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S:aoiisa:iono'soi wi:a imecoumns

by BENGT B. BROMS and PER BOMAN+


A new foundation method is described in
which columns manufactured
in situ by
mixing unslaked lime with soft clay are
used to support light structures and road
embankments. The lime columns can also
be used as lateral support in excavations
instead of sheet pile walls. Methods are

presented in the article for calculation of


total and differential settlements as well
as the consolidation rate.

Introduction
AREAS WITH unfavourable soil conditions
are often used in Sweden for housing
factories and roads. Builddevelopmeryts,
ings in such areas are normally supported
on piles, but settlements caused, for example, by a lowering of the groundwater
level may damage connecting utility lines
and in certain cases even the piles. Road
embankments must often be strengthened
with berms, embankment
piles or by
preloading often in combination with sand
drains.

Lime columns
method for
foundation
An alternative
the lime collight structures and roads
in
umn method
has been developed
Sweden during the last ten years and, in
this, powdered unslaked lime is mixed in
situ with soft clay or slit using an auger
formed like a giant "egg beater", as illu-

1. As

a result vertical columns 0.5m in diameter and up to 10m in


length are formed in the soil.
The auger is screwed down into the
soil to a depth that corresponds to the
prescribed column length. Powdered un-

strated

'Professor

in

Fig.

and Research
of Soil and
Department
Institute of Technology,

Sweden.

Assistant, respectively,
Rock Mechanics, Royal
100 44 Stockholm 70,

slaked lime is forced into the soil with


compressed air through a hole located
just below the horizontal blade of the
auger, and the lime is mixed thoroughly
with the soil. The withdrawal
rate of the
tool is about one-fifth of that when the
auger was initially drilled down into the
soil. Predrilling may be required during
the winter when the ground is frozen or
when a surface rockfill has to be pene-

trated.
The 10m high mast of the drilling

unit

mounted
on a standard front wheel
loader (Fig. 2a) or on a special carrier
(Fig. 2b) which tows a container (2.5m')
for storage of the unslaked lime. Capacity
of the machine is about 1 metre of lime
column per minute or about five Sm long
columns per hour so that in an eighthour shift some 30-40 columns can be
produced. The costs are about Sw. Cr.
25/m ($1.5/ft), these being affected by
suc'h factors as the accessibility
of the
site, the need for predrilling and the number of columns.
The shear strength of the stabilised soil
and the bearing capacity of the columns,
rrormally between 20 and 100kN, depend
on such factors as soil type, the organic
content of the soil, and the quality and
amount of lime added. The lime also increases the permeability
of the soil so
that the lime columns function as drains
which increase the consolidation
rate of
the soil,
The temperature in the ground increases
due to the heat released by the slaking
of the lime. When the I'ime content is
10-20% with respect to the dry weight
of the soil the temperature increase can
be so high that t'e 'boil'ing point of the
is

porewater is reached.
The lime columns can be used instead
of piles or other soil stabilisation methods

as foundations

(Fig.

structures

for light

4a), to increase the bearing capacity of


the ground, and to reduce the settlement
of road embankments
(Fig. 4b), parking
areas or storage yards.
ime columns
have also been used in deep excavati'ons
instead
of sheet piles (Fig. 4c) and
around pile-supported structures to reduce
the negative skin friction on the structural
piles and the lateral displacement of the
soil under the structure.
The fun'ction of the lime columns as
load-carrying members and as drains has
been investigated in Sweden and Finland
Large-scale field load tests indicate that
the columns act as vertical reinforcement
in the soil which reduces the settlements
and increases the bearing capacity of the
soil.
I

Stabilisation of soil with lime


Lime is commonly
used to stabilise
cohesive soil. Several different chemical
reactions take place when lime is mixed
with soft clay. The divalent calcium ions
in the lime replace the weaker univalent

Unslaked

Lime

Kelly

)~Rotary

table

ew x x i( xr wxexnrrvxx

Up to 10m

(30hl

~
Finished

Mixing tool

("egg be eter

lime column

Fig. 1. Manufacture

of the lime columns

Fig. 2. Drilling unit, (a) (left) mounted on a standard front wheel


loader (Vo/vo BM 641), and (b) (below) on a specially constructed tracked carrier

