Professional Documents
Culture Documents
REVIEWER
(LECTURE)
Revision 0
2012
Prepared By:
Agerico U. Llovido PME
CONTENTS
A. PUMPS
B. FANS ANDLOWERS
C. AIR COMPRESSORS
D. MACHINERY FOUNDATIONS
E. HEAT TRANSFER AND HEAT EXCHANGERS
F. REFRIGERATION
G. AIR CONDITIONING
H. COOLING TOWERS
I. DRYERS
J. EVAPORATORS
K. CONVEYORS
L. INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES
M. INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROLS
N. METROLOGY
O. PIPING
P. FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
Q. MATERIAL HANDLING
R. AC AND DC MACHINERY
A. PUMPS - LECTURE
1. Purpose of Pump
The purpose of a pump is to transfer a fluid from a region of low pressure to another region at the same or higher
pressure.
A pump is a machine that imparts energy into a liquid to lift the liquid to a higher level, to transport the liquid from
one place to another, to pressurize the liquid for some useful purpose, or to circulate the liquid in a piping system by
overcoming the frictional resistance of the piping system.
2. Classification of Pumps
2.1 Reciprocating
a. Direct-acting
b. Indirect-acting
2.2 Rotary
2.3 Jet
2.4 Centrifugal
3. Definitions
Total dynamic head or dynamic head is the sum of the pressure and velocity heads at a given section stated in
units of feet of the fluid flowing.
Total dynamic suction lift is applied to pumps handling cold water and is the reading of a manometer or vacuum
gage (converted to feet of the fluid flowing).
Net positive suction head (NPSH) is the difference between the absolute dynamic pressure of the liquid measured
at the centerline of a pump and the saturation pressure corresponding to the temperature of the liquid at the same
point, all expressed ion terms of feet head of the fluid flowing. NPSH may also be defined as the pressure at the
pump suction flange, corrected to the pump centerline, that prevents vaporization of the water.
Developed head (DH) is the difference between the sum of the absolute pressure head and velocity head (or
absolute dynamic head) at the outlet of the pump and the sum of the absolute pressure head and velocity head (or
absolute dynamic head) at the inlet, both corrected to the centerline of the pump and expressed in feet head of the
fluid.
Static head is the height of the surface of water above the gauge point.
Pressure head is the static head plus gauge pressure on the water surface plus friction head.
Velocity head is the head required to produce a flow of the water.
Suction lift the vertical distance in feet (meters) from the liquid supply level to the pump center line with the pump
physically located above the liquid level supply.
Suction head - the vertical distance in feet (meters) from the liquid supply level to the pump center line with the
pump physically located below the liquid level supply.
A. PUMPS - LECTURE
Static discharge head the vertical distance in feet (meters)between the pump center line and the point of free
discharge on the surface of the liquid in the discharge tank.
Total static head the vertical distance in feet (meters) between the liquid level of the supply and the point of free
discharge on the surface of the liquid in the discharge tank.
Friction head - the head required to overcome the resistance to flow in the pipe and fittings.
Total dynamic suction lift is the static suction lift plus the velocity head at the pump suction flange plus the total
friction head in the suction pipeline.
Total dynamic suction head - is the static suction head minus the velocity head at the pump suction flange minus the
total friction head in the suction pipeline.
Total dynamic discharge head is the static discharge head plus the velocity head at the pump discharge flange plus
the total friction head in the discharge line.
Capacity is the rate of flow of fluid measure per unit time, usually gallons per minute (gpm) or liters per minute
(lpm).
Centrifugal pump a pump in which the pressure is developed principally by the action of centrifugal force.
End suction pump a single suction pump having its suction nozzle on the opposite side of the casing from the
stuffing box and having the face of the suction nozzle perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the shaft.
In Line pump a centrifugal pump whose drive unit is supported by the pump having its suction and discharge
flanges on approximately the same center.
Horizontal pump a pump with the shaft normally in a horizontal position.
Vertical shaft turbine pump a centrifugal pump with one or more impellers discharging into one or more bowls and
a vertical educator or column pipe used to connect the bowls to the discharge head on which the pump driver is
mounted.
Horizontal split-case pump a centrifugal pump characterized by a housing which is split parallel to the shaft.
Booster pump is a pump that takes suction from a public service main or private use water system for the purpose
of increasing the effective water pressure.
Submersible pump is a vertical turbine pump with the pump and motor closed coupled and designed to be
installed underground, as in the case of a deepwell pump.
A. PUMPS - LECTURE
Static water level the level, with respect to the pump, of the body of water from which it takes suction when the
pump is not in operation.
Pumping water level the level, with respect to the pump, of the body of water from which it takes suction when
the pump is in operation.
Draw-down the vertical difference between the pumping water level and the static water level.
4. Typical Pumping Installation
A. PUMPS - LECTURE
5.1 Continuity equation
Q = AV = constant
Q = AsVs = AdVd
w 2g
Where:
zs is negative if the source is below pump centerline and
ps is negative if it is a vacuum.
5.3 Friction head
Darcy Equation
2
L V
h f = f
D 2g
WP
BP
BP = WP + PL + PDF + PHL + PML
Where:
PL = power required to overcome leakage
PDF = power required to overcome disk friction
PHL = power required to overcome hydraulic losses
PML = power required to overcome mechanical losses
p =
VD = 2 D 2LSn
4
Piston rod considered
VD = D 2 + D 2 d 2 LSn
4
4
where:
D = inside diameter or bore.
d = piston rod diameter.
L = piston displacement or length of stroke.
A. PUMPS - LECTURE
S = strokes per minute.
N = number of cylinders.
6.2 Volumetric Efficiency, Ev
Volumetric efficiency is the ratio of actual volume to the piston displacement.
Q
Ev =
VD
6.3 Slip
Slip is one minus the volumetric efficiency.
Slip = 1 E v
6.4 Actual discharge.
Q = AV
Q = VD (1 slip )
7.1 Specific speed is defined as the speed in revolutions per minute at which a geometrically similar impeller
would operate to develop 1 ft of head when displacing 1 gpm.
N Q
H3 4
where:
Ns = specific speed, rpm
N = speed, rpm
Q = discharge, gpm
H = head, ft
Ns =
A. PUMPS - LECTURE
Radial impellers have specific speeds up to about 3000 rpm, while Francis wheels go up to 4500 rpm. Mixed flow
impellers range from the specific speed of the Francis wheels to about 10,000; for Propeller types the range is
from 10,000 to 14,000 rpm.
7.4 Similar Pumps
N1 Q1
H13 4
N 2 Q2
H 23 4
Q1
Q
= 23
3
N1D1 N 2 D2
N2
Head, h2 = h1 N
1
N2
Power, P2 = P1 N
1
D2
D1
D2
D1
H 2 N2
=
H1 N1
P2 N 2
=
P1 N1
A. PUMPS - LECTURE
b. Constant speed, variable impeller diameter
Q2 D 2
=
Q1 D1
H 2 D2
=
H1 D1
P2 D2
=
P1 D1
A. PUMPS - LECTURE
7. Functions of Fans.
a. To move air or gases through distribution systems and apparatus required for conditioning of buildings.
b. For drying and cooling.
c. For pneumatic conveying.
d. For duct collection, separation and exhaust.
e. For mine and tunnel ventilation.
f. For forced and induced draft of steam-generating units.
