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Index + Glossary 490,191, 149, 144,154 196, 18,157, 175,177,180, 69, 16,17, 24248, 245, 262, 505,308, 922 ‘Side ibis) 1, 14,151 183, 154, 166,157 ‘Sng lazing — 47,281 Sng wel tar) 20am: Paty ain oo ft made by fdr together Frees of leon of sheet mea. > 1,200 Sein ting sat: Form of rot cow ‘rng tn sma lomat fat kent |e in zontal onan -hrzonal ‘ourges sucha to over ge of ‘coc loner aps pst he te he (ouve bow =» 185, 190,144,268 ‘Singl-sotey aed 11, 15,91 37, 82, ‘er. 100 ‘siting: Corpacton of layoy masses stompeatres excoeaing {0 °C. > 158,150,220 ‘Sab Pana, a wadbaring momber ‘rouble ot reasing oto plane fers.» 17,21, 23, 62,08, 68, 92, 5,100,245, 48,265,387, 24, 5, 06,986 374, 405,408, «25 ‘Sate: Svatorma ft, ta, ovetapping Tooting oemont avalabi various ‘Sapes er aying orion ore: oreo court ‘tng Foo! covering mpoying ratraitre-cerent lt orl, aeatssed shapes and sizes Pec tenndor, sue, agonal, cave, alone) produced by machine.» {EF 2 126, 926,127, 128, 120, 190, 181 264 265, 267, 208, 200,944, 2 ‘Sting wih cured slates: Sngiap ‘Sting Using curved sates a ren ea ‘ip Nao, har piece of rb, pase "ral sipped beneath alfa, {at overappng ements ners ousen. ed 200, 21,214,217, aa, 28 ‘ip tng = 13, 144 Sipe eo. Farm of sinleap tng "snob smal oe fa era ing elements in Raion cores n teh th i ants re algnoa ane {us roqure a sp to make them ain fool? ‘Sope ableton oxo — 215 oping extemal wal S137 ‘Sing tame = 88 Show load 45,46, 50, 51,56 57,70, 02,428 rough’: Fence, poe o other means Torevent now ec of the oo anc thus endangering passers-by or caus- Ingemobervcton =» 81,471 ‘sot, Sal format shot etal ashing ‘hreciangulro ovelal shape and racing be engi fhe respective {eo eoverng elem fd bot ho ‘oo covering and orerapping terest ‘esker used in valoys and adacent walatvmneys => 117. 128, 127.106, 146,147,148 298, 287, 272,279,278, 280282, 283 sot», 65, 100, Sot feroboad = 371,41 ‘Set root covering A rot covering nt eau o ing soaks and acant tet == 115 Sslerar Et of phate aco, used or sfening poses, > 28, 95 orca Samiconductr diode of cxys- tain lean hat converts suit no fnewete curont.-~2, 103 Solar coat: An absorber unit contain ing pipes hea wth aos rostant hack hen bacon hestod > 108, ‘4 00 Solan lass 161, 164, 165,186 172 ‘Salar tara! enegy- Te us of ncicent ‘sol ong) forthe purpose of heating ‘rater 9, 79, 109,152, 165,164, 229, 200, 251,292 Solar onary component 108 Sou heat gan 8,79 Solr acon = 27,32, 79, 85,411, 415 Sole-conol gas: Glas tat dsioaes incdent slar action= 160,108 15, 108,172 solder 15,24 ‘Selcering— 2¢ Sound ateraton 01 Sound inslation “> 44, 60, 9,92, 63, 4, ‘96,7, 06, 99,102, 18 eu inslaton dx 02, 04 Sovdinensty = 00 93 Soure pressure lave» 80 Seundrocuton x 91,02 80, 4 "2 163 ‘soving 218,217 Space frame: Teoe-dimersionl oa ‘Deerng sructira — 68, 67, 68,374 ro ‘seace heting equment > 78, 80.81 Space batten > 309,389 Spacer purin 84, 252, 293, 298, 207, 317,318,320, St, 360 ‘Space rater» 64, 08, 249, 202,206, ‘207, S17, 218, 39,33, S82, 348,048, 0,905,397, 909, 406. ‘spice lata 58, 5862. 63 Shout 9 253,258 Sean 23,97, 38, 40,47 ‘Sreseedskn stuck’ Pana loads Ing suche comprising fat or curved Strtacos (eet, pista hel atico rrambrane). = 6,68 08 ‘Srut=> 65, 94%, 267, 380,991,405, 409, "4,418, 416 Suming—> 78 Sunshacng +71, 100 Sransneck Apps tng forming along. tS enape, fon u2od 1 in a gui Salat tea dowrpine. = 258, ‘ay A pace of hn wood used press the tate eno fo bate concen beneath he thatch = 48, 70,530, ‘wong: Moitueveatod expanson of ‘wooden sakealsngles = 83 ‘swap valley: Valley covering of ovorap ing lems ext of mado 1 abe 80 [So elimina he nao fo 8 tal va ay utr 117, 190,147,206, neta surface: Suface cuved in 0 iar dractone: th osres ofthe two radi of eure are oestod on tho sare ade af hs suraco. = 221 Synttic oon fe 28,242, 24,274 206,992, 209,44, 418 “Ta: Gotom end of stone. + 141.181 206, “al ifs) 47,140, 141,144, 150,158, "56 Tangential ooo: Force ho rection of the edge otamemtxane: depends on tingle Between srocon of eae sean find drecton of membrane span. —> 220,223, “angen savingeuting 112 Tarot 989, 995,408, 409, Tension stars 62 25, 428 427. 