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JA310112-000
ii
Printed in Germany
PREFACE_______________________
As the world moves toward a single standard for international pilot licensing, many nations have
adopted the syllabi and regulations of the Joint Aviation Requirements-Flight Crew Licensing"
(JAR-FCL), the licensing agency of the Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA).
Though training and licensing requirements of individual national aviation authorities are similar in
content and scope to the JAA curriculum, individuals who wish to train for JAA licences need
access to study materials which have been specifically designed to meet the requirements of the
JAA licensing system. The volumes in this series aim to cover the subject matter tested in the
JAA ATPL ground examinations as set forth in the ATPL training syllabus, contained in the JAA
publication, JAR-FCL 1 (Aeroplanes).
The JAA regulations specify that all those who wish to obtain a JAA ATPL must study with a
flying training organisation (FTO) which has been granted approval by a JAA-authorised national
aviation authority to deliver JAA ATPL training. While the formal responsibility to prepare you for
both the skill tests and the ground examinations lies with the FTO, these Jeppesen manuals will
provide a comprehensive and necessary background for your formal training.
Jeppesen is acknowledged as the world's leading supplier of flight information services, and
provides a full range of print and electronic flight information services, including navigation data,
computerised flight planning, aviation software products, aviation weather services, maintenance
information, and pilot training systems and supplies. Jeppesen counts among its customer base
all US airlines and the majority of international airlines worldwide. It also serves the large general
and business aviation markets. These manuals enable you to draw on Jeppesens vast
experience as an acknowledged expert in the development and publication of pilot training
materials.
We at Jeppesen wish you success in your flying and training, and we are confident that your
study of these manuals will be of great value in preparing for the JAA ATPL ground examinations.
The next three pages contain a list and content description of all the volumes in the ATPL series.
iii
ATPL Series
Meteorology (JAR Ref 050)
The Atmosphere
Wind
Thermodynamics
Clouds and Fog
Precipitation
Hydraulics
Pneumatic Systems
Air Conditioning System
Pressurisation
De-Ice / Anti-Ice Systems
Fuel Systems
Engine Systems
Auxiliary Power Unit (APU)
iv
Generator / Alternator
Semiconductors
Circuits
Boundary Layer
High Speed Flight
Stability
Flying Controls
Adverse Weather Conditions
Propellers
Operating Limitations
Flight Mechanics
Meteorological Messages
Point of Equal Time
Point of Safe Return
Medium Range Jet Transport
Planning
vi
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1
Abbreviations and Definitions
Section 1 - Common abbreviations used in the JAA Central Question Bank ................................................1-1
Section 2 - ICAO Definitions .........................................................................................................................1-6
CHAPTER 2
The History of Aviation Law and the Chicago Convention 1944
Background...................................................................................................................................................2-1
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................2-1
Safety ..........................................................................................................................................................2-1
International Law...........................................................................................................................................2-1
Scheduled and Non Scheduled Air Services.................................................................................................2-2
1919 Aeronautical Commission of the Paris Peace Conference...................................................................2-2
Convention of the Unification of Certain Rules to International Carriage by Air (Warsaw 1929) ...................2-2
1944 Convention on International Civil Aviation (the Chicago Convention) ..................................................2-3
Part I Air Navigation ...................................................................................................................................2-4
Part II - The International Civil Aviation Organisation....................................................................................2-8
The Organisation ..........................................................................................................................................2-8
The Assembly ...............................................................................................................................................2-9
Annexes to the Convention ...........................................................................................................................2-9
Other International Agreements made at Chicago ......................................................................................2-11
The International Air Transport Agreement and the International Air Services Transit Agreement .............2-11
Supplementary Freedoms...........................................................................................................................2-11
The Convention of Tokyo 1963 ...................................................................................................................2-12
The Hague Convention of 1970 ..................................................................................................................2-13
The Montreal Convention of 1971...............................................................................................................2-13
Addendum to Chapter 2 ..............................................................................................................................2-14
Chapter IX - The Council ............................................................................................................................2-17
Chapter X - The Air Navigation Commission...............................................................................................2-19
CHAPTER 3
Other International and European Organisations
The International Air Transport Association (IATA).......................................................................................3-1
The Convention of Rome 1933/1952 ............................................................................................................3-1
Commercial Practices and Associated Rules (Leasing)................................................................................3-1
Leasing of Aeroplanes between JAA Operators ...........................................................................................3-2
Leasing of Aeroplanes Between a JAA Operator and Any Body Other Than a JAA Operator ......................3-2
Leasing of Aeroplanes at Short Notice..........................................................................................................3-3
European Civil Aviation Conference (ECAC) ................................................................................................3-3
ECAC Objectives ..........................................................................................................................................3-3
Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA).....................................................................................................................3-3
JAA Organisation ..........................................................................................................................................3-3
Functions of JAA...........................................................................................................................................3-4
Organisation and Procedures .......................................................................................................................3-4