8. Factors Affecting Fan Selection.
a. Quantity of gas (air) to be moved per unit time.
b. Estimated resistance and expected variations.
c. Amount of noise permitted.
d. Space available for the fan.
e. Economic implications.
9. Fan Performance and Design.
9.1 Fan capacity, Q volume handled by a fan expressed in cubic meter per sec at fan outlet conditions.
Q = AV
2
where:
hs = static pressure head, meters of air
hw = manometer reading, meters of water
w = density of water = 9.81 kN/m3 or 1000 kg/m3 or 62.4 lb/ft3.
a = density of air at standard conditions = 1.2 kg/m3/
Standard condition: 101.325 kPa (29.92 in Hg) and 21.1 C (70 F).
9.3 Fan velocity pressure head, hv corresponds to the average velocity determination from the volume of air flow
at the fan outlet area.
V2
hv = o
2g
where:
hv = velocity head, meters of air
Vo = velocity at outlet, m/s
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2
9.4 Total pressure head , htotal the rise of the pressure head from fan inlet to fan outlet.
htotal = hs + hv
9.5 Power output is the power output of a fan developed based on total pressure.
Power Output = aQhtotal
9.6 Static air power air horsepower calculated from static pressure.
Static Air Power = aQhs
9.7 Static efficiency s static air power divided by the shaft power.
Static Air Power
s =
Shaft Power
9.8 Mechanical efficiency m power output divided by the shaft power.
Power Output
m =
Shaft Power
p2 p1 V22 V12
+
ag
2g
N2
N1
N2
N1
D N
P2 = P1 2 2 2
D1 N1 1
For fan efficiency equal.
11.1
N
P2 = P1 2
N1
11.3
D
P2 = P1 2
D1
Variable gas or air density constant fan size and speed, constant system or point of rating
Q2 = Q1
h2 = h1 2
1
P2 = P1 2
1
End -
n 1
T2 p2 n V1
= =
T1 p1
V2
where n = polytropic exponent, = k for isentropic process (k = 1.4 for air and n =1 for isothermal process.)
D 2 LN m 3 s
4
where D = bore, m ; L = stroke, m; N = speed, rev/sec.
V D=
p2
p1
where c = clearance = (V1 VD)/VD.
4.5 Mass of compresses air inside the cylinder, m
m = m + mcl
v = 1 + c c
where:
m = amount of air inside cylinder
mCL = clearance mass
Also,
V1 = VD + cVD = (1 + c )VD
V1 = (1 + c )(V1 v )
mRT1
mRT1
= [(1 + c ) v ]
p1
p1
m = [(1 + c ) v ]m
4.6 Compressor Work (Power)
n 1
np1V1 p2 n
1
Wk =
n 1 p1
4.11
1 n
For air cv = 0.72 kJ/kg.K
4.12
4.13
po T1
a = 1
VD =
D 2 LN +
(D
4
d 2 LN
4
6. Two-Stage Reciprocating Compressor.
nmRT1 p x n
nmRT
p
1
2
1 =
1
n 1 p
n 1 p1
px p2
=
or p x = p1p2
p1 px
Compressor work:
n 1
2np1V1 px n
1
Wk =
n 1 p1
p
Tx = T x
p1
p V
m = 1 1
RT1
n 1
n
( )
= (p p )
p x = p12 p2
py
13
2 13
1 2
Compressor work:
n 1
3np1V1 px n
1
Wk =
n 1 p1
Compressor work:
n 1
np1V1 p2 n
1
Wk =
n 1 p1
End -
where :
WF = weight of foundation, kg
WE = weight of the engine, kg
e = empirical coefficient from PSME Code 2008, page 13. If not given and no table available, use e = 0.11.
5.2 Foundation mass should be from 3 to 5 times the weight of the machinery it is supposed to support.
5.3 In computation 2,406 kg/m3 or 150 lb/ft3 may be used as weight of concrete.
6. Volume of Concrete Foundation.
If the weight and speed of the engine are not known, the volume of concrete for the foundation may be estimated
by the following data from PSME Code 2008, page 13.
7. Bearing Pressure
The first objective is achieved by making its supporting area sufficiently large. The safe loads vary from 4,890
kg/m2 for alluvial soil or wet clay to 12,225 kg/m3. (The latter is assumed to be a safe load average).
2
End
kA(t a t b )
x
Where:
Q = heat transmitted, W
A = heat transfer area, m2
ta = surface temperature on hot side, C
tb = surface temperature on cold side, C
Q=
Q=
k1 A(t a t b )
x1
Q=
k2 A(t b t c )
x2
Where:
k1 = thermal conductivity of first layer.
k2 = thermal conductivity of second layer.
A = heat transfer area which is common to both layers.
6. Heat Transfer from Fluid to fluid.
Q = h1A(t1 t a )
Q = h2 A(t d t 2 )
Where:
h1 = surface film conductance on the hot side, W/m2-C.
h2 = surface film conductance on the cold side, W/m2-C.
A(t1 t 2 )
Q=
= UA(t1 t 2 )
1 x1 x 2 x3 1
+ + + +
h1 k1 k2 k3 h2
1
1 x1 x 2 x 3 1
+ + + +
h1 k1 k2 k3 h2
where:
U = overall conductance or overall coefficient of heat transfer, W/m2-C.
7. Conduction Through Pipe
Q=
2kL(t a t b )
r
ln 2
r1
where:
L = length of pipe.
8. Conduction Through Composite Pipe.
Q=
Q=
Q=
2k1L(t a t b )
r
ln 2
r1
2k2 L(t b t c )
r
ln 3
r2
2k2 L(t a t c )
ln(r2 r1 ) ln(r3 r2 )
+
k1
k2
where:
k1 = thermal conductivity of inner pipe.
k2 = thermal conductivity of outer pipe.
3
Q = hi Ai (t1 t a )
Q = ho Ao (t c t 2 )
Where:
hi = surface film conductance on the hot side, W/m2-C.
ho = surface film conductance on the cold side, W/m2-C.
Ai = 2r1L
Ao = 2r3L
Q=
(t1 t 2 )
= Ui Ai (t1 t 2 ) = Uo Ao (t1 t 2 )
1
ln(r2 r1 ) ln(r3 r2 )
1
+
+
+
Ai hi
2k1L
2k2 L Ao ho
Ui =
Uo =
1
1 r1 ln(r2 r1 ) r1 ln(r3 r2 ) r1
+
+
+
hi
k1
k2
r3 ho
1
r3 r3 ln(r2 r1 ) r3 ln(r3 r2 ) 1
+
+
+
r1hi
k1
k2
ho
Where:
Ui = overall conductance based on inside area.
Uo = overall conductance based on outside area.
10. Types of Heat Exchanger.
a. Concentric tube counterflow and parallel flow.
b. Crossflow
c. Shell and tube single-shell pass and double-tube pass, multipass and so on.
4
Q = UAt m
a. Arithmetic mean temperature difference.
t + t B
Arithmetic t m = A
2
b. Logarithmic (True) mean temperature difference.
t t B
Logarithmic t m = A
t
ln A
t B
13. Heat Balance
Q = m12 c p12 (t 2 t1 ) = mxy c pxy (t x t y ) = UAt m
Nu Nusselt number
hD
k
Pr Prandtl number
cp
Pr =
k
St = 1/Pr Stanton number
k
St =
cp
Nu =
Gz Graetz number
mc p
Gz =
kL
Gr Grashof number
Gr =
D 3 2gt
hi D
DV
= 0.023
kb
b
0.4
cp
k b
For limits: 0.7 < Pr < 120; 10,000 < Re < 120,000 for high viscosity liquids; Re > 2100 for low viscosity liquids and
gases; L/D > 60; moderate t.