431 ‘Standardrecormendes ct pitch Incinaton of ot (tr), ih respect to.ahotucntl ie, speciled bythe (Garman roofing rade gudeines ashe ‘Shafowestincanation a which aroot ‘overing canbe nd ah at st Fangrcot a shallower nclnaton not ‘ermted wnouk aeons measures 1 underiken = 5 ‘Standart pach corugated shoot 175, "76,17. 180, ‘Standing sam» 196, 95,196,107, 08 109, 200,201,209, 316 ‘Stancig sam rong: Frm 3 0! cov ‘eng using pocos of set meta Joined togiher wh chad double wot yon 200 Stee 12,2, 22,25, 26, 47,56 89,60, "4, 67,70, 90,95, 100, 104, 11,116. taste 196, 94, 194, 160, 182,168, 18 179,176,178, 180,184, 106, 187, 16,129,190, 129,188,108, 160, 203, 208,228 224, 25,226,227, 250,252, 258,264, 200, 94,915 520,04 625, £26, 34,947, 354, 2,3 964, 95,366, 170.874, 379, 980,99, 89, S88, 200, $505, R07, 300,40, 405, 206, 48,411 144 415,410,418 420, 422.45, 426. 427,491,432, 494, 495, 487 ‘tap > 11/14, 19, 20,27 90, 35,44, 80, 12, 102,954, 982, 306, 408 ‘top suppor te => 4, 142,154,257 ‘Stopped nulting glass 208,290 ‘Sone > 12,17, 10,28, 24, 37,9847, ‘34,961 268, 985, ‘svaghtrun biuman: Typ of bitaren ‘obtained rom ection of pto- Teun moregnation substance for ba Iman rooting Wt an asphalt chs, mie 18 ‘Tera sigiata: A gosy. operpore, ‘220 Ike coating made torn a rut fideo lay oad hat neue at De ‘nest of snoring. 197 “Texte: coherent assembly of roads, Fores ete, Soe nteroven a ahe fing, = 29,47 sraten = 7.9 Thatta root 23. ‘herma brisga 44,71, 75, 76,77, 78 "0.81, 88, 95 “Thea coon +71 ermal conduct 71, 72,75, 88 8, 14,120, 121, 13,160, 160, 1, 196,194,108 “Thamal eulton: Umisho of heat ‘yy diving a ow thermal conduc tance) pockets nto ema ode, 2. ‘oundng these wih tal oo ‘ler neorelete vals ios) and hence mina be Pet aw ao ‘excludes tha heat exchange by Way of ‘Brereton (convecton) max. 20% ‘the teal rslaton may be po ened on te nner ie oe vapour bare 0 thet condensation does nat formnere,-» 20, 27,5239, 4, 50,65, F765, 76,77, 78,79, 8081, 84,8, £6,785, 89, 93, 96,97 98,98, C0, ‘Thermal movemant A tomparatre reat fod change lang sa feature of at foot eoverng matosas ane cono- ren chaste akan so. ‘count by various means, > 408 ‘tesa perfommance == 471.72. 73, 4 70,76, 7, 78, 70, 80,81, 82,88. £8, 0,95, 86,07, 98, 100. 102 “tema reictanoe "7,72, 74, 78,77 "396,00, “heal anemtance 71, 74,75, 76,08 Themoplosie 192,211, 212,218,214 218,210 ‘rust beck 240 Tie cip 88 “eng batten» 46,47, 4, 5604768, 2 Ting withathout overapping shoulders ves 88 “it bare: Packing invert caves rich arses ta! be slope at ‘aves (tn sm srmat overapBng ments) socal res te foot ean aga be employed toreduce tho angle opi at heaves 25 Ey “ing lt: 96 ting bore) Tinbe bear» 67 “moee deriva Dos — 54, 55, 58,64, "00,418 “Tet preservative -+ 19,93, 87, 89, 8, 00,300 ‘Timber epee pate 58 anurmne =» 25 47,108,343, $83, 356, $60, S73. 41,408,419 “Tos: Raina ip on curved and 8a "oped patra sates, “Tangue an groove boarding» 189285, 287, 269,313, “op cores at 122, 264,265, 208, 20 op couse the 140,14, 145, 182.57 ‘Terching: Mortar appa to head or sce Tons on underside tes or states > a9, 210,213 ‘Toughened elty ass: Glass tough ‘ened by toma} magne.» S79, 418 “Transparent ama! neation— Bt Transverse stip of more 155 Trapezoid prot shoeing 54, 85,58, 0,62 “angular filet» 947,97 Trmemer =» 63,05 “rough (1) Lower horizontal ine of = ‘etn baton two Soping roo su faces coneiictad as a salty guts (2) alley between wo crest of 1o- tied sheeting ‘raugh gator Wittig channel wt an ‘wero gutlr mado om buen She rooting et an lad al (G1 8%), wih tice a6 many cuts ts cacuatad and coal overtone St to ends o prove a bul of tater, anc vth a moans of eating prevent estarming, > 