual
components are attached to other components and
assemblies
Common Joining processes include:
Welding
Brazing
Soldering
Adhesive bonding
Mechanical fastening

CLASSIFICATION OF JOINING
PROCESSES

REASONS FOR USING JOINING


PROCESSES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Product may be impossible to manufacture as a


single piece.
Product may be more economical to manufacture as
individual components and then assembled.
Product may be required to be disassembled for
maintenance or repair.
Different properties may be required for function from
the different parts.
Easier to transport the assembly in parts than as
whole.

WELDING
Welding is a materials joining process in which two or more
parts are coalesced( bring together to form a single mass) at
their contacting surfaces by a suitable application of heat and/or
pressure. Many welding processes are accomplished by
heat alone, with no pressure applied; others by a combination
of heat and pressure; and still others by pressure alone, with no
external heat supplied.
Filler In some welding processes a material is added to
facilitate coalescence.
Weldment The assemblage of parts that are joined by welding
is called a weldment.
Faying Surface is one of the surfaces that are in contact at a
joint. Faying surfaces may be connected to each other by bolt
or rivet or by adhesive or welding. Example, steel pipe flanges.

TYPES OF WELDING
We can divide the welding processes into two major groups:
(1) fusion welding and
(2) solid-state welding.
Fusion Welding: Fusion-welding processes use heat to melt the
base metals. In many fusion welding operations, a filler metal is
added to the molten pool to facilitate the process and provide
bulk and strength to the welded joint. A fusion-welding
operation in which no filler metal is added is referred to as an
autogenous weld.
The fusion category includes the most widely used welding
processes, which can be organized into the following general
groups:

ARC WELDING (AW)


Arc welding (AW) Arc welding refers to a group of welding
processes in which heating of the metals is accomplished by an
electric arc, as shown in Figure 29.1. on next page. Some arc
welding operations also apply pressure during the process and
most utilize a filler metal.
Resistance welding (RW) Resistance welding achieves
coalescence using heat from electrical resistance to the flow of
a current passing between the faying surfaces of two parts held
together under pressure.
Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) These joining processes use an
oxyfuel gas, such as a mixture of oxygen and acetylene, to
produce a hot flame for melting the base metal and filler metal,
if one is used.
Other fusion-welding processes that produce fusion of the metals
joined include electron beam welding and laser beam welding.

SOLID-STATE WELDING
Solid-state welding refers to joining processes in which
coalescence results from application of pressure alone or a
combination of heat and pressure. If heat is used, the
temperature in the process is below the melting point of the
metals being welded. No filler metal is utilized.
Diffusion welding (DFW). Two surfaces are held together under
pressure at an elevated temperature and the parts coalesce by
solid-state diffusion.
Friction welding (FRW). Coalescence is achieved by the heat of
friction between two surfaces.
Ultrasonic welding (USW). Moderate pressure is applied
between the two parts and an oscillating motion at ultrasonic
frequencies is used in a direction parallel to the contacting
surfaces. The combination of normal and vibratory forces
results in shear stresses that remove surface films and achieve
atomic bonding of the surfaces.

TYPES OF WELD JOINTS


A weld joint is the junction of the edges or surfaces of parts
that have been joined by welding. There are five basic types of
joints for bringing two parts together for joining and can be
defined as follows:
(a) Butt joint. In this joint type, the parts lie in the same plane
and are joined at their edges.
(b) Corner joint. The parts in a corner joint form a right angle
and are joined at the corner of the angle.
(c) Lap joint. This joint consists of two overlapping parts.
(d) Tee joint. In a tee joint, one part is perpendicular to the other
in the approximate shape of the letter T.
(e) Edge joint. The parts in an edge joint are parallel with at
least one of their edges in common, and the joint is made at the
common edge(s).

TYPES OF WELDS

Fillet weld is used to fill in the edges of plates created by corner,


lap, and tee joints, as in Figure 29.3.on next page/slide.
Filler metal is used to provide a cross section approximately the
shape of a right triangle.
It is the most common weld type in arc and oxyfuel welding
because it requires minimum edge preparationthe basic
square edges of the parts are used.
Fillet welds can be single or double (i.e., welded on one side or
both) and can be continuous or intermittent (i.e., welded along
the entire length of the joint or with unwelded spaces along the
length).

Cont Types Of Welds


Groove welds usually require that the edges of the parts be
shaped into a groove to facilitate weld penetration. The grooved
shapes include square, bevel, V, U, and J, in single or double
sides, as shown in Figure 29.4on next slide, Filler metal is used
to fill in the joint,usually by arc or oxyfuel welding. Preparation
of the part edges beyond the basic square edge, although
requiring additional processing, is often done to increase the
strength of the welded joint or where thicker parts are to be
welded. Although most closely associated with a butt joint,
groove welds are used on all joint types except lap.

