Power amplifiers are large-signal

amplifiers. The larger part of the load

line is used during signal operation.
Power amplifiers are commonly used
as the final stage of the
communication receiver or transmitter
to provide sufficient power to an
output load to drive the speakers or to
a transmitting antenna, typically a few
watts to tens of watts.

CLASS A AMPLIFIERS

This amplifier operates entirely in the linear region of the

transistors characteristic curves.
The transistor operate and conduct during the full cycle
(360) of the input signal.
In this mode of operation, the network does not go into
cutoff or saturation.
The output voltage signal has the same shape as the input
signal.
Class A can be either be inverting or noninverting amplifier.
For maximum output signal swing, the Q-point must be
centered on the load line.
Maximum efficiency of a class A amplifier is 25%.

Formulas
Ic(sat) = IcQ + VCEQ / Rc
Maximum current
re = VBE / Ic
AC emitter resistor
VCE(CO) = VCEQ + IcQRc
Cutoff voltage
Av = Rc / re
Voltage gain, Av
Ap = DCAv
Power gain. Ap
VCEQ = IcQRc
Q-point
PQ = IcQVCEQ
Power (Q-point)
PL = V2CEQ / 2RL
Output load power

CLASS B AMPLIFIERS

This amplifiers operates in the linear region for half of the

input cycle.
The transistor is cutoff for the other half cycle of the input.
For class B amplifiers, the Q-point is at cutoff
Operated in a push-pull network in order to produce an
output that is a replica of the input.
Push-pull configuration is a type of class B amplifier with
two transistors in which one transistor conducts for one
half-cycle and the other operates for the other half-cycle.
Crossover distortion is the deformation in the output at the
point where each transistor changes from the cutoff state to
the on state.4
Maximum efficiency is 79%

CLASS AB AMPLIFIERS

This amplifier is biased slightly above cutoff

and operates in the linear region for slightly
more than the half cycle of the input.
It eliminates crossover distortion in class B
amplifiers.

CLASS C

Amplifiers that operate in the linear region for

only small part of the input cycle.
This amplifier is biased below cutoff.
Highest efficiency.
Commonly used as tuned amplifier to
produce a sinusoidal output.
The maximum efficiency is higher than that of
either class A or class B amplifiers.

Comparison
Class of
Operation
Class A
Class B
Class AB

Efficiency

25 % to
50%
79 %
(max)
Between
A and B

Class C

100%

Class D

Over 90%

Bias

Operating
cycle

Distortion

Linear
region
Cutoff

360

Low

180

High

Above
cutoff

Between A Moderate
and B

Below
cutoff

Less than
180
Pulse
operation

Extreme

AMPLIFIER FREQUENCY
RESPONSE

In the past lessons about amplifiers, the

capacitive reactance, Xc, of the capacitors
( CB, CC, and CE) were assumed to be
approximately equal to 0 . Also, the internal
transistor capacitances were assume to be
small enough. We will now consider the
frequency effects introduced by the coupling
and bypass capacitors at the low-frequency
end and the internal transistor capacitances
(parasitic) at the high frequencies.

LOW-FREQUENCY
AMPLIFIER RESPONSE

The capacitively coupled amplifier above has

three high-pass RC circuits that affect its gain as
the frequency is reduced below midrange.

FOUR
CATEGORIES
Active Low-Pass Filter (LPF)

A type of filter that passes frequencies below the cutoff

frequency (fc) while rejecting higher frequencies.
Active High-Pass Filter (HPF)
A type of filter that passes frequencies above the cutoff
frequency while rejecting lower frequencies.
Active Band-Pass Filter (BPF)
A type filter that passes the midrange frequencies lying
between the lower-cutoff frequency (f1) and the upper-cutoff
frequency
Active Band-Stop Filter (BSF)
Band-Elimination Filter
Notch Filter
Band-Reject Filter
A type of filter that rejects a range of frequencies lying
between f1 and f2.