JAA/FAA Harmonisation ...............................................................................................................................3-5
Eurocontrol....................................................................................................................................................3-5
Air Law
vii
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 4
Flight Crew Licensing (Aeroplanes)
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 4-1
JAR-FCL ...................................................................................................................................................... 4-1
Licensing Requirements and Regulations.................................................................................................... 4-2
Specific Requirements for Licence Issue PPL(A)......................................................................................... 4-3
ATPL(A) Experience .................................................................................................................................... 4-5
CPL(A) Experience ...................................................................................................................................... 4-5
Instructor Ratings ......................................................................................................................................... 4-6
Examiners (Aeroplane) ................................................................................................................................ 4-6
Class and Type Ratings ............................................................................................................................... 4-7
Instrument Rating (IR(A)) ............................................................................................................................. 4-8
Recent Experience....................................................................................................................................... 4-9
Curtailment of Privileges of Licence Holders Aged 60 Years or More.......................................................... 4-9
Medical Requirements ............................................................................................................................... 4-10
JAA Theoretical Knowledge Examinations for ATPL (A)............................................................................ 4-12
CHAPTER 5
Registration of Aircraft and Aircraft Markings
Nationality, Common, and Registration Marks ............................................................................................. 5-1
Location of Nationality, Common, and Registration Marks........................................................................... 5-2
Registration of Aircraft.................................................................................................................................. 5-3
CHAPTER 6
Airworthiness of Aircraft
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 6-1
Certificate of Airworthiness .......................................................................................................................... 6-1
CHAPTER 7
Rules of the Air
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 7-1
General Rules .............................................................................................................................................. 7-2
Negligent or Reckless Operation of Aircraft ................................................................................................. 7-2
Minimum Heights ......................................................................................................................................... 7-2
Cruising Levels............................................................................................................................................. 7-2
Prohibited and Restricted Areas................................................................................................................... 7-2
Avoidance of Collisions ................................................................................................................................ 7-2
Simulated Instrument Flight (SIF)................................................................................................................. 7-7
Flight Plans .................................................................................................................................................. 7-7
Communications ........................................................................................................................................ 7-10
Visual Flight Rules (VFR) ........................................................................................................................... 7-12
Instrument Flight Rules .............................................................................................................................. 7-14
Rules Applicable to IFR Flights within Controlled Airspace........................................................................ 7-15
IFR Flight Levels ........................................................................................................................................ 7-15
Rules Applicable to IFR Flights Outside Controlled Airspace..................................................................... 7-15
Communications ........................................................................................................................................ 7-16
Position Reports......................................................................................................................................... 7-16
Special VFR (SVFR) .................................................................................................................................. 7-16
Cruising Levels........................................................................................................................................... 7-17
Table of Cruising Levels............................................................................................................................. 7-20
Appendix 1 to Chapter 7 ............................................................................................................................ 7-22
Signals for Use in the Event of Interception ............................................................................................... 7-22
viii
Air Law
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 8
Signals
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................8-1
Emergency Signals .......................................................................................................................................8-1
Aerodrome Signals .......................................................................................................................................8-2
Acknowledgement.........................................................................................................................................8-2
Visual Ground Signals ..................................................................................................................................8-3
Signals from the Pilot of an Aircraft to a Marshaller ......................................................................................8-8
CHAPTER 9
Altimeter Setting Procedures
Expression of Vertical Position......................................................................................................................9-1
Transition ......................................................................................................................................................9-2
Use of QNH or QFE ......................................................................................................................................9-3
Flight Planning ..............................................................................................................................................9-4
CHAPTER 10
Instrument Procedures