Cont Types Of Welds


Plug welds and slot welds
These welds are used for attaching flat plates, as shown in
Figure 29.5, see in next slide
using one or more holes or slots in the top part and then filling
with filler metal to fuse the two parts together.

Cont Types Of Welds


Spot welds and seam welds,
used for lap joints, are diagrammed in Figure 29.6. A on next slide
spot weld is a small fused section between the surfaces of two
sheets or plates. Multiple spot welds are typically required to
join the parts. It is most closely associated with resistance
welding.
A seam weld is similar to a spot weld except it consists of a
more or less continuously fused section between the two
sheets or plates.

Cont Types Of Welds


A flange weld is made on the edges of two (or more) parts,
usually sheet metal or thin plate, at least one of the
parts being flanged as in Figure 29.7(a) on next slide.
A surfacing weld is not used to join parts, but rather to deposit
filler metal onto the surface of a base part in one or more weld
beads as in Figure 29.7(b) on next slide.
The weld beads can be made in a series of overlapping parallel
passes, thereby covering large areas of the base part. The
purpose is to increase the thickness of the plate or to provide a
protective coating on the surface.

Welding Commercial And Technological Importance


Welding commercial and technological importance derives
from the following:
Welding provides a permanent joint. The welded parts become a
single entity. The welded joint can be stronger than the parent
materials if a filler metal is used that has strength properties
superior to those of the parents, and if proper welding
techniques are used.
Welding is usually the most economical way to join components in
terms of material usage and fabrication costs.
Welding is not restricted to the factory environment. It can be
accomplished in the field.

Cont.. Potential Drawbacks

Most welding operations are performed manually and are


expensive in terms of labor cost. Many welding operations are
considered skilled trades, and the labor to perform these
operations may be scarce.
Most welding processes are inherently dangerous because
they involve the use of high energy.
Since welding accomplishes a permanent bond between the
components, it does not allow for convenient disassembly. If the
product must occasionally be disassembled (e.g., for repair or
maintenance), then welding should not be used as the
assembly method.
The welded joint can suffer from certain quality defects that are
difficult to detect.
The defects can reduce the strength of the joint.

The Principal Applications Of Welding

The principal applications of welding are


(1) construction, such as buildings and bridges;
(2) piping, pressure vessels, boilers, and storage tanks;
(3) shipbuilding;
(4) aircraft and aerospace; and
(5) automotive and railroad

WELDING AS A COMMERCIAL OPERATION


Welding is performed in a variety of locations and in a variety of
industries. Owing to its versatility as an assembly technique for
commercial products, many welding operations are performed
in factories. However, several of the traditional processes, such
as arc welding and oxyfuel gas welding, use equipment that
can be readily moved, so these operations are not limited to the
factory. They can be performed at construction sites, in
shipyards, at customers plants, and in automotive repair shops.
A welding fixture is a device for clamping and holding the
components in fixed position for welding. It is custom-fabricated
for the particular geometry of the weldment and therefore must
be economically justified on the basis of the quantities of
assemblies to be produced.

Cont
A welding fixture is a device for clamping and holding the
components in fixed position for welding. It is custom-fabricated
for the particular geometry of the weldment and therefore must
be economically justified on the basis of the quantities of
assemblies to be produced.
A welding positioner is a device that holds the parts and also
moves the assemblage to the desired position for welding. This
differs from a welding fixture that only holds the parts in a single
fixed position.
The desired position is usually one in which the weld path is flat
and horizontal.

FEATURES OF WELDING JOINT


Most weld joints are fusion welded. As illustrated in the crosssectional view of Figure 29.9
A typical fusion-weld joint in which filler metal has been added
consists of several zones:
(1) fusion zone,
(2) weld interface,
(3) heat-affected zone, and
(4) unaffected base metal zone.
For Details Study Groover Book

JOINING PROCESSES

Liquid state or fusion welding: involves melting and filler materials


by means of heat.
-- this is the most commonly used welding process
-- heat is usually supplied by chemical or electrical means
-- may or may not use filler material
-- material near weld is affected by heat and contamination

Solid state welding: joining which takes place without fusion,


meaning that the joining occurs without forming a liquid phase at the
joint.
-- accomplished using diffusion bonding, cold welding, ultrasonic
welding, friction welding, explosive welding.

