International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 80 (2003) 139146

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijpvp

Ultrasonic study for detection of inner diameter cracking

in pipeline girth welds using creeping waves
Sony Babya, T. Balasubramaniana, R.J. Pardikarb,*
a

Department of Physics, Regional Engineering College, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India

b
NDTL, Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India
Received 27 September 2002; revised 2 December 2002; accepted 4 December 2002

Abstract
The assessment of pipeline girth welds in power plant equipment using a fitness for purpose approach relies heavily on accurate detection
and estimation of defect size [1,2]. This is difficult to achieve with commonly used techniques employing standard ultrasonic transducers.
Defects, particularly tight cracks located at the inner diameter (ID) of a girth weld and very close to the root of the weld, are difficult to detect
and resolve from indications due to severe root undercut and other geometric defects. This could be overcome by the application of creeping
wave probes. The secondary creeping wave, which is generated at the ID of the pipe and propagates on the ID surface, will respond to only ID
cracking close to the root of the weld without generating any interfering echoes from the geometric defects. The high strength creep resistant
martensitic steel X-20 used in power cycle piping is highly susceptible to cracking either due to the welding cycle or due to stress corrosion.
Recently, the failure of girth welds in X-20 pipes revealed tight cracks at the ID very close to the root. The special ultrasonic techniques using
the creeping wave probes revealed the problem of detection and sizing of the cracks. This paper describes our experience with the use of
creeping wave probes.
q 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Creep wave; Girth weld; Inner diameter cracking

1. Introduction
The high strength, creep resistant, martensitic steel X20 is used in power cycle piping. Conventionally, in
boilers, beyond 2 14 Cr 1 Mo steel, austenitic stainless steel
was the standard choice. X-20 (12Cr 1Mo (1/4)V) was
mainly developed in Germany for bridging the gap between
the austenitic and ferritic grades. This steel covered under
German standard DIN 17175 (Material No. 1.4992) is
supplied as hardened and tempered martensitic steel with a
hardness of 230 250 (HV 10) Vickers. The chemical
composition of this steel consists of maximum 12.5% Cr,
l.2% Mo, 0.35% V, 1% Mn, 0.23% C, 0.5% Si, 0.03% P,
0.03% S and 0.8% Ni. In view of the martensitic structure,
the material during welding/bending is to be treated with
very special care until the steel is tempered to attain the
hardness as above. After welding the material should be
* Corresponding author. Fax: 91-431-500133/520710/520730.
E-mail addresses: rjp@bheltry.co.in (R.J. Pardikar), sony@rect.ernet.in
(S. Baby).

allowed to cool below 120 8C to ensure complete formation

of martensite. At the same time due care is to be taken to
avoid cooling below 100 8C, since the material with very
high hardness will crack due to high inherent stresses caused
by the formation of martensite and atmospheric moisture at
temperatures below 100 8C. During processing of this steel,
extra attention is to be paid to the fact that processing
operations, which include heating above 800 8C (for
example hot bending and welding), lead to hardening of
the material. The steel in the hardened condition is not only
sensitive to impact, but also susceptible to stress corrosion
cracking. Stresses from the quenching process are present
and completely random agents such as pipe water, rainwater
and even condensation during a drop of temperature below
the dew point, can produce stress corrosion cracking in the
hardened condition. One such is hydrogen induced stress
corrosion cracking, which was the main cause of cracking of
X-20 pipe girth welds at one of the power stations. The
investigations revealed that these cracks were very tight and
mostly located at the inner diameter (ID) in the zone
^ 5 mm from the weld axis. These cracks could not be

0308-0161/03/$ - see front matter q 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0308-0161(03)00003-6

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S. Baby et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 80 (2003) 139146

higher crack incident angle should be used to recalculate the

refracted angle. When the calculated umax is less than 358 the
inspection should be performed with refracted longitudinal
waves [3]. Refracted angles below 358 are not recommended as they result in low intensity creep waves. In
addition, shear wave angles lower than 32.88 (first critical
angle) produce both shear and longitudinal waves. This
makes the interpretation confusing and difficult. In general
improper selection of the refracted angle will miss ID cracks
as shown in Fig. 1.
3. Principle and characteristics of creeping wave probe
Fig. 1. UT detection of axial cracks, selection of refracted angle.

detected and properly resolved using the conventional shear

wave examination. Hence a new technique was established
using a creeping wave transducer.

