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Basic properties of palm oil biodieseldiesel blends

Pedro Benjumea a,*, John Agudelo b, Andres Agudelo b
a

Alternative Fuels Group, Energy Institute, Faculty of Mines, Universidad Nacional de Colombia Sede Medelln, Colombia
b
Group of Energy Ecient Management GIMEL, Engineering Faculty, Universidad de Antioquia, Colombia
Received 16 May 2007; received in revised form 24 October 2007; accepted 12 November 2007
Available online 21 December 2007

Abstract
The basic properties of several palm oil biodieseldiesel fuel blends were measured according to the corresponding ASTM standards.
In order to predict these properties, mixing rules are evaluated as a function of the volume fraction of biodiesel in the blend. Kays mixing
rule is used for predicting density, heating value, three dierent points of the distillation curve (T10, T50 and T90), cloud point and calculated cetane index, while an Arrhenius mixing rule is used for viscosity. The absolute average deviations (AAD) obtained were low,
demonstrating the suitability of the used mixing rules. It was found that the calculated cetane index of palm oil biodiesel obtained using
ASTM D4737 is in better agreement with the reported cetane number than the one corresponding to the ASTM D976. This result is most
likely due to the fact that the former standard takes into account the particular characteristics of the distillation curve.
2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Palm oil biodiesel; Blends; Basic properties; Mixing rules

1. Introduction
Biodiesel is currently the most widely accepted alternative fuel for diesel engines due to its technical, environmental and strategic advantages. It has enhanced
biodegradability, reduced toxicity and improved lubricity
in comparison with conventional diesel fuels. In addition,
this biofuel is completely miscible with petroleum diesel,
allowing the blending of these two fuels in any proportion.
Biodiesel can be used neat or blended in existing diesel
engines without signicant modications to the engine.
However, dierences in the chemical nature of biodiesel
(mixture of mono-alkyl ester of saturated and unsaturated
long chain fatty acids) and conventional diesel fuel (mixture of paranic, naphthenic and aromatic hydrocarbons)
result in dierences in their basic properties, aecting
engine performance and pollutant emissions. Biodiesel,
produced from any vegetable oil or animal fat, generally
has higher density, viscosity, cloud point and cetane num-

Corresponding author. Tel.: +574 425 5319; fax: +574 234 1004.
E-mail address: pbenjume@unalmed.edu.co (P. Benjumea).

0016-2361/$ - see front matter 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2007.11.004

ber, and lower volatility and heating value compared to

commercial grades of diesel fuel [19].
It is important to know the basic properties of biodiesel
diesel blends. Some of these properties are required as
input data for predictive and diagnostic engine combustion
models. Additionally, it is necessary to know if the fuel
resulting from the blending process meets the standard
specications for diesel fuels. Given the diculty of obtaining the basic properties of the blend by measurement, the
ability to calculate these properties using blending or mixing rules is very useful. Such an approach allows an a priori
estimation of blend properties as a function of composition
and pure component values.
Clements [10] proposed blending rules for estimating the
density, heating value, viscosity, cetane number and cloud
point of biodiesel as a function of its methyl esters prole.
By comparing predicted values with experimental data, he
found that the typical average errors were less than 2%,
with the exception of viscosity, where the average error
was 10%. Similar blending rules to those proposed by Clements for calculating properties of methyl ester blends have
also been used by other researchers for estimating properties of biodieseldiesel blends.

