Chia Seed (Salvia Hispanica L.

) as a Functional Food and its Impact on

Metabolic Syndrome

Megan Hovey
The Sage Colleges

Introduction

Chia, Salvia hispanica L., is an annual herb grown predominantly throughout Latin
America, the seeds of which were a staple crop of the ancient Aztec civilization. Once
considered a non-conventional seed, the chia seed is now being recognized as a novel food, and a
functional one at that. Functional foods are those that can potentially impact a persons health
positively beyond basic nutrition or dietary needs. Because of these positive attributes,
functional foods such as oatmeal, kale and chia seeds are gaining attention worldwide. However,
chia seed stands out as a leader in the functional foods category, in part because it contains the
most abundant botanical oil source of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) (Creus et al., 2016). This
simple seed has also been acknowledged for preventing diseases such as obesity, hypertension,
cardiovascular disease (CVD), cancer and diabetes (Suri et al., 2016). Clinical studies have
proven that a high concentration of dietary ALA 18:3 n-3 is correlated with a reduced risk of
CVD (Creus et al., 2016). This functional food may serve as an alternative dietary strategy in
the management of these metabolic alterations susceptible to dietary manipulation (Creus et al.,
2016, p.13).
Not only are chia seeds high in healthy fats, but they are also abundant in minerals, fibers
and antioxidants. As chia gains attention because of its beneficial characteristics, there have
been a few published studies conducted by researchers that test chias impact on patients
suffering from certain diseases, such as Metabolic Syndrome (MetS). CVD and diabetes, closely
associated with MetS, are a major cause of death worldwide, thus making them a large public
health issue. MetS is also gaining attention as its prevalence is increasing. Researchers are
constantly looking into new and novel ways to help patients suffering from MetS by either
improving or reversing their symptoms. The purpose of this review is to examine the effect of
chia seeds on human health as it applies to MetS, with supporting evidence provided by animal

studies. While the studies examined may report results to varying degrees, the health benefits of
chia seeds is something that cannot be argued.

Chia Seed Nutrient Content

Depending on growing environment, climate, altitude, year of cultivation and soil
composition, there are many variations of chia seeds (Ali et al., 2012). Being naturally nutrientdense, chia seeds are composed of unsaturated fatty acids (30-33%), protein (15-25%), dietary
fiber (18-30%), minerals and vitamins. More specifically, chia seeds are rich in antioxidants and
healthy nutrients such as vitamin C, vitamin E, zinc and magnesium. For a more detailed list of
nutrients chia seeds are rich in, please refer to Table 1 shown below (SELFNutritionData, 2014,
p.1). On top of that, these seeds contain 25-40% oil, with that content comprised of
approximately 60% omega 3 alpha-linolenic acid and 20% omega 6 linoleic acid, both of which
are necessary for individuals to maintain good health (Ali et al., 2012).
Chia seeds also help to increase satiety due to fiber and protein content (Currier, 2012).
Compared to other seeds, chia seeds provide more protein per gram than quinoa, gum and oats.
Additionally, chia provides higher fat content compared to quinoa and gum (Suri et al., 2016).
Based on its health benefits and nutrient content, chia is gaining in popularity. Researchers are
using this nutrient dense food in studies towards improving specific diseases, such as MetS.

Table 1: Nutrition Information on Chia Seeds/Amounts per 1 ounce (28 grams)

Calories
Calories from Carbohydrate
Calories from Fat
Calories from Protein
Protein
Total Carbohydrate
Dietary Fiber
Total Fat
Total Omega-3 fatty acids
Total Omega-6 fatty acids
Calcium
Phosphorus
Potassium
Zinc
Manganese
Copper

137 kcal
50.0 kcal
72.1 kcal
15.2 kcal
4.4 g
12.3 g
10.6 g
8.6 g
4915 mg
1620 mg
177 mg
265 mg
44.8 mg
1.0 mg
0.6 mg
0.1 mg

(Source: SELFNutritionData, 2014, p.1)