(b)

o@c)

g3

May, 1979

23

!I
!

tjl k

dl
INs

Fig. 3(a) (above). The Linden-Aiimak


showing the mixer tool

LPS-3 tracked equipment,

sodium, calcium and hydrogen ions present in the clay due to base exchange.
The attraction between the individual clay
particles is thereby increased.
The lime also reacts with the clay minerals in the soil, resulting in the formati!on
of calcium silicates and aluminates which
bind the soil particles
together, These
pozzolanic reactions, which are favoured
by a high pH-value, take place very slowly
over many months or years. In surface
stabilisation the carbon dioxide in the soil
and in the air reacts with the calcium hydroxide when the stabilised soil is poorly
compacted; the calcium carbonate retards
the pozzolanic reactions in the soil.
The aggregation of the soil caused by
the lime changes the grain size distribution and the plastic limit of the soil as
well as the plasticity index. The swelling
potential is reduced while the optimum
moisture content is increased due to the
flocculation of the soil.
The shear strength of the stabilised soil
increases
gradually
with
This
time,
strength increase is affected by soil type,
lime content, type of lime, density of the
compacted material and the curing conditions, including the time between the mixing and the compaction of the soil,
The lime also increases the frost sensitivity of clays; a soil which initially is not
frost sensitive can become so after the
soil 'has been treated with lime.
Organic soils can also be stabilised with
lime. The organic material
retards the
reactions
the
pozzolanic
and
impairs
increase, but it is possible to
strength
compensate for this effect to some extent
by increasing the lime content,
Tests with deep stabilisation of soil with
lime started in the United States about
1960. With this so-called drill-lime sta0.25m diameter
bilisation,
holes were
drilled to a depth
of 0.75-1.0m, their
spacing being 0.5-1.5m. Each hole was
filled with a slurry of hydrated
lime. The
migration of the lime from the holes into
soil is however,
the surrounding
very
slow, and the beneficial effects of this
method are thus doubtful.
of soft clays with
Deep stabilisation
lime has also been tried
in
hydrated
Sweden by the Swedish Geotechnical Institute (SGI) and by the Swedish State
Railways (SJ). Boreholes were filled with

and

(b) (right)

detail

limestone
or with slaked lime.
ground
Field measurements
indicate that the diffusion of the lime into the surrounding
soft clay was very limited. One to two
years after installation, only a few centimetres around the holes had been affected
by the lime due to the low diffusion rate
of the ca'Icium ions in the very soft clays
which are common in Sweden. Also, the
base exchange that takes place in the clay
influences the results since the calcium
ions are absorbed by the clay. Experiments

>~Ltme
columns

(>)

Jo

columns

indicate that it is necessary to mix the


lime very carefully with the so.l to get
uniform results.
Laboratory tests with slaked and unslaked lime have been carried out to

investigate the effect on the shear strength


by such factors as time and temperature
during the curing, as illustrated in Fig. 5.
lt can be seen that the undrained
shear
strength of the investigated
silty varved
clay in Fig. 5a, as determined by fall-cone
tests, was considerably
higher for unslaked than for slaked lime due to the
reduction of the water content of the soil
caused by the slaking, The average shear
strength of the clay treated with unslaked
lime after one year was about ten times
higher than that of the soil treated with
slaked lime.
Test data indicate that the increase of
the shear strength with time is in general
higher for silty clays with a low plasticity
index and low liquid limit than for plastic
clays and that the stabilisation effects are
more pronounced for clays deposited in
fresh or brakish water where the salt content of the porewater is relatively low
compared with clays deposited in salt
water. Also the organic content of the
soils has an appreciable
effect on the
strength increase, as illustrated in Fig, 5b.
For organic soils, a relatively smal'I increase of the shear strength is generally
obtained. The plasticity index and the
liquid limit of these soils are in general
high.