253, 285,258, ora “ruts Pane or apace rane corersing ‘roronfal verte and ncinoa Tension land comoreseon momar wih ped rte 825687, 67,423 Swseod rama 65,67, 494 Turbulent fow 258, Tut 9218 Tnedup edge 127, 196,157,186, ‘01,202, 216, 202,267,272, 200, 286, 288,200, 305,311,318 820 ‘Tre press — 19 “weave: Fabre structure in wich be "treads are woven opera ta ‘gle in pare ‘wn double welt stand seam: aio ‘Sogo wel seams at ho ridge of ‘Sent etl oof > 199, 200314 Usaviit action + 4,98 Ungerand-ovr les = 47 Undercoat => 110, 13,258,250 Undeveaves course 125,125,183, ‘25,200 Lndereaves late > 265, 260, Undoreaves la 340,141 — Construction Nianual Pitched Roofs SCHUNCK , esas Seee esa) BARTHEL EDITION DETAIL KIESSL Roof Construction Manual Pitched Roofs Eberhard Schunck Hans Jochen Oster Rainer Barthel Kurt Kiessl BIRKHAUSER — PUBLISHERS FOR ARCHITECTURE BASEL : BOSTON - BERLIN EDITION DETAIL MUNICH “The orginal German edition ofthis book was conceived and developed by DETAIL, Review of Architecture in association with Ciay Root Tie ‘Study Group, Bundesverband der Deutscher Ziegel-industrie€.V. Authors: Eberhard Schunck, Prof. Dipl-Ing., architect Chair of Bulding, Munich Technical University Hans Jochen Oster, Dipl-Ing. architect Rainer Batho, Prot. Dr-Ing. Chair of Structural Engineering, Munich Technical University Kurt Kiss! Pro. Oring Professor of Bulging Climate, Faculty of Architecture, ‘Bauhaus University, Weimar ‘Assistants: Eva Bodemer, with ‘Alexander Blank, Christian Brinkmeier, Raf Elias, Olver Grassmann, CCivistian Kovac, Rabert Pawlowski, Frank Ressel, Christian Salz Lloadbearing structure: Herbert Markert Editorial services: Heide Wessely Edtoral assistants: Claudia Fuchs, Holke Werner Drawings: Nicola Kollman CCAD assistants: Markus Betz, PetorLingonfoser, Isabel Mayer, Emese Kés2aq), Elisabeth Krammer, Axel Miller Engelhard, Andrea Saiko, Linda Werner Assistants on previous editions: Mare Gerhard, Albrecht Hanser, Hansi6rg Kehnel, Harald Konsek, SSwenja Noting, Uli Rub, Martin Schibel, Hubert Schmickler, Peter Schmidt, Matthias Stumpf, Hubert Volmer, Bettina Vismano, Markus Wacker, Thomas Ziegler (© 1901, frst edition (© 1906, sacond edition, revised and updated (© 1900, third edition, revised and updated (© 2002, fourth ection, fully revised, new edition (© 2009 Birkhauser - Publishers for Architecture, P.O, Box 193, CH-4010 Basel, Switzeriand Printed on acidsree paper produced trom chilorinesree pulp. TOF = ISBN 3.7649-6086 8 Layout and produetion: Peter Gensmantel, Comelia Kohn, Andrea Linke, Foswitha Siegler Printed in Germany ‘Translators (GermarvEnglh) parts 1-3: Gerd Softer, Philp Thit, Hannover part 4: Ingrid Taylor, Munich A CIP catalogue recor for this book is vallable from the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., USA Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche National- bibliogratie; detailed bibliographic data is available onthe internet at ‘htipz/dnb. db de. ‘This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the right of trans: lation, reprinting, re-use of ilusration, recitation, broadcasting, repro- ‘duction on micratiims or in other ways, and storage in databases. For any kind of use, permission ofthe copyright owner must be obtained. ‘This book is also available in a German language edition (ISBN 3-7643- 6896-9), Specialist advisers: Thatch Norbert Hofmann, Berend Meyer Wooden shakes! Gethard Beyer, Bettina Horsch, Andreas Rapp, shingles Eckart Schwab, Ludwig Weiss Natural and fiore- Heinrich Baum, Georg Guntermann, coment slates Ewald A. Hoppen, Karin Kirchner, Gaston Lemmé, Uric Lutter, Frank Rummel, \Wollgang Schinkel, Wolfgang Wagner, Franz Wierschem Heinz Blass, Ernst P, Giorcke, Brigite Liess Leonhard Froschauer, Klaus Gébel, Heinz Zanger, Paul Zielinski Hearn Baum, Horst Pavel ‘Asphalt shingles Clay oof tes Concrete root tiles Glass. ‘Georg Babioch, Edmund Hann, Heinz Krewinksl Corrugated