Where subscript b indicates that the properties k, , and should evaluated at the bulk temperature , and hi is the
inside film coefficient.
Close approximation for gases and vapors, Re > 2100.
0.8
hi D
DV
= 0.021Re0.8
= 0.021
kb
hi D
= 2.02 b
kb
w
0.14
mc p
kL
13
where:
m = mass flow rate per unit time.
w = viscosity of the fluid measured at the temperature of the inside wall of the pipe.
L = heated length of a straight pipe.
cp = specific heat of the liquid.
Sieder and Tate film coefficient h for laminar flow of liquid in a pipe.
DV
hi D
= 1.86
k
0.333
cp
0.333
D
L
0.333
0.14
In dimensionless groups
D
Nu = 1.86 Re 0.333 Pr 0.333
L
0.333
0.14
where:
s = viscosity of the fluid measured at the inside pipe surface temperature.
18. Film Coefficients for Annular Space.
Nu = 0.023Re 0.8 Pr n or
D V
hD
= 0.023 e
k
0.8
cp
k b
D2 + D1
19. Film Coefficients for flow over outside of a Single Pipe, Forced Convection. (McAdams)
D V
hDo
= 0.24 o
kf
f
0.6
where:
1000 <
tf =
DoV
< 50,000
t b + tw
2
D 3 2 g t c p
hc D
= C
kf
2
f k f
where the subscript f indicates that the properties of the fluid are evaluated at the film temperature, C and m are
dimensionless constants, b is the coefficient of thermal expansion ( = 1/T for ideal gases), and the other symbols
have the usual meanings.
t
hc = 0.27 Btu ft 2 hr F
Do
21. Film coefficient for Condensing Vapors on a surface.
Types of condensation
a. Dropwise condensation occurs when the vapor condenses as drops which are eventually removed from the
surface by gravity.
b. Film-type condensation occurs when a vapor condenses and forms a liquid film over the cool surface, has
much lower film coefficient for steam than the former.
k 3 2 gh fg
h = 0.725
NDo t
0.25
Btu ft 2 hr F
where = 0.1713 x 10-8 is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant in Btu/ft2-R4. In SI units it is 5.669 x 10-8 W/m2-K4.
27. Heat Transfer Between Two Black Bodies, Q.
Q = A T24 T14
where
T1 = temperature of blackbody 1
T2 = temperature of blackbody 2
28. Heat Transfer Between Two Gray Bodies, Q.
where
= emissivity
FG = geometric view factor or configuration factor or angle factor or shape factor.
Configuration center is the fraction of diffuse radiant energy that leaves one surface in space and directly strikes
another surface. Its value is based solely upon the manner in which the two surfaces are positioned.
-
End -
F. REFRIGERATION - LECTURE
1. Definitions:
1.1 Reversed cycle is a system that receives heat from a colder body and delivers heat to a hotter body, not in
violation of the second law, but by virtue of a work input.
1.2 Refrigeration is to maintain a cold region at a temperature below the temperature of its surroundings.
1.3 Refrigeration is defined as the process of extracting heat from a lower-temperature heat source, substance, or
cooling medium and transferring it to a higher-temperature heat sink.
1.4 Vapor compression systems In vapor compression systems, compressors activate the refrigerant by
compressing it to a higher pressure and higher temperature level after it has produced its refrigeration effect.
The compressed refrigerant transfers its heat to the sink and is condensed to liquid form. This liquid refrigerant
is then throttled to a low-pressure, low temperature vapor to produce refrigerating effect during evaporation.
Vapor compression systems are the most widely adopted refrigeration systems in both comfort and process air
conditioning.
1.5 Absorption systems In an absorption system, the refrigeration effect is produced by thermal energy input.
After absorbing heat from the cooling medium during evaporation, the vapor refrigerant is absorbed by an
absorbent medium. This solution is then heated by direct-fired furnace, waste heat, hot water, or steam. The
refrigerant is again vaporized and then condensed to liquid to begin the refrigeration cycle again.
1.6 Air or gas expansion systems In an air or gas expansion system, air or gas is compressed to a high pressure by
mechanical energy. It is then cooled and expanded to a low pressure. Because the temperature of air or gas
drops during expansion, a refrigeration effect is produced.
1.7 Refrigerant is the primary working fluid used for absorbing and transmitting heat in a refrigeration system.
Refrigerants absorb heat at a low temperature and low pressure and release heat at a higher temperature and
pressure.
1.8 Cooling medium is the working fluid cooled by the refrigerant to transport the cooling effect between a central
plant and remote cooling units and terminals.
1.9 Liquid Absorbents A solution known as liquid absorbent is often used to absorb the vaporized refrigerant
(water vapor) after its evaporation in an absorption refrigeration system. This solution, containing the absorbed
vapor, is then heated at high pressure. The refrigerant vaporizes, and the solution is restored to its original
concentration for reuse. Lithium bromide and ammonia, both in a water solution, are the liquid absorbents used
most often in absorption refrigerating systems.
2. Reversed Carnot Cycle
F. REFRIGERATION - LECTURE
Heat Added = QA =Qin = TCs
Heat Rejected = QR = Qout = THs
Coefficient of performance (Cooling):
Q
TC
COPC = A =
W TH TC
Coefficient of performance (Heating):
Q
T
COPH = R = H
W TH TC
Net work = W = QA QR
3. Tons of Refrigeration.
Tons of refrigeration is the amount of heat that must be extracted to freeze 1 ton of water at 32 F into ice at 32 F
(at 1 atm) in 1 day. Since the latent heat of fusion of water is closely 144 Btu/lb, we find (144)(2000) = 288,000
Btu/day = 12,000 Btu/hr.
4. Ideal Vapor Compression Cycle.
F. REFRIGERATION - LECTURE
F. REFRIGERATION - LECTURE
4.7 Volume Flow Rate at Suction
V1 = mv1
Where:
m = refrigerant mass flow rate, kg/s
v1 = specific volume, m3/s
4.8 Displacement Rate of Compressor
VD =
D 2LN
4
where:
D = diameter of cylinder or bore, m
L = length of stroke, m
N = number of cycles completed per cycle
Note:
For single-acting compressor (makes one complete cycle in one revolution)
N=n
For double-acting compressor (makes two complete cycles in one revolution)
N = 2n
Where n is compressor speed.
4.9 Actual Volumetric Efficiency, va
V
va = 1
VD
where:
V1 = volume flow rate at suction, m3/s
VD = volume displaced at suction, m3/s
4.10
4.11
4.12
p k
V
vc = 1 + c c 2 = 1 + c c 1
p1
V2
where:
c = percent clearance
for ammonia, use k = 1.4
Adiabatic compression efficiency, or simply efficiency, c
Isentropic work of compression
c =
Actual work of compression
Mechanical efficiency, hm
Indicated power IP
m =
=
Brake power
BP
4
F. REFRIGERATION - LECTURE
5. Actual Vapor Compression Cycle
Actual vapor compression cycle - deviates from the ideal cycle primarily because of the inefficiency of the
compressor.