Future road embankment

r//e~//eau//

S r//r./m

nnu//rr/ru

82M

Braang

Wale
beams

Ltme
columns

(c)

Fig. 4. Applications of the lime column


method for (a) foundations, (b) road
embankments, and (c) deep excavations

Applications
method

of the lime column

Lime columns can be used to support


liqht structures or to increase the stability

of road embankments,
as illustrated
in
Fiqs. 4a and 4b. The columns act as vertical reinforcement
in the soil, The settlements
are thereby
reduced while the
bearing capacity is increased. The lime
columns also act as vertical drains which
increase the consolid'ation rate of the unstabilised soil within the sta'bi)ised block
of soil as well as below the block.
Length and spacing of the lime columns
depend on such factors as the maximum
total and differential settlements that can
May, 1979

25

50

Unslaked

Highest value

8'C

lime, CaO

30

20
slaked lime CaO
m temperature

kD

cu

10

Cik

c
kdk

Ck

ID

III

Il

umns. The latter technique is still economic compared with concrete piles even
when a relatively large number of columns
are required; their required length is relatively small since the load carried by each
column is small.
When the thickness of the compressible layers is large ()10m) it is normally
unnecessary to extend the columns the full
depth of these layers. The structure will
in that case follow the settlements
of the
surrounding
ground caused by, for example, a lowering of the groundwater
level.
The risk of damaging connecting underground services will then be small compared with structures founded on concrete or steel piles. Differential settlements
of the structure caused by settlements of
the surrounding
ground oan be reduced
by placing lime columns also outside the
building area.

Design of a lime column foundation


1.00
Silty varved clay
Linkoping Sweden

(a)

//
i

10

20

30

60

Storage time,

Time of

80 100

150 200

300 400

days

mixing

Fig. 5. Increase of shear strength with time under different curing conditions; (a)
(above) Silty varved clay from Linkoping, Sweden, and (b) (below) Organic silty
c/ay from Sundsvall, Sweden
3.0

2.0

Unslaked lime
CaO, Room temperature

-X
X

/"

1,0
0.8

uD

IJ

03

Slaked lime
Ca(OH)2 8 C

Slaked lime
Ca(OH) z
Room temperature

0.5
0.4

kd

dli

CaO. 8 C
/

fs

I
Without lime
Room temperature

0.2
I

0,1
0.08

I
I
I
I
I
I
I

0.05

~wdhout
+8

10

lime

Orgaiuc silty clay


Sunsvall, Sweden

20

30

40 50 60

80 100

150 200

300 400

Storage time, days

Time of
mixing

be tolerated by the supported structure


or by the embankment,
and the bearing
capacity which is required to prevent collapse of the building or failure of the em-

differential
settlements.
Timber
frame
houses are preferred, rather than houses
constructed of brick or lightweight con-

bankment even when the foundation


is
overloaded.
Lime columns have mainly been used
in Sweden to stabilise road embankments
constructed on soft normally consolidated
clays where otherwise embankment piles
or a concrete deck would be required to
prevent failure of the embankment and to
limit the settlements.
The technique has also been proposed
for family houses, When lime columns are
used as a foundation the load distribution
beneath the structure should be relatively
uniform without high concentrated
loads.
It is also important that the material in the
building should not be affected by small

Lime columns
are particularly
economical when spread footings or a raft cannot be used and the maximum bearing
capacity of piles or piers cannot be utiI'ised fully. When the thickness
of the
is not
compressible
excessive
layer
((10m) the columns should extend
through these compressible
layers. A relatively large number of lime columns is
in
comparison
generally
required
with
steel or concrete piles, but the base slab
can be made relatively thin since the
structure will be supported
on a large
number of columns.
The costs of concrete piles in Sweden
are three or four times that of lime col-

26

Ground Eng inee ring

crete blocks.

The columns and the soil enclosed by


the columns form a more or less rigid
block and the differentia'I settlements within the b'lock are, in general, small. The increase in bearing capacity, brought about
by the I'ime c'olumns, and the reduction of
the settlements
are analysed
in
the
following paragraphs
and compared with
available test data.