bitumen Ulrich Franke sheeting Fibre-cemont Gaston Lemmé, Bemhard Rohde corrugated sheeting Metal profiled Kunibert Breuer, Hubert Witur sheeting ‘Shoet metal oof Friedolin Behning, Kunibert Breuer, Gert Brohi, ‘coverings ‘Stephan Christensen, Rainer Schulze-Rettmer, Hermann Wenzel, Friedhelm Wiesel, Hans-Peter Wilbert Green roots Foland Appl, Gerd Harzmann Membranes Carsten Moritz ‘Secondary water- Gaston Lemmé, Hans Peter Raict proofing/covering layer Drainage Friedolin Benning Contents Part 1. Pitched roofs past and present Part 2- Fundamentals Loadbearing structure bernard Schunck Rainer Barthel Astatus report 10 Actions. Roofing materials and techniques in the Dead loads 19th century 11 imposed loads CChanges in building science 11 Wind loads Iron, glass, concrate~ the naw building Snow loads Materials 12 Bracing Rooting techniques and roofing materials 12 From roof covering to loadbearing structure New erteria 15 Overlapping elements on battens Further developments inthe 20th century 17 Timber roof decking Econemny 17 Roof dacking as roof plate Ecology 18 Trapezoidal profile sheeting Building science 21 Stoel trapezoidal profile sheeting as ‘The building industry and new building roof plate materials 21 Sali timber panels Forms of roofing and materials 22 Timber panels Use and form 30 Aerated concrete planks Using the roof surface 32 Sandwich panels, oo! forms 33 Glass ‘The parts ofthe root 34 Timber pitched roots oof form and use 87 Close couple and collar roofs Roof form and building 38 Parlin root oot form and environment 39 Bracing the timber pitched root Historical root structures: Loadbearing structures for pitched roots Flat rof surfaces Roof surfaces in single curvature Foot surfaces in double curvature 48 BRLBRLRAV Bulging science Kurt Kiess! ‘Thormal performance Basic terminology (definitions, symbols, parameters) Mechanisms of heat transmission Heat transmission through components “Thermal insulation ‘Thermal bridges Airighiness Requirements for thermal performance Energy-saving thermal insulation ~ Eneray Economy Act CClimateelated moisture contol Basic terminology (definitions, symbols, parameters) Moisture and moisture transport Condensation and evaporation within the component cross-section Moisture contol layers Foof ventilation ~ openness to cifusion Requirements for moisture control Sound insulation Basic terminology (defitions, symbols, parameters) Sound transmission Sound attenuation Airborne sound insulation ‘Sound insulation for pitched roofs Fire protection, corrosion protection n m 7 73 % 78 8 7 Ra BR BBS288 SesRe Design Eberhard Schunck and Hans Jochen Oster Part 3 - Construction details [Eberhard Schunck and Hans Jochen Oster Part 4 Bult examples in detail Eberhard Schunck and Hans Jochen Oster Usage and requirements 97 Construction details 256 Bult examples 396 Ventilated - non-ventilated 97 Thatch 258 Thatch 338 Prefabricaton 100 _Reed’and straw 258 Rood 338 “The modular root 102 Flat overlapping elements 260 Flatoveriapping elements 340 Wood 260 Wood 340 [Natural and fibre-cement slates «264.—=—=—Natural slate 344 Layers and materials Bitumen 270 —_‘Fibre-cement 346 Clay and conerete 274 Bitumen 348 ‘Covering and sealing 105 Profiled overlapping elements, 284 Clay 350 Forms of oof covering and materials 108 Clay and concrete 284 Concrete 352 Thatch 108 Foot covering over open roof space 284 Profiled overlapping elements 360 Reed and straw +108 Roof covering with roofing felt Clay 360 Flat overlapping elements m1 Underneath 286 Flat sheets 365 Wood a Roof covering with secondary Stone 368 Natural and fbre-cement slates. 119) waterproofing layer underneath 292,» Wood 368 Bitumen 132_ Flat sheets 298 Glass 372 Glay and concrete 137 Glass 298 Plastic 386 Profled overiapping elements 149 Profiled sheets 302 Profiled sheets 388 ‘lay and concrete 149 Fibre-cement 302 Fibre-cement 388 Fiat sheets 168 Metal 312 Metal 390 Glass. 