Liquid-solid state: Brazing and soldering: joining using a molten


filler material, while maintaining solid workpieces, which solidifies and
bonds the pieces together.

Mechanical fastening: processes use a wide variety of fasteners,


bolts, nuts, screws and rivets.

TYPES OF JOINTS

LIQUID STATE (FUSION) JOINING


Basic types of liquid state joining methods are;
1.
2.
3.
4.

Thermal welding (Gas welding)


Electric arc welding (Arc welding)
High energy beam welding
Resistance welding

OXYFUEL GAS WELDING


Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) is a general term used to describe any welding
process that uses a fuel gas combine with oxygen to produce a flame as the
source of heat required to melt the metals at the joint.
The most common gases used as a fuel gas includes acetylone, hydrogen,
and methylacetylene.
The heat generated is a result of the combustion of acetylene gas (C2H2) in a
mixture with oxygen with some chemical reactions. The primary combustion
process involves the reaction;
C2H2 + O2

2CO + H2 + Heat

The secondary combustion process is;


2CO + H2 + 1.5 O2

2CO2 + H2O + Heat

OXYACETYLENE TORCH
The acetylene valve is opened first; the gas is lit with a spark lighter or
a pilot light; then the oxygen valve is opened and the flame is adjusted.

To ensure correct connections, all screw threads on acetylene fittings are lefthanded, whereas those for oxygen are right-handed. Oxygen regulators are
usually painted green, and acetylene regulators red.

TYPES OF FLAMES IN OFW


The proportion of acetylene and oxygen in the gas mixture is an important
factor in oxyfuel gas welding.
Neutral flame: With a ratio of 1:1, when there is no excess oxygen, the flame
is considered to be neutral.
Oxidizing flame: With a greater oxygen supply, the flame can be harmful
because it oxidizes the metal , hence known as oxidizing flame.
Carburizing flame: If the oxygen is insufficient for full combustion, the flame
is known as carburizing flame.

FILLER METALS
Filler metals: Filler metals are used to supply additional
metal to the weld zone during welding, They are available
as filler wire or rods as shown in the figure. They are
usually coated with flux.

FLUX AND SHIELDING GAS


Flux: It is used to prevent oxidation and used to decompose surface
oxides. The purpose of the flux is to hold or slow down the oxidation
of the surfaces being welded by generating a gaseous shield around
the weld zone.
Oxidation: With a greater supply of oxygen (in oxidizing flame) an
oxide film is produced on the surface of the welding material which
can become hindrance between the filler and the welding material
and reduces the weld quality.
Shielding gas: Shielding gases are inert gases (argon, neon, helium
etc) that are commonly used in several welding processes. Their
purpose is to protect the weld area from water vapours, nitrogen,
carbon dioxide and excess of oxygen to avoid oxidation. Depending
on the materials being welded, these atmospheric gases can reduce
the quality of the weld or make the welding process more difficult to
use.

ARC WELDING PROCESSES


In arc welding, the heat required is obtained through
electrical energy. An arc is produced between the tip of
the electrode and the parts to be welded.
In welding processes, electrode is used to conduct
current through a workpiece to fuse (melt+join) two
pieces together.
Two types of electrodes are generally used in arc
welding processes;
Consumable electrodes
Non-consumable electrodes

ARC WELDING PROCESSES:


CONSUMABLE ELECTRODE
Arc welding (consumable electrode) includes several
processes;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)


Submerged arc welding (SAW)
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW)
Electrogas welding (EGW)
Electroslag welding (ESW)

SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

Figure (a): Schematic illustration of the shielded metal-arc-welding process.


50% of all large-scale industrial welding operations use this process and (b):
Schematic illustration of the shielded metal-arc-welding operation, also
known as stick welding, as the electrode is in the shape of a stick.

SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)


The arc is started by touching the tip of
the electrode to the material and then is
withdrawn to a distance just sufficient to
maintain the arc between the tip and
workpiece.
The coated rod (electrode) provides the
filler metal and flux to form the weld with
the molten base metal in the weld area.
The coating acts as flux by providing
both shielding gas and deoxidizing agents.
Slag is the residue left on a weld bead
from the flux. It shields the hot metal from
atmospheric contaminants that may
weaken the weld joint. Slag can also be
droplets of molten metal that are expelled
from the joint and then re-solidify on the
metal surface. In either case, they are
usually chipped away with a slag hammer.