Possible Alternatives
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10
10-11
11-12
12-13
13-14
F. REFRIGERATION - LECTURE
b. Hermetically sealed compressor a type in which the compressor and the motor are enclosed in the
same housing.
c. Semi-hermetic compressor hermetically sealed compressor in which the cylinder head can be
removed for servicing of the valve and pistons.
6.2 Condenser receives the high-pressure refrigerant gas and then condenses while rejecting heat to the cooling
medium which is either air or water.
6.2.1 Types of condensers used in refrigeration.
a. Air-cooler (Bare tube and finned tube).
b. Water-cooled (Shell-and-tube and shell-and-coil).
6.3 Throttling Device or Expansion Device reduces the pressure of the refrigerant so that low temperature will be
attained; it also regulates the flow of refrigerant to the evaporator.
6.3.1 Functions of the Expansion Device
- To reduce the pressure of the liquid refrigerant from the condenser in order to attain low
temperature.
- To control the flow of the refrigerant to the evaporator.
6.3.2 Types of expansion Devices
6.3.2.1 Capillary Tubes
Inside diameter = 0.50 mm to 2 mm
Length = 1 m to 6 m
Capacity = up to 10 kw
6.3.2.2 Expansion Valves
- Gate valves
- Constant pressure expansion valves
- Thermostatic Expansion valves
- Thermostatic Expansion valves with external equalizer.
6.4 Evaporator where the liquid portion of the refrigerant evaporates while absorbing heat from the surrounding.
Types of Evaporators
6.4.1 Dry-type compatible to all condenser types.
6.4.2 Flooded compatible to water-cooled condenser only (high-capacity system).
7. Refrigerants
7.1 Halocarbon refrigerants contains one or more of the three halogens chlorine, fluorine and bromine.
R-11 CCl3F Trichloromonofluoromethane
R-12 CCl2F2 Dichlorodifluoromethane
R-13 CClF3 Monochlorotrifluoromethane
R-22 CHClF2 Monochlorodifluoromethane
R-40 CH3Cl Methyl Chloride
R-113 CCl2FCClF2
Trichlorotrifluoroethane
R-114 CClF2CClF2
Dichlorotetrafluoroethane
7.2 Inorganic refrigerants
R-717 NH3
Ammonia
R-718 H2O
Water
6
F. REFRIGERATION - LECTURE
R-729
Air
Carbon Dioxice
R-744 CO2
R-764 SO2
Sulfur Dioxide
7.3 Hydrocarbon refrigerants
Methane
R-50 CH4
R-170 C2H6 Ethane
R-290 C3H8 Propane
7.4 Azeotropes
Azeotropes is a mixtures of two substances in which the components cannot be separated by distillation. (R502 is a mixture of 48.8% R-22 and 51.2% R-115).
8. Desirable Properties of Refrigerant
8.1 Thermodynamic Properties
a. Low freezing point
b. Low condensing pressure
c. Low evaporating pressure
d. Low power per ton
e. Low volume flow per ton
f. High COP
8.2 Chemical Properties
a. Non-toxic
b. Non-flammable
c. Non-corrosive
d. Not destructive to refrigerated products
8.3 Physical Properties
a. Low viscosity
b. High thermal conductivity
c. Easy leak detection
d. Miscible with oil
e. Reasonable cost
9. Refrigeration Cycle with Liquid Subcooling and/or Suction Vapor Superheating.
F. REFRIGERATION - LECTURE
Advantages of subcooling:
a. Reduces quality of gas vapor.
b. Increases refrigerating effect of system.
How to employ subcooling?
a. Use of water subucoolers
b. Use of liquid refrigerant subcoolers more expensive
10. Refrigeration Cycle with Liquid Suction Heat Exchanger
F. REFRIGERATION - LECTURE
a. Refrigeration system with Two-Stage Compressor
F. REFRIGERATION - LECTURE
d. Refrigeration system with Flash Tank
10
F. REFRIGERATION - LECTURE
Heat Balance in the cascade condenser:
m1(h2 h3) = m2(h5 h8)
Compressor work = m1(h2 h1) + m2(h6 h5)
Refrigerating effect = m1(h1 h4)
12.2
Direct-contact heat exchanger where same fluid is used throughout the system.
11
F. REFRIGERATION - LECTURE
Open-air system
Processes:
12
F. REFRIGERATION - LECTURE
k 1
kp1V1 p2 k
1
WK =
1 k p1
np1V1 p2 n
1
WK =
1 n p1
p
4 k 1
p
kp V
WE = 3 3
1 k
n 1
p
4 n 1
p
np V
WE = 3 3
1 n
f.
13
F. REFRIGERATION - LECTURE
14.2
Brine is water plus sodium chloride and/or calcium chloride mixture whose purpose of addition of impurities is to
decrease the fluid freezing temperature.
15.1
15.2
F. REFRIGERATION - LECTURE
15.3
where:
mb = brine mass flow rate
cbf = specific heat before freezing
caf = specific heat after freezing
te = entering temperature
tf = freezing temperature
ts = storage temperature
LHF = latent heat of fusion.
HR = heat of respiration
16. Ice Plant
16.1
where:
mr = refrigerant mass flowrate
cbf = specific heat of water before freezing, 4.187 kJ/kg-K or 1.0 Btu/lb-R
caf = specific heat of ice after freezing, 2.093 kJ/kg-K or 0.5 Btu/lb-R
tf = freezing temperature, 0 C or 32 F
twi = initial temperature of water, F
tif= ice final temperature, F
LHF = latent heat of fusion
15
F. REFRIGERATION - LECTURE
16.2
16.3
cx 2
32 t b
where:
c = empirical constant in the range of 5.75 to 7; if not given, use c = 7.0
x = average or mean thickness of ice block (ice cake), inches
Common in the Philippines, 300-lb ice block, mean x = 11 inches.
tb = brine temperature, F
16.4
16
End -
1. Definitions
Air conditioning implies the automatic control of an atmospheric environment either for the comfort of human
beings or animals or for the proper performance of some industrial or scientific process.
Psychrometry is the science of involving thermodynamic properties of moist air and the effect of atmospheric
moisture on materials and human comfort.
Psychrometric chart provide a graphical representation of the thermodynamic properties of moist air, various air
conditioning processes, and air conditioning cycles
Psychrometer is the instrument used in the study of the properties of air.
Atmospheric air is a mixture of many gases plus water vapor and countless pollutants.
Saturated air air whose condition is such that any decrease in temperature will result in condensation of the water
vapor into liquid.
Moist air is a binary mixture of dry air and water vapor.
Dry air a non-condensing components of a mixture mainly nitrogen and oxygen.
Vapor a condensable components of the mixture.
Unsaturated air air containing superheated vapor.
Heating is the transfer of energy to a space or to the air in a space by virtue of a difference in temperature
between the source and the space or air.
Humidifying is the transfer of water vapor to atmospheric air.
Cooling is the transfer of energy from a space, or air supplied to a space, by virtue of a difference in temperature
between the source and the space or air.
Dehumidifying is the transfer of water vapor from atmospheric air.
Sensible heat factor is the ratio of sensible to total heat, where total heat is the sum of sensible and latent heat.
Room sensible heat factor is the ratio of room sensible heat to the summation of room sensible and room latent
heat.
W
Ws
T ,p
3.6 Enthalpy
The enthalpy h of a mixture of perfect gases is equal to the sum of the enthalpies of each constituents,
h = ha + Whv
And for the air-water vapor mixture is usually referenced to the mass of dry air.