Bearing capacity
The ultimate

bearing capacity of indicolumns


is primarily
governed by the shear strength of the stabilised soil in the columns (column failure).
Only rarely is the ultimate bearing capacity governed 'by the shear strength of the
surrounding
soil (soil failure). The shear
strength of the stabilised soil is lowest
immediately
after the mixing of the lime
with the soil, increasing
gradus'lly
with
time over several years. About one-third
of the shear strength after one year is
reached at the end of the first month and
about half after about two months.
The un'it strength
of a lime column
decreases in general with increasing diameter because of the micro-cracks present
in
the stabilised
soil. Matchbox-sized
chunks of staibilised clay are formed during the mixing of the lime with the soil
and the soil-lime mixture is compacted
when the auger is slowly withdrawn
due
to the inclination of the auger blades. The
chunky nature of the stabilised clay can be
observed, e.g. during a load test on an
excavated column, and the rupture surface
which develops
close to failure has a
tendency to follow the cracks between
the chunks.
The ultimate bearing capacity of a column will thus be lower than that calculated from the unconfined
compressive
strength of a sma'll specimen cut from the
column or the undrained
shear strength
of the column material as determined by
fall-cone, vane or penetrometer
tests,
where the failure surface is forced, These
tests reflect the shear strength of the
stabilised clay material in the chunks in
contrast to load tests on excavated columns where the shear strength
is influenced by the cracks between the chunks.
The strength properties of the stabilised
soil in the columns are thus expected to
be similar to those of a stiff fissured clay.
Test data
indicate
that the shear
strength of the column materiel as determined by fall-cone, vane or penetrometer
tests is approximately twice that of laboratory-prepared
besamples,
probably
vidual

lime

load

Apphed

J>f

ur s %un

Column C6
Age 128 days
Lime: 6;o

Shear stress
along penmeter
of sol block

t s,<c/F,
200

150

Vane test

Penetrometer

II

'o

test
Width,

"

QC}QQQ

~Sh ar strength
from load test
tr
(Cu = '2 ttu )

~
u

30

Initial

Lengtlk L

Fig. 7. Shear stress along perimeter of


area reinforced with lime columns

shear

Fig. 8. The maximum shear distortion


depends on the average shear stress in
the untreated soil between the two outside column rows, the shear modulus, G,
of the soil or the modulus of elasticity,
E, and Poisson's ratio, Thus
in

20

10

10

20

30

rk

eistance. cm

Fig. 6. Variation in shear strength for Column C 6


confining
high
of the relatively
pressure in situ during the curing of the
stabllised soil. Also the heat generated by
the slaking and the resulting high ground
temperature in the field during the curing
probably contributes to the observed difference in shear strength.
The ultimate bearing capacity of the
columns in situ is also affected by the
confining pressure provided by the surrounding soil, particularly at considerable
consolidated
depth. The soft normally
clays in Sweden generally have a dry
crust at the surface with a shear strength
of 50-150kPa, which transfers the load to
the lime columns. The thickness of the
crust varies usually between 0.5m and 4m
on the age of the clay dedepending
posit and on the elevation of the ground
surface above the sea level. Rough calculations indicate that the ultimate bearing
capacity is increased by at least 10kN by
the confining pressure from the surrounding soil at the bottom of a dry crust
approximately 1.0m thick.
In Fig. 6 is shown the shear strength of
an excavated lime column as determined
by a Soiltest pocket penetrometer and by
bearing
field vane tests. The ultimate
capacity as determined by a load test on
the excavated column was 17kN which
corresponds to an undrained shear strength of 43 kPa. This shear strength is about
with a
half of that (100kPa) determined
pocket penetrometer or vane tests. It can
be seen, however, that the undrained shear
strength was low at the centre of the column due to the hole left in the column
after the withdrawal of the kelly. The average shear strength as determined by the
pocket penetrometer or by the vane tests
was about twice that obtained from the

cause

load

Perimeter of

'coooa

100

50

G 0 G
o o o a~"'"'"'

C) C)

tests.

