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Principles and Performance of Solar Energy Thermal Systems: A Web Course by

V.V.Satyamurty

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MODULE 2
Lecture No: 2
Sun, Physical Description and Reactions
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In this Module 2, Lecture No. 2 deals with
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 NATURE OF SUN
2.3 SUMMARY

Lecture 2
2.1 INTRODUCTION
We noted in Module 1 that the energy crisis resulting from fast depletion of fossil fuel reserves warranted
scientists and engineers to develop alternate sources of energy. The attempts to avert a possible energy
crisis in the foreseeable future are directed in a broader perspective at not only developing alternate sources
of energy, but also at energy conservation, waste heat recovery, better energy management, transmission
and distribution and utilization. The measures that are being taken and can be taken are manifold.

In the studies conducted during the last two decades, significant effort has been put in developing
solar energy systems. Solar energy is perhaps the most uniformly distributed, almost throughout the world.
The present course is concerned with this alternate energy source.

The need for developing alternative sources of energy can be understood from an idea of the time
scale within which fossil fuels are likely to be exhausted. Of course, any such projections inherently involve
several assumptions. According to some estimates, about 88 % of the world's available fossil fuel supply are
coal. An estimate of, how long this coal lasts indicates the available time to develop alternate energy
sources.

The interest to develop alternate energy systems stems also from a variety of other considerations; for
example, some of the fossil fuels have specific applications (e.g., coke in the blast furnace) and a strong
need exists to prolong this source till alternate "technology" becomes available.
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Thermodynamic point of view

From a thermodynamic point of view, in no process, energy is "consumed", but only the quality or
grade of the energy changes. For example, if hot water is mixed with cold water, the resulting mixture will
exactly have the same number of Joules of energy as the sum total of the first two, above a datum
temperature. If, losses take place in the mixing process, the environment will receive the same. Common
experience tells, hot water is not equivalent to a larger quantity of less hot water. These lay man
descriptions can be translated to precise statements, by associating a grade to the energy, or, the energy
source in general.

When mechanical form of work is available, any desired movement or motion can be achieved. From
mechanical form of energy, other forms of energy can be obtained at high conversion efficiencies. Electrical
form of energy can be equated to mechanical form since mutual conversion without much loss is possible.
From any of these two sources, other forms such as light, heat can be obtained with high conversion
efficiencies. But, the reverse is not true. If thermal form of energy is to be converted to mechanical form,
conversion efficiency is limited by second law of thermodynamics. Also, higher the source temperature,
higher is the percentage convertibility to, mechanical form of energy. Thus, the temperature of a thermal
energy source indicates the grade of the energy.

A moral may be drawn; employ the energy source of suitable grade depending on the application. A
simple example: Water for bathing is required at about 40 C. In practice, one may heat to 70 C and mix it
with cold water (an avoidable degradation of energy). An immersion heater, fossil fuels or solar energy can
heat the water for bathing. The choice of the source should be on the basis that its capability is nearest to the
requirement and of course, ultimately, economic viability.

Characteristics of an ideal energy source

Some characteristics desirable for a candidate ideal energy source are,

a) As perennial as possible and continuous

b) Widely and uniformly distributed
c) Non-polluting
d) Matches with the intended application in a cost effective way and is safe
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Perhaps, no single source of energy can meet all the requirements. Solar energy comes close; the main
concern being about the cost effectiveness. It is in this earnest, the strategies, and applications are to be
chosen judiciously.