2. Shear wave technique and its limitations for ID

surface crack detection
Refracted shear waves are generally used for detection of
these cracks. The inspection is performed by scanning the
transducer across the weld on the outer diameter (OD)
surface with the beam directed towards the area being
inspected. A refracted angle that maximizes the reflectivity
from the crack should be determined. Maximum reflectivity
from the crack is produced when the incident angle on the
crack is 458. This incident angle should then be used to
calculate the transducers wedge refracted angle. The
calculated refracted angle is always less than the incident
angle. When the calculated refracted angle is less than 358, a

The creeping wave can be considered as a longitudinal

wave just under the surface [4 6]. The creeping wave is
putatively formed as a result of a simple compression
wave interacting at a free boundary [7]. Upon transmission from a shoe designed to provide a refracted
angle somewhere between about 70 808 in the solid test
piece, the creeping wave forms on the near surface
(primary creeping wave) as shown in Fig. 2(a). Since the
incident angle from the shoe also results in an SV shear
mode at a smaller angle (typically 30 358) a second
mode conversion occurs on the far surface parallel to the
near surface (secondary creeping wave) as shown in Fig.
2(b). The mode-converted wave is of course compression
(converted from SV shear). There is yet another shear
wave, called a head wave K: Its index point is shifted
forward in relation to the ratio of crystal diameter d to
wavelength l, i.e. d=l: The angle of the modeconverted compression wave from the far surface is
similar to the initial refracted angle and the same
mechanics account for the initiation of the far surface
creeping wave. The speed of the creeping wave is equal

Fig. 2. (a) The principles of creeping wave probe: (1) crystal; (2) probe; (3) creeping wave; (4) head wave; (5) main longitudinal wave; (6) the envelope of
longitudinal wave; (7) shear wave. (b) Beam configuration of creeping wave transducer: (1) tested work piece; (2) the first creeping wave; (3) wave front of
head wave; (4) the first main longitudinal wave; (5) head wave; (6) the envelope of longitudinal wave; (7) the second main longitudinal wave; (8) the secondary
creeping wave; (9) wave front of longitudinal wave.

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141

wave technique. These blocks consisted of 4 carbon steel

blocks, 2 blocks made from P-22 material and 1 block from
X-20 material (see Fig. 4 and Table 1).

5. Establishment of creeping wave technique

Fig. 3. Snapshots of the creeping wave.

to that of the longitudinal wave. The wedge angle in

the creeping wave probe is equal to the total reflection
angle of the longitudinal wave. Ideally, according to
Snells law no longitudinal wave will propagate.
However, Snells law also tells us that a composite of
waves can exist as shown in Fig. 3 [8].
The intensity of the creeping wave relies on the d=l ratio.
A key characteristic of a creeping wave is its large d=l ratio
(. 15). Creeping wave probes can be divided into two types
of structure. One is a series connection of two crystals and
the other is a parallel connection of two crystals [4,9]. They
both have a 2 3 mm dead zone at present.
The creeping wave probe is mainly used for testing near
surface defects. However, for the detection of ID cracking in
pipe welds we make use of only the secondary creeping
wave as shown in Fig. 2(b).