Important Terms

Bandwidth the usable range of

frequencies that pass from input to
output section
Bode Plot a comparative plot (graph)
of the gain versus frequency used to
illustrate the response of an amplifier
Critical Frequency (Cutoff) frequency
at which the response of a filter is 3 dB
less than midrange
Decade ten times increase or
decrease
Midrange the part of a response
curve between the two cutoff
frequencies
Octave two times increase or
decrease
Passband range of frequencies that
are allowed to pass through a system
Quality Factor the ratio of the center
frequency (fo) to its bandwidth (BW)

CE Voltage-Divider
Vcc

R1

Rc

Vo
Cc
+

Cs

+
Rs

R2
+

Vi

RL
RE

Ce

INPUT RC CIRCUIT
One RC circuit is formed by the input
coupling capacitor, Cs, and the input
impedance of the amplifier.

Zi = R1 // R2 // Rin = R1 // R2 // re

Cutoff frequency due to Cs

fCs = 1/ ( 2 RTCs) = 1 / [ 2( Rs + Zi) Cs]

OUTPUT RC CIRCUIT
RC network that is formed by the coupling
capacitor, Cc, and the resistance looking in at
the collector and the load resistance.

Cutoff frequency due to Cc

fCc = 1/ ( 2 RTCc) = 1 / [ 2( Rc + RL ) Cc]

BYPASS RC CIRCUIT

Rth = R1 // R2 // Rs

fCE = 1/ ( 2 RTCE ) = 1 / [ 2(( re + Rth/ )// RE ) CE ]

THE DOMINANT (highest) LOWER

CRITICAL FREQUENCY WILL DETERMINE
THE LOWER CUTOFF FREQUENCY, f1,
OF THE SYSTEM.

HIGH - FREQUENCY
AMPLIFIER RESPONSE
At the higher frequency end, the transistors
internal capacitances begin to have a
significant effect on the gain.

MILLER CAPACITANCE
The interelectrode capacitances between terminals can
be used to simplify the analysis of inverting amplifiers
at high frequencies. The coupling and bypass
capacitors have all been replaced by their short-circuit
equivalent due to their very low reactance.

Millers theorem states that Cf effectively appears as a

capacitance from input to ground. It also states that Cf
effectively appears as a capacitance from output to ground.
Av = Avmid = (-Rc//RL)/re

Cin(Miller) = Cf ( 1 Av)

Cout(Miller) = Cf ( 1 1 / Av )

INPUT RC CIRCUIT

RT = Rs // R1 // R2 // Rin = Rs // R1 // R2 // re
CT = Cw(input) + Cbe + Cin(Miller)

Upper cutoff frequency due to

input RC network.

fCi = 1/ ( 2 RTCT ) = 1 / [ 2( Rs // R1 // R2 //
re) (Cw(input) + Cbe + Cin(Miller) ) ]

OUTPUT RC NETWORK

RT = Rc // RL
CT = Cw(out) + Cce + Cout(Miller)

Upper cutoff frequency due to

output RC circuit.
fCo = 1/ ( 2 RTCT ) = 1 / [ 2( Rc // RL )
(Cw(iout) + Cce + Cout(Miller) ) ]

THE LOWER OF THE TWO

CRITICAL HIGH FREQUENCIES
IS THE DOMINANT UPPER
CUTOFF FREQUENCY, f2, OF
THE SYSTEM.

BANDWIDTH = BW = f2 f1

Example:

DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER,
DIFF-AMP
An amplifier that produces an output
signal proportional to the difference of the
two input signals. It has a very large gain
when opposite signals are applied to the
inputs as compared to the negligible gain
resulting from common inputs. Commonly
used for the input stages of an
operational amplifier.

BASIC CIRCUIT
The circuit has two separate inputs, two outputs,
and both emitter terminals are connected
together.