2.2 NATURE OF SUN

Sun is a medium sized yellow star that may be considered as a sphere of intensely hot gaseous matter
with an average diameter of 1.39 x 109 m at an average distance of

Fig. 2.1 The Perihelion and the Aphelion

1.495 x 1011 m (or 1 Astronomical unit) from the earth. The sun coalesced from a cloud of gas and dust
formed 4.5 billion years ago. Earth goes round the sun in an elliptic orbit as shown in Fig. 2.1, not to scale.
The earth is closest to the sun at 1.471x1011 m, the perihelion around January 2 each year; it is farthest at
1.526 x1011 m around July 2 each year

Sun, in effect is a continuous fusion reactor and the constituent gases are a containing vessel retained
by gravitational forces. Most important fusion reaction is hydrogen combining to form helium. Energy is
produced in the sun ( and other stars also ) by continuous fusion in which four nuclei of hydrogen fuse in a
series of reactions involving other particles that continually appear and disappear in the course of the
reactions, such as He3, nitrogen, carbon and other nuclei, but culminating in one nucleus of helium and two
positrons. resulting in a mass decrease
4 1H1

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2He

+ 2 (+1e0)

(2.1)

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This reaction results in a mass decrease of about 0.0276 amu, corresponding to 25.7 MeV. The heat
produced in these reactions maintains temperatures of the order of several million degrees in the core region
of the sun and serves to trigger and sustain succeeding reactions.

Note: 1 amu (atomic mass unit) =1.66x10-27 kg

1 ev (electron volt) = 1.6021x10-19J

E , the energy produced by a mass decrease of, m , is given by,

E( J ) m( kg ) C 2 ,
Where C is the velocity of light.
C =3x108 m/s
The student may convince himself of the energy release per
reaction, calculating in appropriate units
Chro mosphere T ~ 5000K+
Reversing Layer

T = 5000K
= 105 kg/m3

Convective zone
T=1.3 105 , =70 kg/m3
Corona T~106 K,
very low
40% of
mass
1.2% f volume 0.7R
90% of
energy

0.23R

R
Photosphere

T~8.40 10
=105 kg/m2

6K

Fig. 2.2 Sun and its important zones

The Sun is made up of about 2 x 1030 kilograms of gas. It is composed of about 75% hydrogen and 25%
helium. About 0.1% is metals made from hydrogen via nuclear fusion. It has been estimated that the sun
has used up about half of its initial hydrogen available4.5 billion years ago, i.e., the time of formation.
A simple schematic of the sun is shown in Fig. 2.2. With reference to Fig. 2.2, 90 % of the energy is
generated in the region 0 < r < 0.23 Rsun , where Rsun is the radius of the sun. The temperature at 0.7 Rsun is
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of the order of 130 x 103 K. From the region r > Rsun, convection process begins and is referred to as the
convective zone. The upper layer of the convective zone is the photosphere, which is the source of most
solar radiation. Other layers following the reversing layer (a layer of relatively cooler gases of several
hundred km deep), are, chromosphere (has a depth of 10, 000 km with some what higher temperature and
lower density) and lastly, the corona, of very low density and at a temperature of 106 K. Solar radiation is
the composite result of several layers which absorb and emit at various wave lengths. For, thermal purposes
it is adequate to consider the sun to be a blackbody at an effective temperature of 5762 K. This information
is adequate for many solar energy calculations.

Fig.2.3 Spectral distribution of solar radiation.

Fig. 2.4 Temperatures at different layers in the sun

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The details of the suns temperature are depicted in Fig. 2.4. The Sun's core can reach 5.5x106 oC
to 12.5x106 oC. The estimates vary, the higher one going up to 40x106 oC . The surface temperature is
approximately 5,500C. The outer atmosphere of the sun goes up, to 1.5x106 oC to 2 x106 oC degrees. The
effective temperature of the sun is determined by measuring how much energy much energy (both heat and
light) it emits.

2.3 SUMMARY

The characteristics desired of an ideal energy source have been identified. The principal features
are, perennial nature, non-polluting and uniform availability.

Thermodynamic viewpoint iterates the need to match the source of energy with the application.

The energy from the sun by continuous fusion reaction of Hydrogen combining to form Helium in
the sun produces the energy.

Sun can be considered as a black body at an effective temperature of 5762 K emitting energy
continuously.

Most of the solar radiation reaching the earth's surface is in the wave length range of 0.29 to 4.0.

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