Enthalpy a thermal property indicating the quantity of heat in the air above an arbitrary datum.
In English units. c pa = 0.240 Btu (lbm F ) , c pv = 0.444 Btu (lbm F )
Enthalpy of saturated water vapour ig at 0 F is 1061.2 Btu/lbm.
v=
V
ma
v=
V RaTR (1 + 1.6078W )
=
ma
Pat
a =
ma 1
=
V v
0-1
0-2
0-3
0-4
0-5
0-6
0-7
0-8
Sensible Cooling
Heating (Dryer)
Humidifying (Isothermal dryer)
Dehumidifying
Cooling and Dehumidifying (Air conditioner)
Heating and Humidifying (Cooling tower)
Cooling and Humidifying (Adiabatic dryer)
Heating and Dehumidifying (Chemical Dehumidification).
6. Air Mixing
By heat balance:
m1h1 + m2h2 = (m1 + m2)h3
By moisture balance:
m1W1 + m2W2 = (m1 + m2)W3
By temperature balance (dry bulb):
m1T1 + m2T2 = (m1 + m2)T3
5
7. Applications of Psychrometry
a. Air conditioner
b. Cooling tower
c. Dryer
8. The Air Conditioner
b. Outside air with recirculation more economical than using all outside air since the recirculated air temperature
is closer to the conditioned space; impractical in areas where noxious odors arise.
c. Outside air with external bypass system part of the recirculated air is controlled by damper action making it
bypass the conditioner.
I. DRYERS - LECTURE
1. Definitions
Hygroscopic Materials are substances which are variable in the moisture content they can h old at different times.
Bone-dry weight (BDW) is the final constant weight attained by any hygroscopic substance after being dried out or
no trace of moisture left.
Regain the hygroscopic moisture content of a substance expressed as the ratio of the moisture weight to the bone
dry weight.
Gross weight expressed as the sum of the moisture weight and bone-dry weight.
Gross weight = Moisture weight + Bone-dry weight
Moisture content expressed as the ratio of the moisture weight to the gross weight.
Moisture content = Moisture weight / Gross weight
2. Dryer Calculation
I. DRYERS - LECTURE
mA =
MWA MWB
H 4 H3
where:
MWA = total moisture content at A, kgvapor/s
MWB = total moisture content at B, kgvapor/s
H4 = moisture content of air leaving dryer, kgvapor/kgdry air
H3 = moisture content of air entering dryer, kgvapor/kgdry air
mA = air mass flow rate, kgdry air/s
Considering the air preheater and ms = steam mass flow rate
Heat gained by the air = heat lost by the steam
mA(h2 h1) = mshfg
m (h h )
ms = A 2 1
h fg
3. Three Methods of drying based on heat transfer
3.1 Direct of convection drying
3.2 Indirect drying
3.3 Infrared or radiant heat drying
4. Types of dryers based on movement of materials
4.1 Continuous dryer
4.2 Batch dryer
5. Types of dryers based on heat source
5.1 Steam heated
5.2 Oil fired, coal fired
5.3 Electric
6. Classification of Dryers
6.1 Rotary Dryer most commonly used dryer which consists of a rotating cylinder inside which the materials flow
while getting in contact with the hot gases; the cylinder is tilted at a slight angle and fitted with lifting flights;
used for copra, sand, wood chips.
6.2 Tower Dryer consist of a vertical shaft in which the wet feed is introduced at the top and falls downward over
baffles while coming in contact with the hot air which rises and exhausts at the top; used for palay, wheat,
grains.
6.3 Hearth Dryer a type of dryer in which the material to be dried is supported on a floor through which the hot
gases pass; used for copra, coal, enamel wares.
6.4 Centrifugal Dryer consists of centrifuge revolving at high speeds causing the separation, by centrifugal force, of
the water from the material; used for drying fertilizer, salt, sugar.
6.5 Tray Dryer consists of trays, carrying the materials to be dried, placed in compartment or moving conveyor;
used for ipil-ipil leaves, grains.
6.6 Infrared Ray Dryer consists of infrared lamps in which the rays are directed to the articles to be dried; use for
during painted articles like cars.
-
End 2
J. EVAPORATORS - LECTURE
1. Definition
Evaporators are used either to remove the water from a liquid substance, like sugar juice, or to produce distilled
water by condensing the steam.
2. Three Principal Types of Evaporators according to construction.
2.1 Horizontal tube evaporator consist of vertical horizontal cylindrical body; two rectangular steam chests in the
lower section contain tube sheets; primarily suitable for non-viscous liquids that do not deposit salt or scale
during evaporation.
2.2 Standard vertical tube evaporator consists of vertical cylindrical shell with flat, dished or conical bottom; most
widely used type; can be used for liquids that deposit salt or scale during evaporation.
2.3 Long-tube, natural-circulation vertical evaporator consists of long tubes so that the liquor passes through the
evaporator but once, used with non-salting or non-scaling liquids; can be used with high viscosities; one of the
cheapest types.
3. Multiple Effect Evaporator
A series of evaporators so connected that the vapor from one body is used as the heating steam in the next.
Types of Multiple Effect (Multi-Stage) Evaporator:
a. Parallel feed
b. Backward feed
c. Forward feed
d. Mixed feed
J. EVAPORATORS - LECTURE
6. Parallel and Series Evaporator Arrrangement
End 2
K. CONVEYORS - LECTURE
1. Definition
Conveyors are defined as either fixed or portable devices for moving materials between two fixed points at the
same or different elevations, with continuous or intermittent forward movement.
2. Types of Conveyors
2.1 Belt Conveyors continuous system; belt usually troughed; high capacities possible.
2.2 Spiral Conveyors endless helicoids screw in a trough. Can easily be made dust-tight. Not having a return strand,
it required a minimum of space. Limited in length. Considerable wear.
2.3 Flight or Scraper Conveyors low in first cost but having large energy consumption. There is considerable wear,
caused by abrasion.
2.4 Pivoted Bucket Carriers material is carried and buckets are supported on rollers which reduce friction to a
minimum. The pivoted bucket carries can both elevate and convey. Since it is run at low speed, the operation is
both silent and free from vibration.
2.5 Larries suspended rail types are generally used because even though they require more headroom than the
floor type, they leave the boiler aisle free from obstruction.
3. Belt Conveyors
Belt conveyors is probably more universally used than any other. The first cost is reasonable and the power
consumption is low. It is widely used for horizontal movement of coal and, to a certain extent, for inclined runs.
Let
P1 = pull to move the weight of material on loaded run
P2 = pull to move conveyor parts on loaded run
P3 = pull to move conveyor parts on empty run
P = total chain pull = P1 + P2 + P3
Power = Total Chain Pull x Velocity
-
En d -
End -
End -
N. METROLOGY - LECTURE
1. Definition
Metrology concerns with the fundamental standards and techniques of measurements, and with the scientific
principles of the instrumentation involved.
Correctness / Accuracy degree of conformity of a measured or calculated value to some recognized standard or
specific value.
Error of measurement the difference between the measured and true value.
Precision is the repeatability of the measuring process, or how well identically performed measurement agree,
which concept applies to a set of measurements.
Tolerance - is the amount of variation permitted in the part of total variation allowed in a given dimension.
Allowance is the minimum clearance space intended between the mating parts and represents the conditions of
tightest possible fit.
Standard something that is set up and established by authority as a rule for the measure of quantity, weight,
extent, value or quality.