The ultimate bearing capacity of the


lime columns seldom governs the design
for
when they are used as foundations
relatively light structures with a maximum
height of 1-2 storeys. The bearing capacity
of the untreated soil (without the lime
columns) is normally sufficient to carry
the applied load with an adequate factor
of safety. The weight of a two-storey
building corresponds to a unit pressure of
approximately 20kPa. A soil with a shear
strength of 7kPa will thus be sufficient to

carry this load with a factor of safety


equal to 2.0. The house is assumed to be
placed on a slab directly on the ground

surface.

to in-

Lime columns can also be used


crease the stability of road embankments
since the average shear strength of the
soil is increased when lime is mixed with
the soil (Fig. 4b). The increase of the

shear strength along a potential failure


surface through the soil depends on the
shear strength of the columns and the
spacing of the columns.
The average shear strength of the untreated soil between the columns below
increases gradually with
the embankment
time due to the consolidation of the soil.
takes place relatively
This consolidation
rapidly since the lime columns also act
as drains, as mentioned earlier. It is possible to take advantage of this increase
of the shear strength by constructing the
embankment in stages. The increase of the
shear strength can be checked with, for
example, field vane or screw compressometer tests.

Differential settlements
timber
single-storey
A prefabricated
frame house can tolerate relatively large
adverse
without
settlements
differential
effects compared with a house built with
bricks or lightweight concrete blocks. It
is estimated
that a timber frame house
can tolerate a differential settlement of
about 1/200 without damage compared
with 1/400 for a brick house.
The differential settlement of structures
supported on lime columns depends on
the stiffness of the reinforced soil block
enclosed by the lime columns. Before
consolidation of the soil below or around
the block, the load from the structure will
soil
be transferred
to the surrounding
along the perimeter of the block (Fig. 7),
as indicated by an FEM-analysis. Only a
small part is transferred through the base
of the block, Distribution of the load depends, apart from the dimensions of the
block, on the stiffness of the block in
unwith
the surrounding
comparison
treated soil.
and the
settlements
The differential
shear distortion of the block will be the
largest along the perimeter as illustrated

rt

sue/G

sun

(1

+,)/E ... (1)

The equivalent modulus of elasticity, E,


of the untreated soil increases in general
with increasing shear strength of the soil,
ca. At E = 250 ch and t = 0.25, eqn. 1
can be rewritten as
o

so u/100c

(2)

The d'ifferential settlement and thus the


maximum angle change will thus be proportional to the average shear stress between the two outside column rows. This
maximum
average shear stress can conservatively be calculated from the assumption that the total load is transferred to
the surrounding
soil along the perimeter
of the reinforced block (Fig. 7), Then

Wg
2H

(3)

(B+ L)

where B, L and H are the width, length


and height of the block, respectively, and
Wg is the total weight of the structure.
The actual shear stress along the perimeter can, however, be much less than
that calculated from eqn. 3 when the
column length, H, is less than the width,
B, of the loaded area and the spacing of
the columns is large.
It has also been assumed in the derivation of eqn. 1 that the stress increase in
the soil is within the elastic range so that
elastic theory can be used. For the maximum angle change and the maximum differential
settlement
to be small, the
average shear stress along the perimeter
Width.

st~.*
h

Differential

Column

senlement

-=t-+-Du -; n

Fig,

8. Calculation of differential

settlements
May, 1979

29

should be less than the shear strength


the soil thus

so

of

(4)

ch/F,

where Fa is a safety factor which should


at least be 1.5.
For a uniformly distributed load, q, eqn
3 can be rewritten as

qg F.

H/B )~

2 Ca (B/L

(5)

+ 1)

At, for example, qg/c= 2.0, Fa


and B/L = 1.0, the ratio H/B should
column
be at least 0.75. The minimum
length when the width of the loaded
area, B, is Bm is thus 6m, It is interesting
to note that the column length will increase with increasing width of the loaded
area.
The second criterion to be satisfied is
that d'ifferential settlements should be less
than a certain limiting value which depends primarily on the material in the
structure. From eqns. 1 and 3,