188 Sheets 316 Plastic 400 Profiled sheets 173 Metal 316 Ceramic. 402 Fire-cement 173 Flexible sheeting 822 Flexible sheeting 405 Bitumen 181 Green roof 822 Metal 405 Metal 184 Refurbishment 327 Bitumen 412 Sheets 190 Prastic 414 Metal 190 Green root 419 Fexible sheeting 205 Membranes 422 Green root 205 Textile 422 Memicanes: 218 Coated textle 428 Prastic 433 Energy production 228 Ventilation 232 Secondary waterproofing! ‘Appendix covering layer 209 ‘Vapour barrier and airtight membrane 243, Legend 438 ‘Thermal insulation 246, References 429 Drainage 250 Index of architects and engineers 439 Index and glossary 440 Picture credits 448 Preface ‘The fist Roof Construction Manual goes back to the begimings of a successful sarias of building handbooks, wnich the meantime ‘Comprises seven volumes. Although the com- pletely new edition of 1991 had twice been Updated and augmented, now legislation, directives, standards and technical guidelines plus new constuction methods have made this comprehensive revision necessary. All the ‘existing chapters were brought upto date and some were totally recast, Even the introductory Chapter demonstrates the topicality of the sub- [pct with reference to the current situation in tha building industry. The chapter covering the loadbearing stricture is also neve. now i Cludes the actions on the roof and the transfer of loads trom the root covering to the load bearing structure, and besides the most signif: cant tradtional roo ramaworks also looks at long span roots. ‘The buling science chapter now autines not ‘only the indispensable scientific principles but ‘or the first time, the methods of calculation based on the new energy economy legisiation, vith al the references that legisation contains. Allthe oot covering materials trom the former manual reappear in this book. These consttute ‘an important resource within the range of tadi- tional roof coverings and represent the current state ofthese materials However, new types of roofing materials are also dealt wit; for instance, membranes get their onn chapter for he frst time. This is the first publication we know of that ilustates the ‘constuction principles inthis form, {nd the chapter on energy gains is new — for this subject plays an increasing role for the pitched rot ‘Within the realms of production and erection ‘we showy the current status of prefabrication and offer suggestions for employing prefab solutions to achieve econemic pitched roots Furthermore, the principles for designing a ‘modular roof are explained. coupled with ideas fn naw to procead in the development of modular systoms, FRofurbishment i a task that will gain more im portance in the building industry inthe futue ‘This topic was therefore included, taking into account various cases of damage and core- sponding refurbishment options. ‘The examples atthe back of the book include many contemporary builcings that relect the slate of roof technology and the aesthotic specttum of today’s architecture. However, a ‘number of classic examples are also shown, together with details that have been published only rarely and then mostly incomplete, For the first ima, a glossary of the more common spe: Cialist terms complements the index. “The idea behind the Roof Consiruction Manual is not merely to present ready-made canstrio- tion formulae but rather to set out the principles for the construction and design of the roof as a Climatic envelope. Those include: * basic knowledge about the loadbearing structure and is interaction with the root covering, + knowledge of the scientific principles affect. ing the building in conjunction wath the new ecitions of OIN standard and statutory instruments, + information about the construction principles (of pilched roots in terms of the problem ot Yentiated and nan-ventilated forms of con- struction, + a deeper understanding ofthe roof covering ‘materials and the joining options, + an overview