MODES OF SIGNAL OPERATION:

SINGLE-ENDED INPUT
Case 1: Vi1 0 and Vi2 = 0

Input signal is applied to B1 ( Vi1 0 ).

B2 is grounded ( Vi2 = 0).
Inverted amplified output signal, Vo1, appears at terminal
C1.
A signal voltage Ve appears in phase at the emitter of Q1
and Q2 which becomes an input to Q2.
Q2 functions as a common-base amplifier.
Noninverted amplified output signal, Vo2, appears at
terminal C2.
Voltage gain Av1 = - Rc / re.
Voltage gain Av2 = +Rc / re.

CONFIGURATION

Case 2: Vi2 0 and Vi1 = 0

Input signal is applied to B2 ( Vi2 0 ).

B1 is grounded ( Vi1 = 0).
Inverted amplified output signal, Vo2, appears at terminal
C2.
A signal voltage Ve appears in phase at the emitter of Q1
and Q2 which becomes an input to Q1.
Q1 functions as a common-base amplifier.
Noninverted amplified output signal, Vo1, appears at
terminal C1.
Voltage gain Av2 = - Rc / re.
Voltage gain Av1 = +Rc / re.

CONFIGURATION

DIFFERENTIAL INPUT

Two opposite-polarity input signals are

applied to the inputs ( double-ended
operation).
Vi1 and Vo2 are in phase.
Vi2 and Vo1 are in phase.
There is a 180 out-of-phase relationship
between Vo1 and Vo2.
/ Vo1/ = / Vo2/

COMMON-MODE INPUT

The same input is applied to both input

terminals.
The output signals for both transistors are
equal to zero

COMMON-MODE REJECTION
RATIO, CMRR

The ratio between differential voltage gain and

common-mode gain.
The measure of an amplifiers ability to reject
common-mode signals.
CMRR = (ideal).
CMRR = Avd / Acm
Where: Avd = differential voltage gain
Acm = common-mode gain
Expressed in decibels
CMRR = 20 log ( Avd / Acm)

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
An op-amp is a high gain differential amplifier with
high input impedance (Zi) and low output
impedance (Zo). An op-amp contains several
stages of differential amplifier to achieve a very
high voltage gain.

Typical op-amp unit

The concept of negative feedback is used

in several op-amp applications. Negative
feedback is the process whereby a portion
of the output voltage of an amplifier is
returned to the input with a phase angle
that opposes the input signal.

OUTPUT VOLTAGE
Op-amp provides an output component that is due to
the amplification of the difference of the signals (Vd)
applied to the two inputs and a component due to the
signals common to both inputs (Vc).

Vo = AdVd + AcVc

Where : Vd = difference voltage

Vd = Vi1 Vi2
Vc = common voltage
( unwanted)
Vi1 + Vi2
Vc = -------------2
Ad = differential gain
Ac = common mode gain
Ad >> Ac

COMMON MODE REJECTION

RATIO, CMRR
The measure of an amplifiers ability
to reject unwanted signals. The main
purpose of differential connection is
to amplify the difference signal while
rejecting the common signal (noise)
at the inputs.

CMRR = Ad
Ac
CMRRdB= 20 log Ad
Ac
CMRR = infinite (ideal)
the larger the value, the better the circuit operation
Vo = AdVd + AcVc
Vo = AdVd

Vo =

1 + AcVc
AdVd
AdVd

Vc
1 + ------------CMRR Vd

DC OFFSSET PARAMETER
(output error voltage)
Unwanted voltage and current
generated by the internal
circuitry and not by the applied
input signal.

INPUT OFFSET VOLTAGE; VIO

(1mV ~ 6mV)
When Vi = 0, the circuit acts like an
noninverting amplifier.

Vo(offset) =

VIO [ 1 + Rf / R1 ]

INPUT OFFSET CURRENT;IIO

(20nA ~ 200 nA)
An offset current due to the difference in
currents at the two inputs.