1.5

H/B

Two cases had to be investigated


(A
B). In Case A the applied load and
the local settlements
of the reinforced
block will be so large that the yield
strength Q,.d of the columns is exceeded.
For this case the applied load q is divided
in two parts, q, and q,, where q, is carried by the lime columns and q, by the
soil between the columns.
on the yield
The load q, depends
strength of the columns q, = n Q;11/BL
where n is the total number of columns
and B and L the width and length of the
loaded area, respectively. Test data suggest that the yield limit of the columns
corresponds to about 70% of the ultimate
strength as evaluated by shortrterm load
tests. The yield strength and the bearing
capacity of the columns will gradually
increase with time.
The local settlement of the block (~h,)
will then be governed by the load q, (q,
q q,) which is carried by the untreated soil between the columns. This
settlement can be calculated by standard
met'hods using the results from oedometer

G (B/L

(6)
1)

At, for example, n = 1/200, G = 100 c


1.0 for a long
qg/cu = 1.0, then H/B
and narrow structure (L
B) and H/B
)~ 0.5 for a square structure,
The two criteria will be the same (eqns.
5 Ik 6) when q G
cu . At d. = 1/200,
G = 100
then Fa = 2.0. Thus the differential settlements will generally govern
the design rather than the factor of safety
with respect to the average shear stress
along the perimeter of the block.
Test data ind'icate that the increase of
differential settlements with time is relatively small and that the conditions imafter the application of load
mediately
can be used to estimate the maximum
differential
settlement. The decrease of
the shear modulus that takes place with
of
time as a result of the consol'idation
the soil between the columns seems to
be compensated for by a decrease of the
average shear stress along the perimeter
of the bloick. Additional test data are,
however, required.

))

F=

c,

Total settlements

The method which is proposed to calculate the total settlements of a lime column group is illustrated
in Fig. 9. It is
assumed in the calculations that the maximum total settlement corresponds to the
sum of the local settlements of the reinforced block, ~h,, and of the soil under
the block, ~he .

load q

+Apphed

>

the

resu'Iting

stress

in-

from the Boussinesq


equation or from the 2:1 method as illustrated in Fig. 10b. The untreated soil
within the block is divided in layers and
the compression of each layer is evaluated

separately.
The local settlement of the soil below
the block is calculated for the stress increase caused by the load q, which is
transferred to the bottom of the reinforced
block and by the load increase q, transferred through the untreated soil between
the columns. The ca'Iculations have to be
done separately for the two loads since
they act at two different levels in the
soil. It is suggested that the Boussinesq
equation or the 2:1 method also can be
used for this case. This is, however, conservative since the dep'th of the embedment will affect the stress distribution for
the load q,. The local settlement below
the block can then be calculated by dividing the soil in layers. The compression of
each layer is calculated for the stress
increase caused by q and q,
In the second case (Case B) the deformation of the b'lock is so small that the
yield strength of the columns is not exceeded. The relative stiffness of the columns with respect to the surrounding
untreated soil between the columns will
in this case govern t'e settlement
of the
block. Test data suggest that the relative
deformation of the columns and of the soil
between the columns will be the same.
It is therefore suggested that the stress
increase in the block is calculated for the
total applied load q from the Boussinesq

Applied

I I

f th)

l
//i////

Column
length, H

I l l

y ///'m

'//

(1 a)

M+ a E

(7)

c,

tests.
It is suggested the local settlement of
the soil below the reinforced block is calculated for a load q at the ground surface
by dividing the soil below the block into
layers and calculating the compression of
each layer separately. The calculated settlement will, however, be larger than the
actual settlement due to the chosen conservative method to calculate the stress
increase in the soil.

Settlement rate
Test results from large-scale load tests
Sweden and Finland (Broms 8i Boman,
1977) indicate that the lime columns act
as vertical drains in the soil and that the
methods developed by Barron (1948) for
sand drains can be used to ca'Iculate the
settlement
rate for lime co'lumns. The
permeability of soft cohesive soils is increased 100 to 1 000 times when the soil
in