Sensitivity is the ability of a measuring device to detect small differences in a quality being measured.
Readability is the susceptibility of a measuring device to having its indication converted to a meaningful number.
2. Common Measuring Instruments
Physical Quantity Measured
Pressure
Instrument Used
Bourdon pressure gauge
Compound gauge
Vacuum gauge
Manometer
Draft gauge
Barometer
Temperature
Mercurial thermometer
Bi-metallic thermometer
Thermocouple
Radiation pyrometer
Optical pyrometer
Weight
Platform balance
1
N. METROLOGY - LECTURE
Spring balance
Analytical balance
Beam balance
Pendulum scale
Density; specific gravity
Hydrometer
Pycnometer
Westphal balance
Bomb calorimeter
Gas calorimeter
Viscosity
Viscosimeter
Planimeter
Rotational speed
Tachometer
Centrifugal, vibration, electric
Stroboscope
Vibrometer
Linear speed
Speedometer
Odometer
Velocity of flow
Velometer
Flow rate
Rotameter
Anemometer
Flowmeter
Indicated power
Engine indicator
Brake power
Dynamometer
a. Absorption dynamometer
Prony brake
Water brake
b. Transmission dynamometer
Electric dynamometer
Electric cradle dynamometer
2
N. METROLOGY - LECTURE
Analysis of flue gas
Quality of steam
Steam calorimeter
-throttling, separating, condensing barrel, electric
Psychrometer
- Sling, aspiration
Hygrometer
Humeter
Hardness of steel
Surface roughness
Profilometer
Angle
Protractor
Feeler gauge
N. METROLOGY - LECTURE
Vernier Height Gages vertically-positioned vernier calipers used in tool rooms, inspection departments, or
wherever layout and jig and fixtures work necessitate accurately measuring or marking off vertical distances.
Vernier Depth Gages provide long range accuracy for determining the depths of holes, slots, and recesses as well
as measuring from a plane surface to toolmakers buttons in locating center distances.
Gear Tooth Vernier Calipers use to check the pitch line thickness of gear teeth by measuring the tooth chord at a
specific distance (chordal addendum) from the top of the gear tooth.
Micrometer Calipers most useful close tolerance measuring devices for quick and accurate measurements to the
thousandth part of a centimeter.
Outside Micrometer precision measuring instrument used in determining outside measurements.
Direct Reading Micrometers are read directly in thousandths from figures appearing in small windows on the
barrel of the micrometer.
Blade Type Micrometer are an adaptation of standard micrometers in which the anvil and spindle ends are thinned
to a blade shape which are used for checking the root diameter of circular form tools as well as the diameter and
depth of narrow slots, keyways, recesses, etc.
Quick Adjusting Micrometers allow spindle to be slid quickly to any point within their range which makes them
particularly efficient thousandths-reading micrometers for checking work where a variety of dimensions are
involved.
Screw Thread Micrometers are designed to measure the pitch diameter of screw threads to thousandths accuracy
by the use of a pointed spindle and double V-anvil which are available for varying diameters of work and each size
normally covers a range of the threads-per-centimeters.
Inside Micrometer used for measuring the diameters of holes and other inside dimensions, consist of a permanent
contact micrometer head and a set of interchangeable rods in various increments which are seated snugly in the
opposite end of the head against a shoulder and locked securely.
Protractor consists of a rectangular head graduated in degrees along a semi-circle, with a blade pivoted on the
center pin, any angle from 0 to 180 degrees can be set.
Combination Protractor and Depth Gage is a combination of a movable graduated blade (depth gage) and a
graduated protractor head.
Universal Bevel Protractor consist of a round body with a fixed blade, on which a graduated turret rotates.
4
N. METROLOGY - LECTURE
Dial Indicator composed of a graduated dial, spindle, pointers and a satisfactory means of supporting or clamping
it firmly, which is used to measuring inaccuracies in alignment eccentricity, and deviations on surfaces supposed to
be parallel.
Dial Test Indicator commonly known as toolmakers indicator which are smaller than the smallest A.G.D. standard
indicator.
Planimeter is a tool for checking the flatness of plane surfaces to tenths-of-thousandths of a centimeter and
consist of a diabase straight edge, and adjustable mounting for the straight edge, ,and a 0.00005 cm reading
indicator.
4. Non-Graduated Manual Measuring Tools
Calipers follow a progression which originates with standard inside and outside calipers and are non-graduated
tools for measuring the distance between two points of contact on the work piece.
Standard Calipers consist of two movable metal legs attached together by a spring joint at one end and with
formed contacts at the other, and so designed as to take inside readings, or readings from one point to another and
these are called inside calipers, outside calipers, and dividers, respectively.
Bevels consists of two three-non-graduated slotted blades with one or two screws and knurled nuts connecting
them, by loosening the nuts, the blades can be set to varying angles.
Trammels used in sizes beyond the range of dividers, consist of a long bar on which two arms or trammels slide.
Gage is a device used to determine whether the part has been made to the tolerance required and does not
usually indicate a specific dimension.
Straight edges are flat length of tools or stainless steel, ground to extremely fine tolerance, particularly along the
edges.
5. Special-Purpose Measuring Tools
Tap and Drill Gages consist of a flat rectangle of steel with holes accurately drilled and identified according to their
size.
Wire Gages are round steel plates with slots of ascending width along their edge.
Screw Pitch Gages consist of a metal case containing many separate leaves.
Radius Gages are individual leaves or a set of leaves in a case and are designed to check both convex and concave
radii.
N. METROLOGY - LECTURE
Thickness / Feeler Gage consists of a number of thin blades/leaves of different thickness and used in checking
clearances, backlash in gears and for gaging in narrow points or places.
6. Pressure and Vacuum Measurements
U-type Liquid-Column Gage is made of glass or some other type of transparent tubing with an inner bore of 6 mm
or larger diameter and a wall thickness adequate to withstand the pressure for which the manometer was in design.
Well-Type Liquid-Column Gage is similar to the U-type, however, one leg of the U-type is replace by a well.
Inclined Manometer or Draft Gage is a well manometer whose vertical leg is placed in an almost horizontal
position so that a very slight difference of change in the pressure of the gas or air in the well causes a very large
change in the measured level of the liquid in the inclined tube.
Barometer is an upright measuring tube which is vacuum sealed on the upright end and the open end and inserted
in a well filled with liquid mercury.
Limp-Diaphragm Gages are used for measuring low pressure in boiler houses and on other implications where low
pressures must be accurately measured.
Bell-Type Gages designed for measuring low pressures. This type of gage utilizes the large area of a liquid-sealed
bell chamber to provide the force necessary to actuate an indicating or recording mechanism and can be made
sensitive to the smallest change of pressure likely to be significant in an industrial application.
Piston Gages suitable for pressure up to 350 kg/sq cm and higher but limited largely to hydraulic applications
where oil is the fluid under pressure.
Bourdon Tube Gage is the most widely used in industrial pressure gage applied to both pressure and vacuum,
either separately or in a compound gage.
Helical Type of Pressure Gage a variations of the simple Bourdon type of pressure gage wherein the element or
tube is wound in the form of a spiral having four or five turns.
Spiral Type of Element in Bourdon Type of Pressure Gage the elements is of Bourdon type of tube wherein it is
wound in the form of a spiral having several turns rather than restricting the length of the tube to approximately 270
deg of arc.