ofthe options for ganing eneegy ‘and their intagration within the pitched! roo, * an understanding of the special prablam of moisture and how ta overcome this withthe help of current findings, + an aworeness ofthe low mechanisms acting (on the roof and the consequences forthe air tightness and its design, + knowledge of insulating materials together with their physical properties and how they should be used, {and finaly, an impression of the materials, types and design of drainage systems. Inaxder to ilustrate these principles, con- struction drawings shaw simple applications ‘These are supplomented by appropriate factual examples, ‘The publisher and authors hope that the know ledge assembled in this book wil serve to ‘extend the understanding of the construction {and the design skills equred forthe complex. tasks of reof construction, “The publisher and authors Part1 Pitched roofs - past and present A status report ‘The origins ofthe pitched roof stretch back to the beginnings of human civilisation. its ad ‘vantages are undisputed. Its an ideal upper enclosure tothe building envelope. is inclined surfaces discharge precipitation quickly and reliably. The small format structure is very easy omaintain and the elements of the roof cover- ing are mostly very durable, COnly briefly was the superiority ofthe pitched roof callad into question asthe fat roo enjoyed ‘a major boost withthe development of modern architecture in the 1970s and threatened to ‘overtake the pitched roof in terms of popularity Today, the pilched root has regained fist place. large majo n our society these days Tegards the pitched roof asthe very embod ‘ment ofthe roof parse, meeting society's expectations in terms of appearance. Tn the frst part of his Book we shall attempt toinsti an understanding ofthe forms and ‘methods by presenting a historical review of roofing technovogy. First, we look back to the 19th century, when industraisation revolutionised all areas of pro- duction, We shall examine tne question of to ‘what extent building technology at that time had reached the level of development of other ‘areas of production, and whether it benefited from other disciplines even then. After that we investigate the motives that determined the development of technology and building tech nology. Later, we trace further progress throughout the 20th century up tothe present day. We establish the basis for our modern-day ‘construction methods by considering the inci- vidual materials, particularly with respect to the ‘wo mest important aspects that dominate today’s society: economy and ecology. Finally, the use and form ofthe roof are explained in ‘order to set out the boundaries and our options for action. 10 Roofing materials and techniques in the 19th century Changes to the buil Stating inthe mid-18th century, fundamental ‘changes took place fist in England then also in France and Germany — tat stonaly inuenced other. Populations inoreased at an ever faster rate, industrial production was stepped up and the mechanisaton of production systems expanded The increasing population density in the towns and cites presented new challenges forthe building industry in terms of mutistorey con: struction, transportation and infrastructure, The new production plants demanded quickly erected buildings to cover large open spaces, and early single-storey sheds were m: on churches. The liberal theories of Adam 1 Werks, Bondo, 152800, ing industry in the 19th century ‘Smith in England and the fist social welfare polices in France brought about an increase in .ge8, Thus, in order to avoid arise inte of production, the building industry, too, tuned @ cost ‘The evolution of building science ‘The constant expansion of mechanisation and the associated population density had an in. fuence primary on the use, and hence the design, of buildings. The wide range of stylistic elements to solve construction problems with