Vo(offset) = IIO Rf
TOTAL OUTPUT OFFSET VOLTAGE

Vo(offset) = VIO [ 1 + Rf / R1 ] + IIO Rf

INPUT BIAS CURRENT , I IB

I+IB + I-IB
IIB = --------------2
I+IB = IIB + IIO
2
I-IB = IIB - IIO
2
IIO = I+IB - I-IB

FREQUENCY PARAMETERS
CUTOFF FREQUENCY, fc

fc = f1 / AVD
Where B1 = unity- gain BW
f1 = unity- gain freq
AVD = voltage differential gain
= open loop voltage gain
= 200V/mV typical
= 20V/mV (min)

SLEW RATE, SR
Slew rate is the maximum permissible rate at which op-amp
output can change in volts per microsecond. If the rate of
output voltage change is greater than SR, the output signal
will be distorted.

SR = Vo / t
Vo = ACL Vi
Vo / t = ACL [ Vi / t ]
SR = ACL [ Vi / t ]

MAXIMUM SIGNAL
FREQUENCY
The input frequency of an op-amp is dependent on both the
bandwidth and slew rate parameters

ws < SR/ K
K =output gain factor
K = ACL Vi

INVERTING AMPLIFIER
Vo = - (Rf / R1) Vi
Zi = R1 + Rf / AOL R1
Zo = [ AOL / ( 1 + AOL)] Rf // Zout
Zo Zout

Where Zout = open-loop output impedance

Zin = open-loop input impedance
AOL = open-loop gain
Zi = input impedance of the
inverting amplifier
Zo = output impedance of the
inverting amplifier
B = feedback fraction
AOL(mid) = midrange open-loop gain
fi = signal frequency
fc = critical frequency
BWCL = closed-loop BW

NONINVERTING AMPLIFIER

Vo = [ 1 + Rf / R1 ] Vi
Zi = [ 1 + AOLB ] Zin
Zo = Zout / ( 1 + AOLB)

UNITY FOLLOWER
A voltage buffer configuration provides a means of
isolating an input signal from a load.

Vo = Vi
B=1
ACL = 1
Zi = ( 1 + AOL) Zin
Zo = Zout / ( 1+ AOL)

SUMMING AMPLIFIER

Rf
Rf
Rf
Vo = - ------ V1 + -------- V2 + ---------V3
R1
R2
R3

INTEGRATOR

DIFFERENTIATOR

VOLTAGE DIFFERENCE

INSTRUMENTATION
AMPLIFIER

Vo = [1 + 2Rf / RG ] ( V1 V2 )
Let R1 = R3 = R2 = R4 = R
Rf1 = Rf2 = Rf

PHASE-SHIFT OSCILLATOR
Oscillator is a circuit that produces periodic (repeating)
waveforms on its output with only the dc supply as a
required input.

fo =

1_____
26 RC

B = 1 / 29

ACTIVE FILTERS

First-order LPF

Fourth-order LPF

Values for Butterworth

Response
Order

Roll off rate

dB/Decade

First stage
Poles

First stage
DF

Second stage
Poles

Second stage
DF

20

Optional

40

1.414

60

80

5
6

Third stage
Poles

Third stage
DF

1.0

1.0

1.848

0.765

100

1.0

1.618

0.618

120

1.932

1.414

0.518

FUNCTION GENERATOR
Vz2
R4

V-

11

R2
-

R1

X1 2

C12

X10
2

C13

X100
2

C14

X1k
2

X10k
2

V+

OUT

C11

2 X1

C1

2 X10

C2

C3
2 X100

C4

X10k

OUT
3

C10

X1k

2
R11

C5

C9

1
0

11

V+

OUT
2

R10
1

V-

R7

R8

C8

X10 X100
2

X1

C7

C6

X10k

R6

R5

3
R9

11

X1k
1

C15

V-

R3

V+

Vz1

Vout