OYield

load qi

where a = n A,,/BL is the relative area


of the columns (n is the total number of
columns), A, is the area of the columns,
and B and L t'e width and the length of
the loaded area, respectively.
The equivalent modulus of elasticity of
the column material taking into account
the effect of time can conservatively
be
evaluated from the relationship
E,
250 c,where c,, is the undrained
shear strength of the column material. The
modulus
of the untreated
compression
clay between the columns is affected by
preloading due to, for example, dessication
or a temporary lowering of the groundwater level.
When the preconsolidation load will not
be exceeded the compression modulus can
be estimated from the relationship Mo
= 250
where c is the undrained shear
strength of the untreated clay. In the case
where the clay is normally consolidated
or the preconsolidation
pressure will be
exceeded, the compression modulus of the
soil has to be evaluated from oedometer

crease is calculated

=~

BL
I111I
I

Mae

tests.
It is suggested

qg
2/Y

equation or from the 2:1 method, The


actual stress increase will be less than
that calculated since the load transferred
along the perimeter of the reinforced block
will be larger than that calculated from
the theory of elasticity (the Boussinesq
equation). The proposed method is conservative.
The average compression modulus M,o
(dir/de) of the composite material in the
block depends on the relative modulus of
elasticity of the column material (E,)
with respect to the compression modulus
of the untreated clay between the columns
(Md,). This average compression modulus
can be calculated from

and

Applied

1oad, q2 = q q,

i'/i y

/i
//'
(B+H) (L+ H)

'th)

,'

i
(a)

Fig. 9. Calculation

30

of total settlements

Ground Engineering

(bj

Fig. 10. Load distribution, Case A: (a) Load carried by lime columns;
by unstabilised soil between columns

(bf

Load carried

Acknowledgements
The lime column method was first proposed in 1965 by Mr. Kjeld Paus, Technical Director at the Swedish construction
company BPA, Byggnadsproduktion
AB.
The equipment used for the manufacture
of the lime columns has been developed
AB, Skelleftea, Sweby Linden-Alimak
den. Euroc AB, Malmo, Sweden, has indifferent
stab'ilising
vestigated
agents
which can be used to increase the effectiveness of the lime.
The laboratory and field experiments
described in this article have been carried
out by the Swedish Geotechni'cal Institute (SGI) and at the Department of Soil
and Rock Mechanics at the Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden.

4m

4m

06.=

10 k Pa

References
Barron, R. A. (1948): "Consolidation
of finegrained soils by drain wells". Transaction, ASCE,
Vol. 113, Paper No. 2346, pp. 718-742.
Bennermark, H. (1969): "Rapport over laboratorielera". Report of labforsbk med kalkstabiliserad
oratory
tests with clay stabilised
with
lime.
Swedish
Geotechnical
Institute. Report SGI, K

9306.

Fig. 11. Settlements of two test fills

Time.

100

200

300

400

500

days

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

10-

20-

115-131.

30-

5 40E
s'll

50-

60-

70-

Fig. 12. Settlement-time

relationships

for the stabilised and unstabilised

is mixed with unslaked lime. This increase


is sufficient to make the material pervious

with respect to the surrounding

untreated

soil.
Fig. 11 is shown measured settlement-time relationships
at the centre of
two almost identical areas at Ska-Edeby
locaited about 25km west of Stockholm.
Lime columns with a length of 6.0m and
at a spacing of 1.4m were installed in
one area, There were no columns in a
In

area.

The soil consisted of a slightly organic


soft post-glacial clay down to a depth of
5m and of a glacial varved clay down
to 15m. The clay is normally consolidated
or slightly overconsolidated with a water
content between 60 and 120%.
The two test areas (8.0 x 15.0m) were