4. Test blocks
Steel blocks with ID notches of 0.5 mm width and
different depths were used for establishing the creeping

The relative ease of implementing the creeping wave

technique can be attributed to the fact that calibration and
signal evaluation are heavily based upon the simple concept
of pattern recognition. In general, signals created by the
three wave modes will either be present or absent from the
A-scan display depending upon the nature and geometry of
the reflector [10,11].
Calibration involves positioning echoes from two of the
three waves; the ID creeping wave and shear wave (30 70
70). It can be seen from Fig. 5 that along with 708
longitudinal waves, a 308 shear wave is generated. The 308
shear wave will hit the back surface of the test piece and
some of the wave energy will be reflected as a 708
longitudinal signal. The mode converted 708 wave will
strike the reflector face and then propagate back to the
transducer. This round trip signal is known as a 30 70 70
signal.
The calibration was carried out on a calibration block
that is of the same thickness as the material to be examined.
In order to approximate the cracks that are to be inspected, a
series of notches of 0.5 mm width was cut into the blocks in
increasing through wall thickness. The side of the block was
used for calibration, as it will produce indications from all
three-wave modes (Figs. 5 and 6). The difference in arrival
times of each of the signals will be the same in the reference
block and test material when they are of equal thickness. To
calibrate, the 30 70 70 signal from the side of the block
will be positioned at the nth screen division of the flaw
detector screen while the ID creeping wave signal is
positioned at the (n 1)th screen division. Once this
relationship has been established, the detection and signal
discrimination process, using the creeping wave transducer,
will begin. Because of the relatively high level of energy
contained in the creeping wave package, and the fact that it
travels relatively close to the inner surface, it is extremely
sensitive to ID connected cracks. However, because it is not
a true surface wave and does not follow surface geometry, it
will be less sensitive to reflectors such as weld roots, which
provide strong indications when shear wave transducers are
used. For this reason, the inspector can re-evaluate what had
originally been characterized as a flaw, as well as scan the
test material for additional suspected ID connected
indications. The creeping wave transducer will also allow
preliminary sizing information to be obtained because each
of the wave modes will appear only under certain
conditions. The relative depth of reflector will dictate
which signals are received from the transducer. The A-scan
in Fig. 7 shows an ID creeping wave signal only, which
indicates the presence of a shallow defect. The A-scan in

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Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of the steel blocks showing the location and size of the slits.

Table 1
Dimensional detail of test blocks
Block no.

1
2
3
4

248
247.5
200
250

39.8
39.8
48.5
39.1

27
27
39
29.3

124
128.75
100
125

20
25
30
25

4.82
9.9
19.98
14.95

0.91
1.82
2.89
3.874

The given dimensions are applicable to only steel blocks. All the dimensions are given in mm (Fig. 8); A, length: B, width; C, thickness; D, distance of the
notch from one end of the block; E, length of the notch; F and G, height of the surface breaking notches.

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143

Fig. 5. Schematic diagram showing the interaction of creeping wave, direct longitudinal wave, 308 shear wave with the ID crack in the pipe material.

Fig. 6. Ultrasonic signals from the ID crack for three wave modes.

Fig. 8 shows both an ID creeping wave signal and a 30 70

70 round trip signal, which indicates the presence of a midwall defect [11].
Experimental observations with A-scan presentations of
detected ID notches in the test blocks using the creeping
wave technique are shown in Table 2.

6. Failure analysis study on X-20 joints in main steam

line of power boiler

Fig. 7. A scan showing an ID creeping wave signal only indicating the

presence of a shallow crack.

Fig. 8. A scan showing both ID creeping wave signal and 30 7070 round
trip signal.

The failure of the weld joints in power cycle piping in a

power station were reported and the investigation needed to

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Table 2
Experimental observations for detection of ID notches by creeping wave technique
Block no.

Thickness (mm)

Slit height (mm)

27

0.91

27

Creep wave beam path

Skip distance

Signal amplitude in dB for 80% of FSH

74

29

53.9

1.82

76

30

54.9

39

2.89

102

39

54.9

29.3

3.87

78

29

52.4

P-22

56.4

146

49

60.3

P-22

44

118

41

64.6

X-20

26

74

29

65.7

A-scan display

Creep wave beam path shear wave beam path t=cos u 2 stand off distance (12 mm); creep wave skip distance skip distance for shear wave
t tan u stand off distance (12 mm).
Table 3
Over all statistics of the pipe welds tested at site
Component

Pipe weld
size (mm)