Overview of Metabolic Syndrome
Twenty to thirty percent of the population is estimated to have MetS (Grundy, 2008).
Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a health problem around the world and is associated with
cardiovascular disease and diabetes (Cruz et al., 2012, p.64). Patients that satisfy three or more
of the five conditions below qualify for MetS: 1) Abdominal obesity (waist circumference of 40
inches or above in men, and 35 inches or above in women), 2) Triglyceride level of 150 mg/dL
of blood or greater, 3) HDL cholesterol of less than 40 mg/dL in men or less than 50 mg/dL in
women, 4) Systolic blood pressure of 130 mm Hg or greater, or 5) diastolic blood pressure of 85
mm Hg or greater (American Heart Association, 2016).
Due to the increasing prevalence of MetS, the dangers of this disease are now being
recognized. Recent research has been conducted to address strategies targeted at reducing the
number of people suffering from MetS. One such study conducted in Mexico City implemented
strategies to reduce symptoms of patients suffering with MetS by giving their participants a

particular dietary pattern (DP), which included chia seeds (Cruz et al., 2012).

Effect of Chia Seeds on Human Health

The Department of Physiology of Nutrition in Mexico City published a study in The
Journal of Nutrition that looked into impact of a diet rich with functional foods, including chia
seeds, on patient health. The research was specifically targeted at patients with MetS to see if a
DP of chia seed, nopal, oat and soy protein could reduce their symptoms. A DP includes two or
more functional foods with health beneficial properties for a specific condition (Cruz et al.,
2012, p.64). Providing a specialized DP to a population with a specific disease has become a
new strategy for decreasing and/or improving symptoms of that disease. Before this study was
conducted, there had not yet been a specific DP identified that helped to decrease and/or improve
symptoms related to MetS. The ingredients in the DP were chosen based on their
antihyperglycemic, antihyperinsulinemic, hypolipidemic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant
effects (Cruz et al., 64). Additionally, the ingredients in this specific DP were chosen based on
its appeal for market availability and low cost. Chia seed, nopal, oat and soy protein are all
functional foods that have been proven to demonstrate health benefits.
The duration of the entire study was from August 2009 to June 2010. This study was a
single-center, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, parallel-arm study (Cruz et al.,
2012, p.65). The researchers wanted to evaluate the effect of the consumption of DP over the
course of two months on the biochemical variables of MetS, GI, and the AUC for glucose and
insulin and to investigate the relationship between the biochemical and clinical variables after the
consumption of the DP (Cruz et al., 2012, p.65). In order to qualify as participant for the study,
subjects needed to satisfy three of the five criteria for MetS, had to be 20-60 years of age, and

have a BMI greater or equal to 25. Participants were excluded from the study if they were
smokers, alcoholics, substance abusers, pregnant, had cancer, history of CVD events, weight loss
greater than 3 kg in the last three months, liver disease, taken medications, or had serum glucose
levels greater than or equal to 7 mmol/L (Cruz et al., 2012). After all qualifications and
exclusions were met, 67 participants completed the study.
Researchers split this study into two stages. The first stage was a two-week period where
all participants ate a reduced-energy diet, which included a 500 kcal deficit. Throughout this
stage, participants were required to record their food intake and activity levels. During the
second stage participants consumed the same reduced-energy diet with the 500 kcal deficit, and
in addition were given either the DP or the placebo (P) to drink. The DP consisted of a mixture
of dehydrated nopal (7 g) equivalent to 100 g of nopal, 4 g [1 teaspoon] of chia seeds, 22 g of
oats, 32 g of soybean protein, 0.02 g of sweetener (Splenda), and 1 g of flavoring (Cruz et al.,
2012, p.65). Each serving of DP or P was enclosed in an envelope and could then be dissolved in
250 mL of water for the participants to drink, once in the morning and once at night for two
months. Both the DP and the P had similar appearance, taste and texture. To ensure the
sameness of both drinks, a panel of 100 judges completed a sensory evaluation. Researchers
wanted to ensure there was a high acceptability rate for both powders (Cruz et al., 2012).
Compliance with the diet and the P or DP was evaluated using three methods: the 24-h
diet recall, the 3-d food record (food log), and measuring the amount of empty packages
returned" (Cruz et al., 2012, p.65). Phone calls by the nutritionist were also completed weekly
for both P and DP groups. The DP groups compliance rate for the reduced-energy diets was
84.1%, and the P groups compliance was 86.5%. Lastly, the compliance rates for consuming the
powders for the DP group was 94.8%, and 95% for the P group (Cruz et al., 2012).