standard architecture took on a subsidiary ole Thus. the engineering dimension became sep: arated trom the artistic, often purely decorative ‘dimension, Engineers, freed from the burden of artistic design, could naw devote themselves to technical problems and the demands of industry. They were well equipped to do so because the intensive scientific investigations, in progress since the middle ofthe 18th cen tury were now, atthe beginning of the 19th -entury, beginning to bear fruit In 1829 Claude-Louis-Marie-Henri Naver, the father of structural engineering, summed u the knowledge of his age in a comprehensive work. The development of projective geomotry bby Gaspard Monge enabled the complex sys tems of three-dimensional objects to be analysed. The increasing importance of the science of building man ested its in the founding of the “Ecole des Ponts et des Chaussées" in the year 1747. For the frst time, building technology was taught ints own ‘school After the Ecole Polytechnique was " Pitched roots - past and present established in 1794-05 in Paris, technical uni versities folowed in Prague (1803), Vienna (1818) and Karlsruhe (1825). The divergence of engineers and aristarchitects began very early in France and reinforced the position of the engineer. As Anatole de Baudot said in 1889: “The influence of the architect has been diminishing fo along time, and the eng} reer, the modern person par excellence, is beginning to replace him. I the engineer were toreplace the architect completely, the latter could without doubt disappear without his art being extinguished altogether Iron, glass, concrete - the new building ‘materials Innovations in society, industry and science {gave ron, glass and concrete, which hitherto had only been used as secondary materials, anew importance. ron Iron had long been used in the bulding indus ‘ry, However, it was not until the 19th century that production methods that enabled iron to bbe employed on a larger scale were devised. ‘Since Henry Cort had lowered the carbon con- tent using the pudaling method (1784) ang roduced usable wrought fon, and Henry Bessemer had replaced manual methods of introducing air by mechanical ones (1855), forgeabie iron ("ingot steel) had become in- ‘expensive and available in large quantities, Iron was fist used in England for bridge-building (Coalorookdale, 1771-79) and later also in buildings. The possibilities were quickly re ‘cognised in France, too, (corn market, Pari, 1809-11) and Germany (east choir of Mainz Cathedral, 1827), te Developments in he production of glass, which took place inthe later haif ofthe 18th century, had, by he beginning of the 19th century, al ready led to the manufacture of panes of glass ‘measuring 2.5 x 1.7 m. During the fist 30 or so years ofthe 19th century the production of glass became so cheap thatt could be used in great ‘quantities for windows and roofs. 4 been known as a building ma terial for more than 2000 years. However, only after 1624 could it be used irespective of the place from which the pozzolana was obtained thanks to the production of “artificial cement by the Englishmen Jahn Smeaton, James Parker and Joseph Aspdin. The most important invention, in which Joseph Monier (1867), Ecmund Coignet (1861), Josef Luis Lambot (1855) and Thaddeus Hyatt (1877) played a par, was, however, to make this mater hitherto ony suitable for components in com- 2 pression, suitable for components in tension, 10, through its combination with iran reinforce Developments in roofing techniques and roofing materials \While the methods of roof covering had not changed significant for hundreds, indeed thousands of years, the Industial Revolution initiated a series of momentous changes. Natural tone Roofs had bean covered with cleaved stone ‘material by the Romans, but was not rediscov fered unti the 11th century in France. While

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