2070

P. Benjumea et al. / Fuel 87 (2008) 20692075

Tat and Van Gerpen [11] presented experimental data

for kinematic viscosity of a commercial soybean oil biodiesel and its blends with grade No. 1 and No. 2 diesel fuels at
75%, 50% and 20% biodiesel (by weight), from a temperature close to the biodiesel melting point up to 100 C.
Results showed that viscosity increased with the increase
in the percentage of biodiesel. The temperature-dependent
viscosity behaviour of the blends was similar to that of neat
fuels. Blend viscosities were estimated by means of a blending rule, similar to the one proposed by Arrhenius and
described by Grunberg and Nissan [12]. The maximum differences between predicted and measured viscosities were
less than 2.05% and 3.74% of the measured values for the
biodiesel blends with No. 2 and No. 1 diesel fuels,
respectively.
Tat and Van Gerpen [13] carried out a study on the density of blends similar to that referenced for viscosity [11].
The results indicated a linear type specic gravitytemperature relationship for the soybean oil biodieseldiesel
blends that was similar to that of the pure diesel fuels. A
mass weighted average was used to estimate blend specic
gravities. This simple approach is known in the hydrocarbon industry as Kays mixing rule [14].
Yuan, Hansen and Zhang [15] carried out a study with
density similar to that of Tat and Van Gerpen [13], using
three types of biodiesel (two produced from soybean oil
and another more saturated biodiesel prepared from yellow
grease). These were blended with grade No. 2 diesel fuel at
75%, 50% and 25% biodiesel (by weight), and tested from
close to the biodiesel crystallization onset temperature up
to 100 C. The measurements indicated that all biodiesel
fuels and their blends with No. 2 diesel fuel had a linear
specic gravitytemperature relationship similar to pure
diesel fuel. The densities of the blends estimated by Kays
mixing rule showed an average absolute deviation (AAD)
of less than 0.43% for all tested fuels in the temperature
range studied.
Joshi and Pegg [16] presented experimental data for
dynamic viscosity and cloud and pour points of biodiesel
derived from ethyl esters of sh oil and its blends with
No. 2 diesel fuel at 80%, 60%, 40% and 20% biodiesel (by
volume). The measurements of the cold ow properties of
the blends were correlated as functions of biodiesel content
using empirical second-order polynomials, giving regression coecients of 0.996 and 0.995 for the predicted cloud
and pour points, respectively.
The present paper presents experimental density and viscosity data as a function of temperature, together with the
heating value, distillation curves and cloud point for palm
oil biodiesel and its blends with No. 2 diesel fuel. Additionally, the calculated cetane index of the tested neat fuels and
their blends is obtained by empirical correlations recommended for hydrocarbon fuels. The aim of this work is to
evaluate mixing rules for calculating the basic properties
of palm oil biodieseldiesel fuel blends as a function of biodiesel content (volume fraction). This approach is more
likely to be applicable to other biodiesel fuels and blends

than empirical correlations, which would be valid only

for the specic blends tested.
2. Methods
2.1. Blend preparation
The biodiesel used in this work was produced in a pilot
plant by basic methanolysis of crude palm oil using a methanol/oil molar ratio of 12:1, with 0.6% sodium hydroxide
by weight as the catalyst. The reaction temperature and
time were 60 C and 1 h, respectively. The methyl ester
composition of palm oil biodiesel (POB) was determined
by gas chromatography (see Table 1). The commercial
grade No. 2 diesel fuel (D) used had an elemental composition by weight of 87.2% carbon, 12.8% hydrogen and
0.0225% sulphur, and an aromatic content of 29.3% (13%
monoaromatics, 13.3% diaromatics and 3% polyaromatics). Although several blends with a wide composition spectrum were prepared by splash blending [17], most of the
tests were carried out with B5 (5% POB-95% D by volume)
and B20 blends, due to their widespread use. Neat fuels are
designated as B100 and B0, respectively. Blends were prepared on a volume basis at 25 C. Although blend preparation on a weight basis has the advantage that weight
fraction does not change with temperature, the common
practice in the fuel industry is to carry out the mixing process on a volume basis at the ambient temperature of the
blending location, usually a wholesale commercial plant.
For this reason, the option selected in this work was to
use blending rules as a function of volumetric fractions.
2.2. Experimental
Cloud point was measured according to ASTM D2500
[18]. Density was determined following ASTM 287 [19]
using calibrated glass API gravity hydrometers. A mineral
oil bath with a temperature control precision of 0.02 C
was used for measuring density at dierent temperatures,
from close to the cloud point of POB up to 100 C. Kinematic viscosity was determined according to ASTM D445
[20] using a capillary tube viscometer. The calibration constant of the viscometer supplied by the manufacturer is
given only for temperatures of 40 and 100 C, so the constant for all other temperatures was linearly interpolated
or extrapolated from these values. Both density and kineTable 1
Chemical composition of palm oil biodiesel by GC
Fatty acid methyl ester