The outcome for the participants that consumed the DP for two months saw a small
difference in reduction of body weight (BW), body mass index (BMI), and waist circumference
(WC) (p<0.0001). Detailed in Table 2 below (Cruz et al., 2016, p.66), the DP group lost on
average 2.3 kg in weight, .9 kg/m2 in BMI, and 2.7 cm in WC and the P group lost on average
2.2 kg in weight, .9 kg/m2 in BMI, and 2.2 kg in WC. The overall results, when compared to the
participants baseline measurements, show little to no difference between the DP and P groups
despite the authors reporting a significant difference in the DP participants anthropometric
measurements. Both groups were also consuming a restricted diet (500 kcal deficit) which could
have influenced the similar weight loss statistics.
There were no changes (for both groups) in the percentages of lean and fat mass.
Participants that consumed the DP for two months saw a moderately significant decrease in
serum TG (p<0.05). Additionally, participants saw a significant decrease in insulin AUC
(p<0.001) and a significant decrease in serum CRP (p<0.01). Lastly, blood glucose levels
dropped from 40.6% to 18.8% in two months for the group that consumed the DP powder (Cruz
et al., 2012).
Several intervention studies have assessed the influence of dietary strategies on MetS
and a common feature of these is the inclusion of an array of plant based food sources containing
diverse phytochemicals (Cruz et al., 2012, p.67). Chia seeds were included in this research
because their high content in fatty acids and antioxidants, and also because they can stimulate a
reduction in the inflammatory response (Cruz et al., 67). The outcomes from this study are
promising, but additional research should be conducted to discover more dietary strategies that
will improve symptoms of patients suffering from various diseases. An additional, and possibly
easier, way to research the effect of chia seed on physical and biochemical health, would be an

animal control study.

Table 2: Clinical and biochemical characteristics of participants at baseline and after two months
of dietary treatment in the P and DP groups1.
DP (n = 32)

P-interaction2

P (n = 35)

Baseline

After 2 mo

Baseline

After 2 mo

Diet x time

Weight, kg

81.4 14.0

79.1 14.0*

83.2 11.7

81.0 11.1*

BMI, kg/m2

31.4 3.4

30.5 3.7*

32.6 3.5

31.7 3.5*

WC, cm

95.7 8.6

93.0 8.9*

95.2 9.0

92.1 9.0*

Characteristics

Serum TG, mmol/L

Serum CRP, mg/L
Insulin AUC, nmol/L 2 h

2.1 2.1

4.3 3.3

91.5 50.0a

1.8 1.6

3.5 2.8

60.5 36.0c

1.9 1.7

3.4 2.7

80.2 42.3a,b,c

1.8 1.7

0.05

2.9 2.4

0.01

74.5 43.7b,c

0.001

Values are means SD. Means in a row with superscripts without a common letter differ.
*Different from baseline (paired test) P < 0.0001. BP, blood pressure; DP, dietary pattern; HDLC, HDL cholesterol; LDL-C, LDL cholesterol; P, placebo; TC, total cholesterol; WC, waist
circumference.
(Source: Cruz et al., 2012, p.66)

Effect of Chia on Animal Health

Recently, the Journal of Clinical Medicine published a study that was conducted on
insulin resistant (IR) rats. The study sought to investigate what happens during the
transformation of lipid metabolism in the heart of the rats that were fed a sucrose rich diet
(SRD), and to explore if chia seeds improve and/or reverse cardiac lipotoxicity.
Wistar rats used in this study weighed between 180-190 grams when purchased from the
National Institute of Pharmacology in Buenos Aires, Argentina. They were housed in an animal
room under controlled settings for temperature, humidity, airflow, light-dark cycle and had free
access to food and water (Creus et al., 2016). In the control study, the rats (n=60) were split into