Cont.
Shielded metal arc welding is usually performed manually.
Common applications include construction, pipelines,
machinery structures, shipbuilding, job shop fabrication,
and repair work. It is preferred over oxyfuel welding for thicker
sectionsabove 5 mm (3/16 in)because of its higher power
density. The equipment is portable and low cost,making SMAW
highly versatile and probably the most widely used of the AW
processes. Base metals include steels, stainless steels, cast
irons, and certain nonferrous alloys. It is not used or seldom
used for aluminum and its alloys, copper alloys, and titanium.
A disadvantage of shielded metal arc welding as a production
operation is the use of the consumable electrode stick. As the
sticks are used up, they must periodically be changed. This
reduces the arc time with this welding process. Another
limitation is the current level that can be used.

SUBMERGED ARC WELDING

Figure (A): Schematic illustration of the submerged arc-welding process and


equipment. Unfused flux is recovered and reused.

SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)


The weld arc is shielded by a
granular (gritty or sandy) flux consisting
of lime, silica, manganese oxide,
calcium fluoride, and other compounds,
so that the flux completely covers the
molten metal.
Flux prevents splatter and sparks
and suppresses the intense ultraviolet
radiation and fumes, and acts as a
thermal insulator, promoting deep heat
penetration.
Electrode wire i.e filler metal is bare
wire that is automatically fed through a
welding gun.
Used for faster welding and can be
automated.
Produces high quality welds with
good
toughness,
ductility,
and
uniformity.

SUBMERGED ARC WELDING

Submerged arc welding demonstration at the Essen Welding Fair in Germany, 2005. The welding head moves
from right to left. The flux (powder) is supplied on the left hand side, then follow three filler wire guns and finally a
vacuum cleaner.

GAS METAL ARC WELDING

Figure (a): gas metal-arc-welding process, formerly known as MIG (metal inert
gas) welding and (b): Basic equipment used in gas metal-arc-welding operations.

GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW)

In gas metal arc welding


(GMAW) the weld area is shielded
by inert gases (argon, helium or
other gas mixture).
A consumable bare wire is fed
automatically through a nozzle into
the weld arc.
Also called metal inert gas
(MIG) welding.
Can be used for ferrous and
nonferrous metals.
Process is simple and can
easily be automated.

Schematic illustration of the gas


metal arc welding process.

ARC WELDING PROCESSES:


NON-CONSUMABLE ELECTRODE
Arc welding (non-consumable
following processes;

electrode)

1. Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)


2. Atomic hydrogen welding (AHW)
3. Plasma arc welding (PAW)

includes

GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING

Figure (a): Gas tungsten-arc-welding process, formerly known as tungsten inert gas (TIG)
welding and Figure (b): Equipment for gas tungsten-arc-welding operations.

GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW)


In gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
a filler metal is typically supplied from
a filler wire (rod) as shown in the
figure.

Tungsten
electrode

The composition of filler metal must


be similar to that of the metals to be
welded.
Flux is not used and the shielding
gas is usually argon or helium or a
mixture of the two.
A constant and stable arc gap is
maintain at a constant level of current
because the tungsten electrode is not
consumed in this operation.
GTAW process is used for a wide
variety of applications and metals
particularly aluminum, magnesium,
refractory metals, etc.

Schematic illustration of the


gas tungsten arc welding

PLASMA ARC WELDING (PAW)


Plasma welding is very similar to TIG as
the arc is formed between a pointed
tungsten electrode and the workpiece.
However, by positioning the electrode
within the body of the torch, the plasma
arc can be separated from the shielding
gas envelope.
The plasma gas is then forced through a
fine-bore copper nozzle which constricts
the arc and the plasma exits the orifice
at high velocities (approaching the
speed of sound) and a temperature
approaching 20,000 C.
Normally, three operating modes can be
produced i.e. by varying the current,
bore diameter and plasma gas flow rate.
Plasma is a gaseous mixture of positive ions, electrons and
neutral gas molecules

Schematic illustration of the


Plasma arc welding

RESISTANCE WELDING
Resistance welding (RW) is a group of fusion-welding
processes that uses a combination of heat and pressure to
accomplish coalescence, the heat being generated by electrical
resistance to current flow at the junction to be welded. The
principal components in resistance welding are shown in Figure
30.12 in next slide for a resistance spot-welding operation, the
most widely used process in the group.
The components include work parts to be welded (usually sheet
metal parts), two opposing electrodes, a means of applying
pressure to squeeze the parts between the electrodes, and an
AC power supply from which a controlled current can be
applied. The operation results in a fused zone between the two
parts, called a weld nugget in spot welding. By comparison to
arc welding, resistance welding uses no shielding gases, flux,
or filler metal; and the electrodes that conduct electrical power
to the process are nonconsumable.