Mass percent

C12:0
C14:0
C16:0
C18:0
C18:1
C18:2

0.267
1.434
46.130
3.684
37.470
11.020

P. Benjumea et al. / Fuel 87 (2008) 20692075

matic viscosity were measured from the cloud point of POB

up to 100 C. High, or gross heating value was determined
using an IKA automated bomb calorimeter, following
ASTM D240 [21]. All fuels tested were distilled following
the procedure established by ASTM D86 [22]. In addition
to the initial and nal boiling points, temperatures for distilled percentage multiples of 10 were also registered. The
temperature values measured were normalized to standard
atmospheric pressure by means of the SidneyYoung correlation, as recommended by ASTM D86. The calculated
cetane index for the fuels tested was determined as a function of their densities and distillation curve data using the
empirical correlations recommended by ASTM D976 [23]
and D4737 [24].
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Basic properties of pure fuels
Experimental data on the basic properties of palm oil
biodiesel and diesel fuel are presented in Table 2. The most
critical property of POB is its high cloud point, due to its
high content of long chain, highly saturated methyl esters
(see Table 1). At 16 C POB starts to form crystals. At
around 12 C, these crystals may plug lters and fuel lines.
These faulty cold ow properties of POB limit its utilization as a neat fuel or in rich biodiesel blends in cold climates or in the winter season. POB is denser, slightly
more viscous, and has a narrower boiling interval than diesel fuel, indicating that the fatty acid methyl esters in biodiesel have similar boiling points. Diesel fuel, meanwhile,
is composed of a wide variety of hydrocarbons with dierent volatilities. This explains why biodiesel is denser than
diesel fuel despite having a lower nal boiling point. POB
has a gross heating value lower than diesel fuel due to
the presence of oxygen in the methyl ester molecules. This
dierence in heating values, expressed as energy per unit
mass, is slightly reduced when it is reported as energy per
unit volume, given the greater density of POB. As a result
of these dierences, the calculated cetane index for POB is
higher than for diesel fuel; this agrees with the tendency

2071

reported by several researchers for both cetane numbers

and CCI [1,8,9].
3.2. Eect of temperature
In order to analyze the eect of temperature on density
and kinematic viscosity of the pure fuels and their blends,
the experimental data were tted by means of statistical
regressions.
Fig. 1 shows the eect of temperature on density (q) for
pure fuels and B5 and B20 blends. In the temperature range
studied there were no qualitative dierences in the behavior
of the fuels tested. Experimental data were correlated by
linear regressions, presented in Table 3. The regression
coecients (R2) were always greater than 0.99, indicating,
as expected, that linear regression accurately represents
the densitytemperature relationship for the fuels tested.
Viscositytemperature curves for pure fuels and several
blends are shown in Fig. 2. As can be seen in this gure,
the curves for diesel fuel and for the blends exhibit a similar
trend for temperature variation, and these curves are practically identical due to the small dierences in the viscosities
of the pure fuels.
The variation of kinematic viscosity (g) with temperature for dierent types of uids has been commonly represented by means of Andrade type equations, such as the
following [11,25]:
g eAB=T C=T

The constants (A, B, C) and the regression coecients

(R2) for each regression curve shown in Fig. 2 are presented
in Table 4.

Table 2
Basic properties of No. 2 diesel fuel and palm oil biodiesel
Properties
Density at 25 C
Mass high heating value
Volume high heating value
(25 C)
Cloud point
Cold lter plugging point
Kinematic viscosity at 40 C
Initial boiling point
Temperature at 50% recovered
Final boiling point
Calculated cetane index

Units

ASTM
Diesel
Palm oil
standard fuel No. 2 Biodiesel

kg/m
D1298
MJ/kg D240
MJ/m3 D240

853.97
45.273
38662

864.42
39.837
34436

C
C
mm2/s
C
C
C

5.0
6.0
4.33
181.5
284.9
384.3
46.3
47.5

16.0
12.0
4.71
302.2
326.5
348.9
57.3
50.0

D2500
D6371
D445
D86
D86
D86
D4737
D976

Fig. 1. Variation of blend density with temperature.