two groups. The first group was the reference group (n=20) that consumed a control diet (CD)
throughout the duration of the study. The second group (n=40) consumed a SRD diet for three
months. After three months of being on the SRD diet, the rats were then randomly divided in
half. One group continued to consume the SRD for an additional three months, and the other
group was given a modified SRD diet. The modified diet replaced the corn oil in the SRD
mixture with 100 grams of chia seed (SRD + Chia) for those three months (Creus et al., 2016).
At the end of the six-month trial, the results indicated that the rats that continued to be fed
the SRD displayed lipotoxicity and the rats that had their diet changed to SRD + Chia had
reversed lipotoxicity and improved blood pressure. The values listed below in Table 3 (Creus et
al., 2016, p.7) show a moderately significant difference in reduction of cholesterol, glucose
levels, free fatty acids, and triglycerides (p<0.05). As shown in Table 4 (Creus et al., 2016, p.6),
rats fed SRD + Chia displayed a moderately significant difference in the reduction of weight loss
(p<0.05) and visceral adiposity (p<0.05). The present study provides new information on the
mechanisms involved in heart muscle lipotoxicity in dyslipemic insulin resistant rats fed an SRD
and explores the possible beneficial effects of dietary chia supplementation on reversed or
improved pre-existing impaired cardiac lipid metabolism (Creus et al., 2016, p.11). Despite
being a study conducted on animals, this research is beneficial as it shows an improvement in the
rats health after modifying their SRD diet with chia seeds and could be applicable to further
studies into the human diet. However, some critics argue that these results may not be enough
proof of the health benefits of introducing chia seeds into ones diet (Nieman et al., 2009).

Table 3: Plasma metabolites of rats fed a control diet (CD), sucrose-rich diet (SRD) or SRD +
chia seed (SRD+chia)
Diet
CD
SRD
CD
SRD
SRD+chia

Time on Diet
(Months)
3
3
6
6
3 to 6

Triglyceride
(mM)
0.69 0.04 b
1.98 0.08 a
0.72 0.03 b
2.06 0.17 a
0.72 0.05 b

Free Fatty
Acids (M)
300.1 16.0 b
716.0 8.1 a
335.0 13.0 b
760.4 16.3 a
363.0 35.4 b

Cholesterol
(mM)
1.85 0.10 b
3.21 0.14 a
1.92 0.11 b
3.60 0.04 a
1.75 0.21 b

Glucose
(mM)
6.5 0.2 b
7.9 0.1 a
6.6 0.1 b
8.3 0.1 a
6.9 0.1 b

Insulin
(U/mL)
64.1 3.2
60.1 4.2
62.0 2.9
65.0 3.2
67.4 6.5

Values are expressed as mean SEM, n = 6. Values in a column that do not share the same superscript letter (a, b)
are significantly different p < 0.05 when one variable at a time was compared by the Newman Keul`s test.

(Source: Creus et al., 2016, p.7)

Table 4: Body weight, energy intake and adiposity index of rats fed a control diet (CD), sucroserich diet (SRD) or SRD + chia seed (SRD + chia)
Energy
Intake
(kJ/Day)
Initial to 3
3 Months
Months

Body Weight (g)

Diet
Initial

CD
184.3 2.6 414.5 5.5 294.5 12.5
(8)
SRD
186.0 1.6 428.0 6.0 292.0 7.2
(16)

Diet

Body Weight
(g)
6 Months

Energy
Intake
(kJ/Day)
3 to 6
Months

Visceral
Adiposity
Index (%)
6 Months

CD (8)

476.3 7.6 b 292.0 7.2 b 4.1 0.3 b

SRD (8)

545.0 10.0 a 374.0 9.5 a 6.2 0.4 a

SRD+chia (8) 524.0 7.3 a 356.5 13.0 a 4.5 0.2 b

1

Values are expressed as mean SEM, () number of rats. Values in a column that do not share the same superscript
letter (a, b) are significantly different p < 0.05 when one variable at a time was compared by the Newman Keul`s
test.

(Source: Creus et al., 2016, p.6)

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Controversy over Health Benefits of Chia Seed

With new discoveries into the healthy benefits of this novel food, it is likely that there
will be some controversy over the true effects of chia seeds as a functional food. One such
dissenting opinion was published in Nutrition Research Journal. In the article titled Chia Seed
Does Not Promote Weight Loss or Alter Disease Risk Factors in Overweight Adults, the authors
supplied evidence showing that consuming chia seeds as a part of a daily diet is not beneficial to
improving health. The researchers objective was to determine if chia seeds could alter disease
risk factors and promote weight loss in overweight adults. In this study overweight participants
consumed 50 g/day of chia seed for 12 weeks (n=39). When the study was completed, the
researchers did not find a difference in the participants body mass or composition. In addition
the researchers concluded that consuming chia seeds had no influence on various disease risk
factors (Nieman et al., 2009). With this, it becomes clear that more in-depth research is
necessary to fully understand the positive benefits of chia seeds as a part of ones diet.