Metallic-Diaphragm Pressure Gage consists of a metal diaphragm built into diaphragm housing with one side of
the diaphragm exposed to the pressure to be measured and the other under atmospheric pressure.
Cam and Roller Arrangement employs a can sector and a helicoids roller to which a pointer is attached.
N. METROLOGY - LECTURE
Electromechanical Pressure Instruments employ a mechanical means for detecting the pressure, and electrical
means for indicating or recording the detected pressure.
Electronic Pressure Measuring Instruments depends on some physical change that can be detected and indicated
or recorded electronically.
Vacuum Gages used primarily for measuring pressure below atmospheric pressure.
McLeod Gage is a mercury gage for the measurement of absolute pressure.
Pirani Gage is a hot wire vacuum gage. This gage employs a wheatstone bridge circuit to balance the resistance of
a tungsten filament or resistor sealed off in a high vacuum against that on a tungsten filament which can lose heat
by conduction to the gas whose pressure is being measured.
Knudsen Type Vacuum Gage operates on the principle of heated gases rebounding from a heated surface and
bombarding a cooled movable surface spaced less than a mean free path length from the heated surface.
Phillips Vacuum Gage are cold cathode ionization gages which provide direct measurement for pressure values
both above and below 1m.
Alphatron Gage uses a radium source sealed in a vacuum chamber where it is in equilibrium with its immediate
decay products.
7. Thermometry and Pyrometry
Indicating and Recording Thermometer pressure actuated instrument that uses the energy available in the form of
increase pressure or volume of a substance to indicate and record the change in temperature that liberated this
energy.
Thermocouple Pyrometers in which the voltage, generated at the junction of two dissimilar metal wires indicates
the degree of temperature, the voltage at the junction increasingly proportionally with the temperature.
Copper-Constantan commonly used in the 185 to 300 C temperature range.
Iron-Constantan used in reducing atmosphere where there is a lack of free oxygen and useful in the -18 to 760 C.
Chromel-Alumel shall be used extensively in oxidizing atmospheres where there is an excess of free oxygen and
shall be used to measure temperature up to 1320 C, but are most satisfactory at temperatures up to 11509 C for
constant service.
Platinum-Platium-Rhodium normally designated noble metal thermocouples, shall be used for higher temperature
range (700 to 1500 C) and are adversely affected by atmospheres containing reducing gases and shall be protected
by an impervious tube when used at temperatures above 540 C when such gases are present.
7
N. METROLOGY - LECTURE
Resistance Thermometers in which the resistance of a calibrated wire changes with the temperature, the
resistance change being proportional to the increase in temperature.
Thermistor are electronic semiconductors whose electrical resistance varies with temperature and are useful
industrially for the automatic detection, measurement, and control of physical energy.
Liquid-filled Glass Thermometers in which there is an expansion or contraction of a liquid corresponding to the
changes in temperature, the expansion of the liquid being proportional to the increase in temperature, the liquids
commonly used of which are mercury, alcohol, or pentane.
Bourdon Tube Thermostat which operate by the expansion of a fluid (liquid or gas).
Radiation Pyrometers in which there is a small body capable of absorbing radiation of all wave lengths, the
radiation absorbed being proportional to the temperature.
Optical Pyrometers by which the temperatures is determined by matching the luminosity of the hot body of which
the temperature is to be determined with the luminosity of a calibrated source of light.
Pyrometer Cones by which the temperature is determined by the bending over of a graded set of ceramic cones,
each having a definite heat resisting value.
Bimetallic Thermometers depends on the differential expansion of two solids, the differential expansion being
proportional to the increase in temperature. Constructed of two thin strips of dissimilar metal which are bonded
together for their entire length.
Electronic Thermometers the latest breakthrough in the measurements of temperature with very high accuracies,
fast speed of response and above average linearity.
8. Flow Metering
Inferential Type Flow Meters obtains a measurement of the flow of a fluid or gas not by measuring the volume or
weight of the medium but by measuring some other phenomenon that is a function of the quantity of fluid passing
through the pipe.
Rotameter consist of a tapered glass tube set vertically in the fluid or gaseous piping system with its large end on
top and a metering float which is free to move vertically in the tapered glass tube.
Anemometers are instruments for measuring the flow of gas or air consisting of a set rotating vane placed at an
angle of about 45 degrees to the axis flow and free to rotate about an axis set in jeweled bearings
Hot Wire Anemometers which consist of a small resistance wire inserted in the steam of gas whose velocity is to
be measured.
8
N. METROLOGY - LECTURE
Thomas meter which consist of wire grid inserted in the pipe line or duct and supplied with a current of sufficient
magnitude to heat the air passing through the pipe.
Electromagnetic Flowmeter where an electromotive force is induced in the fluid by its motion through a magnetic
field provided by the electromagnet.
Piston-Type Volumetric Flow Meter used to inject an exact amount of fluid into flow line or collecting vessel.
Nutating-Disc Pump a positive displacement flowmeter wherein the piston is the only moving part on the
measuring chamber.
Rotary Sliding-Vane Flowmeter a volumetric meter constructed similar to the standard vane type of vacuum pump,
wherein the design requires that the meter body be in the shape of a closed drum with shaft carrying a smaller
cylinder arranged to rotate inside the meter body.
Oscillating-Piston Flowmeter consists of the hollow piston arranged to oscillate about the center abutment which
is encircled by a confining ring housed in a drum-shaped meter body.
Rotating-Bucket Flowmeter a positive-displacement of a volumetric meter consisting of a meter with a drum type
of boy having the outlet and inlet ports side by side with a dividing baffle between them.
Screw Type of Flowmeter consist of three meshed screws or rotors mounted vertically and rotating in a measuring
chamber.
Spiral-Vane Flowmeter consists of metering chamber in which a rotor is mounted with a hollow shaft which admits
the liquid into a meter.
Bellows-Type Gas Flowmeter design primarily and exclusively for gas-receiving bellows having metal slides and
tanned sheepskin flexible connections between the metal slides.
Water-Sealed Rotary Gas Meter consists of a drum-shaped meter body slightly more than half full of water.
Roots Type of Volumetric Gas Meter consist of a set of two rotors having a cross-sectional area in the
approximately shape of a figure eight.
Turbine-Type Current Flowmeters used for measuring flows ranging from 0.003 to 15,000 gpm as standard liquid
flow meters, and 20 to 9000 cu. ft./min as gas flow meters.
9. Measurement of Weight
Platform Scale used in the laboratory and consists of a compound leverage system.
N. METROLOGY - LECTURE
Pendulum Scales give automatic indication on over a wide range and are extensively used when speed is
important.
Electrical Scales are combinations of mechanical elements and electrical measuring devices.
End -
10
O. PIPING - LECTURE
1. Definitions
The fundamental difference between pipe and tube is the dimension standard to which each is manufactured.
Pipe is a tube with a round cross section conforming to the dimensional requirements for nominal pipe size as
tabulated in table for pipe schedules.
Tube is a hollow product of round or any other cross section having a continuous periphery.
Black Pipe steel pipe that has not been galvanized.
Bell and Spigot Joint the commonly used joint in cast-iron pipe. Each piece is made with an enlarged diameter or
bell at one end into which the plain or spigot end of another piece is inserted when laying. The joint is then made
tight by cement, oakum, lead or rubber caulked into the bell around the spigot.
Bull Head Tee a tee the branch of which is larger than the run.