Table 3
Linear regressions parameters for fuel densities
Fuel type

B100
B20
B5
B0

Linear regression q a bT
a

R2

882.6689646
876.6406154
873.0569269
869.6231871

0.7342772415
0.7115968933
0.6920565595
0.6792453596

0.996686
0.997702
0.994305
0.997307

2072

P. Benjumea et al. / Fuel 87 (2008) 20692075

these modications, Eq. (3) for a binary mixture takes the

form of a geometric volume average (Arrhenius-type
equation):
ln gB V POB  ln gPOB V D  ln gD

In the above equation, V is the volume fraction and the

subscripts are B for blend, POB for biodiesel and D for diesel fuel.
For the remaining properties, Kays mixing rule is used:
uB

n
X

xi ui

Fig. 2. Variation of blend Kinematic viscosity with temperature.

3.3. Eect of biodiesel content

Mixing rules are used for estimating the basic properties
of blends as a function of pure fuel properties and biodiesel
content. The suitability of these rules is evaluated by means
of the absolute average deviation (AAD), calculated as

NP 
100 X
uEXP  uPR 

AAD
2
NP i1  uEXP 
where NP is the number of experimental points, u is the
property to be predicted and the subscripts are EXP for
experimental and PR for predicted.
The GrunbergNissan mixing rule is widely used for
predicting viscosity of liquid mixtures [26]:
ln lB

n
X

xi ln li

n X
n
X

xi xj Gij

where lB is the mean absolute viscosity of the blend, li the

absolute viscosity of pure ith component, xi and xj the mole
fractions of the ith and jth components, Gij the interaction
parameter (Gij = 0, for i = j), and n the number of
components.
When the components of a mixture have similar chemical structure it is expected that they do not interact with
each other and consequently the interaction parameter in
Eq. (3) can be neglected. Biodieseldiesel fuel blends can
be assumed to behave this way because both liquids are
non-polar, completely miscible, and when blended their
volumes are practically additive. In this work the volume
fraction and the kinematic viscosity are used instead of
the mole fraction and absolute viscosity, respectively. With

where uB is the property of the blend and ui is the respective property of the ith component. Using volume fraction
instead of molar fraction, Eq. (5) for a binary mixture takes
the form of an arithmetic volume average:
uB V POB  uPOB V D  uD

3.3.1. Viscosity
Fig. 3 shows the eect of biodiesel content on the viscosity of the blends tested for three representative temperatures. As can be seen in this gure, viscosity slightly
increases with biodiesel content. The AADs obtained using
the selected mixing rule for estimating blend viscosity were
1.07%, 0.64% and 0.72% for the data corresponding to 16,
40 and 100 C, respectively.
3.3.2. Density
The variation in blend density with biodiesel content is
shown in Fig. 4. As was expected, density is directly proportional to biodiesel content. The AADs obtained using
Kays mixing rule to estimate blend densities were 0.13%,
0.15% and 0.09% for the data corresponding to 16, 40
and 100 C, respectively.
3.3.3. Heating value
Low heating values (LHV) were calculated from the
measured high heating values (HHV), taking into account
the elemental composition of the pure fuels and the
enthalpy of vaporization of water. As can be seen in
Fig. 5, the LHV of blends decreases in direct proportion

Table 4
Regression parameters for viscosity
Fuel type

B100
B30
B20
B5
B0

Regression equation g eAB=T C=T

R2

0.364206158
0.192149860
0.162400318
0.220089863
0.142954422

55.22818898
60.09025836
61.85122113
56.0562369
60.16294716

416.2888996
462.560271
491.0603185
409.7122203
456.709883

0.988622
0.989173
0.962320
0.978609
0.98695

Fig. 3. Variation of blend kinematic viscosity with biodiesel content.

P. Benjumea et al. / Fuel 87 (2008) 20692075

Fig. 4. Variation of blend density with biodiesel content.

to the biodiesel content. The AAD obtained using Kays

mixing rule to estimate the LHV of blends was 0.19%.

2073

curves tend to intercept at a point which denes two zones

with dierent behaviour. Before the interception point
(approximately 80% distilled percentage), distillation temperature increases with distilled percentage, while after this
point the trend is reversed. Fig. 8 shows the eect of biodiesel content on the distillation temperatures corresponding
to three representative distilled percentages: 10%, 50%
and 90%. These temperatures are designated as T10, T50
and T90, and the maximum values for these are commonly
specied in engine fuel quality standards. The ADDs
obtained using Kays mixing rule to estimate T10, T50
and T90 for the blends were 2.5%, 1.3% and 1.0%,
respectively.