Concluding Remarks
In the study conducted in Mexico City, participants suffering with MetS saw a small
decrease in BW, WC, and BMI by consuming a specific DP (Creus et al., 2012). The changes in
BW, WC, and BMI at the end of the study were not staggeringly different between the two
groups, even though the authors mentioned they were significantly different. The participants
serum TG, serum CRP, glucose AUC and insulin AUC were significantly decreased after
consuming the DP for three months. The study confirmed the DP given to the participants
helped improve their health status, however, the DP was not solely composed of chia seeds. The

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amount of chia seeds in the DP mixture was equivalent to 1 teaspoon per serving, therefore, it
cannot be confirmed that chia seeds alone can improve symptoms of patients suffering from
MetS.
As written in the article Mechanisms Involved in the Improvement of Lipotoxicity &
Impaired Lipid Metabolism by Dietary Linolenic Acid Rich Salvia Hispanica L (salba) Seed in
the Heart of Dyslipemic Insulin-Resistant Rats, the researchers state that, there is a growing
interest in identifying novel therapeutic approaches including a particular focus on nutrition and
dietary interventions (Creus et al., 2016, p.1). The rat study provided new information about
the beneficial effects of dietary chia seeds on lipid cardiac metabolism. By changing the corn oil
to chia seeds (100 g) in the SRD diet, the researchers found a moderately significant decrease in
values in BW, visceral adiposity index, triglycerides, free fatty acids, cholesterol, and glucose
levels (p<0.05) in the studied lab rats. Dietary chia seeds could improve the altered balance of
heart fuel utilization (Creus et al., 2016, p.12). Chia changed the plasma fatty acid profile by
increasing DHA, DPA, EPA and ALA acids in the rats that were fed the SRD diet. Additionally,
chia decreased lipid storage in the heart of the SRD-fed rats (Creus et al., 2012).
Chia seeds may help the prevention, treatment and management of many diseases, but the
study of chia seeds is still very new and much work remains to be able to fully realize its true
effects. As for now, there is insufficient evidence that proves chia seeds can improve and/or
reverse all symptoms of MetS, however, research continues to show its beneficial response on
human health by adding chia seeds into a healthy diet.

References

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Ali, N. M., Yeap, S. K., Ho, W. Y., Beh, B. K., Tan, S. W., & Tan, S. G. (2012). The promising
future of chia, salvia hispanica l. Journal of Biomedicine & Biotechnology, 2012, 1-9.
doi: 10.1155/2012/171956
American Heart Association. (2016). About Metabolic Syndrome. Retrieved from:
https://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/Conditions/More/MetabolicSyndrome/AboutMetabolic-Syndrome_UCM_301920_Article.jsp#.V-Ba0P0qtuY
Creus, A., Ferreira, M. R., Oliva, M. E., & Lombardo, Y.B. (2016). Mechanisms involved in the
improvement of lipotoxicity & impaired lipid metabolism by dietary linolenic acid
rich salvia hispanica l (salba) seed in the heart of dyslipemic insulin-resistant rats.
Journal of Clinical Medicine, 5(18), 1-16. doi: 10.3390/jcm5020018
Currier, Jessica. (2012, March 19). The real scoop on chia seeds. Retrieved from
https://www.nutrition.org/asn-blog/2012/03/the-real-scoop-on-chia-seeds/
Grundy, SM. Metabolic syndrome pandemic. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2008; 28:62936.
Guevara-Cruz, M., Tovar, A. R., Aguilar-Salinas, C. A., Medina-Vera, I., Gil-Zenteno, L.,
Hernandez-Viveros, I.,Torres, N. (2012). A dietary pattern including nopal, chia
seed, soy protein, & oat reduces serum triglycerides & glucose intolerance in
patients with metabolic syndrome. The Journal of Nutrition, 142(1), 64-69.
Nieman, D.C., Cayea, E.J., Austin, M.D., Henson, D.A., McAnulty, S.R., & Jin, F. (2009). Chia
seed does not promote weight loss or alter disease risk factors in overweight adults.
Nutrition Research Journal. 29(6); 414-418. DOI:10.1016/j.nutres.2009.05.011.
SELFNutritionData. (2014). Seeds, Chia seeds, Dried Nutrition Facts & Calories. Retrieved
from: http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/nut-and-seed-products/3061/2#ixzz4P445VPbu
Suri, S., Passi, S. J., & Goyat, J. (2016). Proceedings from ICRISEM-16: 4th International
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