Number
of joints
tested

Number of
joints free
from defects

Number of
joints with
ID cracking

Power cycle
piping

ID 330 44.5

50

34

16

ID 454 63
ID 200 30
ID 330 44.5

70
28

69
28

1
Nil

HP By pass
Boiler main
stream line

find out the cause of failure and also the assessment of all
the joints by non-destructive methods. It was decided to
subject all the welded joints in X-20 material to ultrasonic
examination. The preliminary investigations revealed that
the failure could be due to stress corrosion cracking at the ID
of the pipe weld. The details of the test results are given in
Table 3.
All the joints as mentioned in Table 3 were subjected to
458/608 shear waves and a creep wave probe {RTD 91-832,
size: 2(6 18) SA 158, FS < 12} [12]. Though 45 and 608
shear wave probes had revealed the presence of ID cracks,

Table 4
Typical ultrasonic observations for one of the joints with ID crack. Equipment: Site Scan-130. Probe: MWB 458, 608 and RTD 91-832. Reference block
material: X-20; thickness: 45 mm; notch depth: 1 mm; width: 0.5 mm
Segment
number

WB 458

WB 608

Length of Depth of the

the indica indication from
tion (mm) outer surface
(mm)
135 180 65
180 225 165
225 270 20

3945
3945
3945

RTD 91-832 (Creep wave)

Indication
Length of
amplitude w. r. the indica
to reference
tion (mm)
echo (RE)

Depth of the
indication from
outer surface
(mm)

Indication
amplitude w. r.
to reference
echo (RE)

RE 2 6 to RE
RE 2 6 to RE
RE 2 6 to
RE 2 4

3945
3945
3945

RE 2 4 to RE 4 65
RE 2 4 to RE 4 165
RE 2 4 to RE
20

65
165
20

Length of Depth of the

the indica indication
tion (mm) from outer
surface (mm)
45
45
45

Indication
amplitude w. r.
to reference
echo (RE)
RE 4 to RE 6
RE 4 to RE 8
RE 2 to RE 4

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145

Fig. 9. Cut section of pipe showing penetrant indications of ID cracks in girth weld of X-20 pipe.

Fig. 10. Schematic diagram of pipe weld showing penetrant indication mapping of ID cracks.

the signal amplitude was not good enough to confirm

the defects as cracks. However, when these joints were
subjected to creep waves, there was a significant increase in
amplitude of these signals (4 to 6 dB above reference echo),
which clearly indicated the presence of cracks very close to
the root (^ 5 mm from the root) as shown in Table 4. There
were no interfering echoes from undercut and other
geometric indications. These cracks were detected on both
sides of the root while scanning from either side of the weld.
The validity of these results was confirmed by cutting one of
the pipes and subjecting the root side of the welding to

penetrant testing and subsequent metallurgical investigation

as shown in Figs. 9 and 10.
7. Conclusion
Experimental work has demonstrated that ultrasonic
creeping wave transducers can be used successfully for
accurate detection of ID cracks close to the root of girth
welds in X-20 pipes. The special transducer, which
generates secondary creeping waves at the ID that propagate
along the ID surface, will predominately respond to ID

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S. Baby et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 80 (2003) 139146

surface breaking cracks without generating any interfering

echoes from geometric defects. This is difficult to achieve
with commonly used techniques employing shear wave
transducers. It was also demonstrated that the creeping wave
technique could be successfully applied without the use of
sophisticated support equipment and could be readily
implemented in the field.
Acknowledgements
Our sincere thanks to Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research (CSIR), New Delhi, India for awarding the Senior
Research Fellowship to Ms Sony Baby {Sanction No. 1(64)
010-2k2/1} and financially supporting her in the pursuance
of her research study. The authors wish to thank the
management of Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, Tiruchirappalli for providing all the necessary facilities in carrying
out this study. Thanks are also due to all the concerned
officers/technical staff particularly Shri. P.S. Subbaraman,
Sr Scientific officer, NDTL/BHEL, Tiruchy who supported
this study.
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