3.3.5. Distillation curve points

Fig. 7 shows the distillation curves for pure fuels and for
B5, B20 and B30 blends. As can be seen in this gure, all

3.3.6. Calculated cetane index

The cetane number is a basic property of diesel fuels that
indicates ignition characteristics. This parameter can be
measured in a specially designed test engine (ASTM
D613) or in a constant volume combustion apparatus
(ASTM D6890) [5,9]. However, these tests are awkward
and expensive. For this reason there have been many
attempts to develop methods to estimate the cetane number
of a fuel. In order to dierentiate predicted from measured
values, the former is called calculated cetane index (CCI),
and the latter cetane number [27]. The CCI can be determined using empirical correlations in accordance with the
ASTM D976 and D4737. Using ASTM D976, this parameter is obtained as a function of fuel density at 15 C and
the T50 distillation curve point. ASTM D4737 additionally

Fig. 5. Variation of low heating value with biodiesel content.

Fig. 7. Distillation curves of POB-D blends.

Fig. 6. Variation of cloud point with biodiesel content.

Fig. 8. Variation of distillation curve points wit biodiesel content.

3.3.4. Cloud point

Fig. 6 shows the eect of biodiesel content on the cloud
point (TCP) of the pure fuels and on a wide spectrum of
blends. Although the mixing rule allowed an excellent
match of the experimental points (see Fig. 6), the AAD
obtained was quite high (15.2%). This happened due to
the temperature scale used. Changing degrees Celsius to
Kelvin gives an AAD of 0.19%.

2074

P. Benjumea et al. / Fuel 87 (2008) 20692075

Table 5
Calculated cetane indexes for pure fuels and B5 and B20 blends
ASTM standard

Calculated cetane index

D

B5

B20

B100

D976
D4737

47.8
46.6

48.7
46.9

48.9
47.0

50.3
57.7

are suitable for predicting the basic properties of palm oil

biodieseldiesel blends as a function of biodiesel content.
The variation of distillation temperature with distilled
percentage for the tested blends is not uniform throughout
the boiling interval: there is an interception point (approximately 80% distilled percentage) dividing two zones with
opposite behaviour.
The ASTM D4737 produces a calculated cetane index of
palm oil biodiesel in better agreement with the reported
cetane number than the corresponding to the ASTM
D976. This result is most likely due to the fact that the former standard takes into account the particular characteristics of the distillation curve.
Acknowledgements

Fig. 9. Variation of calculated cetane index with biodiesel content.

takes into account T10 and T90 values. Table 5 shows the
CCI values using the two standards. Distillation curve
points were taken according to the measured values shown
in Fig. 7 and the values of density at 15 C were obtained
according to the linear regressions presented in Table 3.
For the blends tested (B5 and B20) the eect of biodiesel
content on the CCI of the blend was not signicant,
and the values obtained using both methods were similar.
For B100, the value of the CCI obtained using the ASTM
D4737 (CCI4737) was higher than that obtained using
the ASTM D976, and was in better agreement with the
measured cetane number reported for POB by Malaysian
Palm Oil Board researchers [28]. The better prediction
obtained using ASTM D4737 is most likely due to the
inclusion of the particular characteristics of the distillation
curve.
Two approaches were used to estimate the CCI4737 of
blends (see Fig. 9). In the rst, this parameter was calculated from values of blend densities at 15 C and distillation curve points obtained from Kays mixing rule. In the
second case, it was estimated directly from the mixing rule
as a function of biodiesel content and the value of the
parameter for pure fuels. As can be seen in Fig. 9, the
results obtained using both approaches are similar and
indicate that CCI increases with biodiesel content.
4. Conclusions
Basic properties of palm oil biodieseldiesel fuel blends
were measured according to ASTM standards.
Experimental data showing the variation of density and
kinematic viscosity with temperature were properly tted
by means of statistical regressions.
According to the low values obtained for the absolute
average deviations, it was found that simple mixing rules

The authors wish to acknowledge the nancial support

of COLCIENCIAS (Instituto Colombiano para el Desarrollo de la Ciencia y la Tecnologa Francisco Jose de Caldas) to the research project 1118-06-17327. They also
acknowledge the collaboration of ICP (Instituto Colombiano del Petroleo).
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