ContRESISTANCE WELDING
Success in resistance welding depends on pressure as well as
heat. The principal functions of pressure in RW are to
(1) force contact between the electrodes and the workparts and
between the two work surfaces prior to applying current, and
(2) press the faying surfaces together to accomplish
coalescence when the proper welding temperature has been
reached.

ADVANTAGES OF RESISTANCE WELDING

General advantages of resistance welding include


(1) no filler metal is required,
(2) high production rates are possible,
(3) lends itself to mechanization and automation,
(4) operator skill level is lower than that required for arc
welding, and
(5) good repeatability and reliability.
DRAWBACKS are (1) equipment cost is highusually
much higher than most arc-welding operations, and
(2) types of joints that can be welded are limited to lap joints for
most RW processes.

TYPES OF RESISTANCE WELDING


Basic methods/Types of resistance welding are;

Resistance spot welding


Resistance seam welding
Resistance projection welding
Flash welding
Stud arc welding
Percussion welding

Economic Importance Of Resistance Spot Welding


It is widely used in mass production of automobiles, appliances,
metal furniture, and other products made of sheet metal. If one
considers that a typical car body has approximately 10,000
individual spot welds, and that the annual production of
automobiles throughout the world is measured in tens of
millions of units, the economic importance of resistance spot
welding can be appreciated.
Resistance spot welding (RSW) is an RW process in which
fusion of the faying

RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING (RSW)


Resistance spot welding (RSW) is an RW process in which
fusion of the faying surfaces of a lap joint is achieved at one
location by opposing electrodes. The process is used to join
sheet-metal parts of thickness 3 mm (0.125 in) or less, using a
series of spot welds, in situations where an airtight assembly is
not required. The size and shape of the weld spot is determined
by the electrode tip, the most common electrode shape being
round, but hexagonal, square, and other shapes are also used.
The resulting weld nugget is typically 5 to 10 mm (0.20.4 in) in
diameter, with a heat-affected zone extending slightly beyond
the nugget into the base metals. If the weld is made properly, its
strength will be comparable to that of the surrounding metal.
The steps in a spot welding cycle are depicted in Figure 30.13.
Materials usedfor RSWelectrodes consist of twomain groups:
(1) copper-based alloys and (2) refractory metal compositions
such as copper and tungsten combinations.

Cont RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING


Because of its widespread industrial use, various machines and
methods are available to perform spot-welding operations. The
equipment includes rocker-arm and press-type spot-welding
machines, and portable spot-welding guns. Rocker-arm spot
welders, shown in Figure 30.14,in next slide, have a stationary
lower electrode and a movable upper electrode that can
be raised and lowered for loading and unloading the work. The
upper electrode is mounted on a rocker arm (hence the name)
whose movement is controlled by a foot pedal operated
by the worker. Modern machines can be programmed to control
force and current during the weld cycle.

RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING


In resistance spot welding, two parts are
pressed together and AC current is passed
through the contact zone. If the correct
pressure is applied, the contact zone will
represent the highest resistance in the
electrical circuit and power losses will be
concentrated there. The energy is converted
to heat.
Typically the sheets are in the 0.5 to 3 mm
thickness range. The process uses two
copper alloy electrodes to concentrate
welding current into a small "spot" and to
simultaneously clamp the sheets together.
Forcing a large current through the spot will
melt the metal and form the weld.
The current is left on until melting occurs
at the interface between the two parts and
the pressure is kept on until the weld
solidifies.

Schematic illustration of the


Resistance welding

RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING


(a) Sequence in the resistance spotwelding process.

(b) Cross-section of a spot weld,


showing weld nugget and light
indentation by the electrode on
sheet surfaces. This method is
one of the most common
processes used in sheet-metal
fabrication and automotive-body
assembly.

Schematic illustration of the resistance spot welding

RESISTANCE SEAM (JUNCTION)


WELDING

a) Resistance seam welding is a modification of resistance spot welding


wherein the electrodes are replaced by wheels or roller.
b) Overlapping spots in a seam weld.
c) A series of spot weld at various intervals can also be made along the
length of the seam

MACHINE FOR RESISTANCE SEAM


WELDING

QUALITY OF THE WELDED JOINT


Weld quality depends on the geometry of the weld
bead, the presence of cracks, residual stress and oxide
films.

With proper selection of filler-metals and heat


treatment, the weld properties can be improved.
Mechanical properties of the welded joint depend on
rate of heat application at the weld, the thermal properties
of metals, the magnitude of the applied heat, the
temperature rise and the rate of cooling.

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