Butt Weld Joint a welded pipe joint made with the ends of the two pipes butting each other, the weld being
around the periphery.
Carbon Steel Pipe steel pipe which owes its properties chiefly to the carbon which it contains.
Check Valve a valve designed to allow a fluid to pass through in one direction only.
Compression Joint a multi-piece joint with cup shaped threaded nuts which, when tightened compress tapered
sleeves so that they form joint on the periphery of the tubing they connect.
Cross-Over a small fitting with a double offset, or shaped like the letter U with the ends turned out.
Expansion Loop a large radius bend in a pipe line to absorb longitudinal expansion in the pipe line due to heat.
Galvanized Pipe steel pipe coated with zinc to resist corrosion.
Gate Valve a valve employing a gate, often wedge-shaped, allowing fluid to flow when the gate is lifted from the
seat. Such valves have less resistance to flow than globe valves.
Globe Valve one with a somewhat globe shaped body with a manually raised or lowered disc which when closed
rests on a seat so as to prevent passage of a fluid.
Header a large pipe or drum into which each of a group of boilers is connected.
Malleable Iron cast-iron heat-treated to reduce its brittleness.
Manifold a fitting with a number of branches in line connecting to a smaller pipes. Used largely as an
interchangeable term with header.
Medium Pressure when applied to valves and fittings, implies they are suitable for a working pressure of from 862
to 1207 kPa (125 to 175 psi).
O. PIPING - LECTURE
Mill Length also known as random length. Run-of-mill pipe is 4880 mm to 6000 mm in length. Some pipe are made
in double lengths of 9150 to 10,68=75 mm.
Relief Valve one designed to open automatically to relieve excess pressure.
Run a length of pipe made of more than one piece of pipe.
Saddle Flange a flange curved to fit a boiler or tank and to be attached to a threaded pipe. The flange is riveted or
welded to the boiler or tank.
Socket Weld a joint made by use of a socket weld fitting which has a prepared female end or socket for insertion of
the pipe to which it is welded.
Standard Pressure formerly used to designate cast-iron, flanges, fittings, valves, etc., suitable for a maximum
working pressure of 862 kPa.
Street Elbow an elbow with male thread on one end, and female thread on the other end.
Stress-Relieving uniform heating of a structure or portion thereof to a sufficient temperature to relieve the major
portion of the residual stresses, followed by uniform cooling.
Wrought Iron iron refined to a plastic state in a puddling furnace.
Wrought Pipe this term refers to both wrought steel and wrought iron. Wrought in this sense means worked, as in
the process of forming furnace-welded pipe from skelp, or seamlell pipe from plates or billets.
Water
High Pressure Saturated Steam
High Pressure Superheated Steam
Atmospheric Exhaust Steam
Low Pressure Exhaust Steam
O. PIPING - LECTURE
3. Identification Colors for Pipes
O. PIPING - LECTURE
4. Schedule Number
Schedule number standard designation for pipes and is approximated by
1000p
Schedule Number
S
where:
p = gauge pressure
S = working stress
6. Pipe Wall Thickness for Industrial Gas and Air Piping System, for Refrigerant Piping System.
pD
tm =
+C
2S + 0.8P
where:
tm = minimum pipe wall thickness
p= maximum internal service pressure
t = nominal pipe wall thickness
D = outside diameter of pipe
S = allowable stress in materials
C = allowance for threading, mechanical strength or corrosion.
O. PIPING - LECTURE
f. Blow-off piping
g. Condensate piping
h. Hot and cold water service piping
9. Commercial Pipe
9.1 Cast iron is principally used for drainage or for resistance to corrosion and abrasion.
9.2 Wrought steel most power plant piping, low-cost and strong.
9.3 Alloy steels are steels which owe their special properties to alloying elements other than carbon.
9.4 Wrought iron is a two-component metal consisting of iron permeated with 1% to 3% of finely divided and
uniformly distributed iron silicate.
9.5 Copper and Brass the use of it is limited by its cost to piping in which flexibility, appearance, or resistance to
certain forms of corrosion are important.
10. Pipe Connections
a. Packed joints such as leaded bell-and-spigot, or plain end coupling.
b. Screwed joints such as couplings and unions.
c. Flanged Joints with companion flanges either loose or screwed, shrunk, riveted, or welded to the pipe.
d. Welded joints weld made by the fusion process using gas or metal arc welders.
11. Pipe Fittings
Fittings consist of the pieces required to make turns, junctions, and reductions. The straight size fittings are the 45
deg and 90 deg elbows, the tees, crosses, Ys, laterals, and reducers.
12. Common Valves
12.1
Globe valves (straight or angle)
a. Inside screw; outside screw
b. Screw bonnet top; bolted yolk top
12.2
Gate valves (straight or angle)
a. Rising stem; nonrising stem
b. Wedge valve (split and solid); parallel seat valve
12.3
Check valves (lift and swing types)
a. For vertical pipe
b. For horizontal pipe
13. Common Valves Materials
a. Bronze valves noncorrosive, very malleable
b. Iron valves iron body, bronze mounted (IBBM); or all iron
c. Cast steel high strength carbon or alloy steel with special high-temperature duty seat trim
14. Special Valves
a. Safety Valves are primarily the boiler safety valves which constitute the ultimate line of defense against the
occurrence of hazardous steam pressures in the boiler.
b. Relief Valves is a form of safety valve, but usually intended for less severe service and of less importance from
the safety viewpoint.
c. Blow-off Valves together with their connected lines, are to rid the mud drums of sediment accumulations, to
drain the boiler, to reduce concentration of boiler water, and to provide a means for rapidly lowering the boiler
water level in case the feedwater regulator becomes deranged or hand regulation has been careless.
5
O. PIPING - LECTURE
d. Control and Regulating Valves are for water level, steam pressure, water flow, etc. Some makes are
thermostatically controlled, others mechanically, as by a float, others by pressure either steam, hydraulic, or
pneumatic.
e. Boiler Outlet Valves are of the stop-check or automatic non-return type so as to prevent one of boilers in
parallel receiving backflow from the others should its pressure become substandard.
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Extra Hazard Occupancies occupancies where quantity and combustibility of contents is very high, and flammable
and combustible liquid, dust, lint or other materials are present introducing the probability of rapidly developing fire
with high rate of heat release.
a. Extra Hazard Group 1 include occupancies with little or no flammable or combustible liquids.
Ex. Die Casting, Metal Extruding, Plywood and Particle Board Manufacturing.
b. Extra Hazard Group 2 include occupancies with moderate to substantial amount of flammable or combustible
liquids or where shielding of combustible is extensive.
Ex. Asphalt Saturating, Flammable Liquids Spraying
7. Establishment to be protected with automatic water sprinkler system (Fire Code of the Philippines)
a. High Rise Buildinigs
b. Places of Assembly
c. Educational Building
d. General Storage
e. Institutional Occupancies or Residential Areas
f. Mercantile Occupancies
g. Business Occupancies
h. Industrial Occupancies
i. Pier and Water Surrounded Structure
j. Cellulose Nitrate Plastics (Pyroxilin)
k. High Piled Combustible Stock
l. Dip Tanks
8. Portable Fire Extinguishers
Portable Fire Extinguishers are appliances to be used by the occupants of a building or area, primarily for
immediate used on small fires.
9. Basic Types of Fire
a. Class A Fires
b. Class B Fires
c. Class C Fires
d. Class D Fires
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