32

Fellenius, 8. H (1971): "Negative skin fnction


on long piles driven in clay. Swedish Geotechnical Institute, No. 25, 38 pp., Stockholm.
Fellenius, B. H. (1972): "Buckling of piles due
to lateral
soil movements",
discussion,
Proc.
5th European
Conf. on Soil Mech. & Found.
Engng., Vol. 2, pp. 282-284, Madrid.
Hansbo. S. (1957): "A new approach
to the
determination
of the shear strength
of clay by
the fall-cone tests". Proc. Royal Swedish Geotechnical Institute, No. 14, Stockholm.
Hansbo, S. (1960): "Consolidation of clay, with
special reference to influence of vertical sand
drains. A study made in connection with fullscale investigations
at Ska-Edeby". Proc. Royal
Swedish Geotechnical Institute No. 18, Stockholm.
Holtz, R. D. & Broms, B. (1972); "Long-term
loading
tests at Ska-Edeby,
Sweden". Proc.
Specialty Conf, on Performance
of Earth and
Earth-Supported
Structures.
Purdue
University,
Vol. 1.1, pp. 435-464,
Hughes,
M. O. & Withers, N. J., (1974): "Reinforcing of soft cohesive soils with stone columns."
Ground Engineering, Vol. 7, No 3, pp. 42-49.
Janbu, N. & Sanneset, K. (1973): "Field compressiometer-principles
and applications".
Proc.
8th. Int. Conf. Soil Mech & Found, Engng, Vol.
1.1, pp. 191-198, Moscow.
Karlsson, R, (1961); "Suggested improvements
in
the liquid limit test, with reference to flow properties of remoulded clays". Proc. 5th Int. Conf.
Soil Mech. & Found., Vol. 1, pp. 171-184.
Lindskog, G. & Boman, P. (1972); "Diupstabilisering av leror
kalkpelarmetoden"
(Deep stabilisation of clay the lime column method), Swedish
Geotechnical Institute Report No K 7 Stockholm

J.

60-

second

Boman, P. (1977): "Dipstabilisering


med kalk",
(Deep stabilisation with lime). 78pp. in Swedish.
Norske Sivilingeniorers
Forening, Ustaoset, Nov.
Broms, B. B., & Boman, P. (1976): "Stabilisation
of deep cuts with lime columns".
Proc. 6.
European Conf. Soil Mech. a. Found. Engng., Vol
1.1, pp. 207-210.
Broms, 8 B. & Boman, P. (1977): "Lime columns
a new type of vertical drain". Proc. 9th
Int. Conf. Soil Mech. & Found. Engng., Vol. 1
p p. 427-432, To k y o.
Broms, B. 8, & Bomen, P (1977): "Stabilisation of soil with lime columns". Design Handbook.
Dept. of Soil and Rock Mechanics, Royal Inst, of
Tech n ol ogy.
Dahlbarg,
R. (1974): "Penetration
testing
in
Sweden". State of-the-art report. Proc. European
Symposium
on Penetration
Testing, Vol. 1, pp.

Ground Engineering

areas

loaded by means of a 0.6m high gravel


surcharge which corresponded to the
weight of a single-storey house (10kPa).
Theoretical settlement-time
relationships
have been fitted to the measured values
(Fig. 12), The theoretical curves indicate
that the maximum primary settlement of
the stabilised area will be 25mm down
to 6m depth (the length of the lime columns) and 25cm for the underlying
soft
clay. The lime columns have thus reduced the primary settlements by about
90% down to 6.0m depth.
The measured settlement-time
relationships indicate also that the lime columns
have functioned as drains down to 6m
depth and as a drainage layer located at
the bottom of the columns for the underfill

lying

strata.

Sweden.

Lindskog, G. & Boman, P. (1974): "Kalkpelarmetoden


Djupstabilisering
av kohesionsjord. Delrapport 2. Rapport om en undersbkning
av kalkstabiliserade
pelare, tillverkade
Goteborg". The lime column methodi Backebol,
Deep stabilisation of cohesive soils, Report 2. Report on an
investigation
of lime stabilised
columns manufactured at Backebol, Gothenburg. Swedish Geotechnical Institute, Report SGI 20509, Stockholm,

Sweden.

Osterman, J. 8 Lindskog, G. (1963): "Influence


of lateral movement in clay upon settlements in
some test areas". Proc. 3rd European Conf. on
Soil Mech. & Found. Engng, Vol. 1, pp. 137-142.
Terzaghi, K. (1943): Theoretical soil mechanics,
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 510 pp.
Torstensson, 8. A. (1973): Kohesionspalar
i
los
lera" (Floating piles in soft clay). Chalmers Institute of Technology,
Dept. of Soil Mech. &
Found. Engng, Thesis, Gothenburg,
Sweden.

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