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................10-1
Publications.................................................................................................................................................10-1
Obstacle Clearance ....................................................................................................................................10-2
Abbreviations ..............................................................................................................................................10-2
Departure Procedures.................................................................................................................................10-2
The Instrument Departure Procedure .........................................................................................................10-3
Establishment of a Departure Procedure ....................................................................................................10-3
Standard Instrument Departures.................................................................................................................10-5
Contingency Procedures.............................................................................................................................10-6
Published Information .................................................................................................................................10-8
Airways Departure Routes (SID Charts) .....................................................................................................10-8
The Instrument Approach Procedure ........................................................................................................10-13
Obstacle Clearance ..................................................................................................................................10-15
Accuracy of Fixes......................................................................................................................................10-21
Descent Gradient ......................................................................................................................................10-24
Approach Segments .................................................................................................................................10-24
Standard Arrivals Routes (STARS)...........................................................................................................10-24
Missed Approach ......................................................................................................................................10-28
Visual Manoeuvring (Circling) VM(C)A in the Vicinity of the Aerodrome...................................................10-30
Published Information ...............................................................................................................................10-31
Holding Procedures ..................................................................................................................................10-36
Simultaneous Operations on Parallel or Near Parallel Instrument Runways ............................................10-42
CHAPTER 11
Aeronautical Information Service
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................11-1
Responsibilities and Function .....................................................................................................................11-1
The Integrated Aeronautical Information Package (IAIP) ............................................................................11-1
Prohibited, Restricted, and Danger Areas...................................................................................................11-2
NOTAM (Notice to Airmen) .........................................................................................................................11-3
Aeronautical Information Regulation and Control (AIRAC) .........................................................................11-6
Aeronautical Information Circulars (AIC).....................................................................................................11-7
Pre-Flight and Post Flight Information.........................................................................................................11-8
Aeronautical Information Publication (AlP)..................................................................................................11-8
Contents of Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP) ..............................................................................11-9
Air Law
ix
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 12
Air Traffic Services and Airspace
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 12-1
Objective of the Air Traffic Services (ATS)................................................................................................. 12-1
Divisions of the Air Traffic Services............................................................................................................ 12-2
Determination of the need for Air Traffic Services...................................................................................... 12-2
Classes of Airspace ................................................................................................................................... 12-2
Required Navigation Performance (RNP) .................................................................................................. 12-5
Units Providing Air Traffic Services ............................................................................................................ 12-5
Flight Information Regions (FIRs) .............................................................................................................. 12-6
Control Areas ............................................................................................................................................. 12-6
Flight Information Regions or Control Areas in the Upper Airspace ........................................................... 12-7
Control Zones............................................................................................................................................. 12-7
Service to Aircraft in the event of Emergency .......................................................................................... 12-10
Time in Air Traffic Services ...................................................................................................................... 12-10
ATS Route Designators ........................................................................................................................... 12-10
Air Traffic Incident Report (ATIR) ............................................................................................................. 12-14
Collision Avoidance Systems (ACAS Airborne; TCAS Traffic) ........................................................... 12-15
Use of ACAS/TCAS Indications ............................................................................................................... 12-15
CHAPTER 13
Air Traffic Control Services
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 13-1
Air Traffic Control Service .......................................................................................................................... 13-1
Operation of Air Traffic Control Service...................................................................................................... 13-3
Emergency and Communication Failure .................................................................................................... 13-8
CHAPTER 14
Flight Information Service (FIS)
Application ................................................................................................................................................. 14-1
What is provided by a FIS .......................................................................................................................... 14-1
Operational Flight Information Service Broadcasts (OFIS) ........................................................................ 14-2
CHAPTER 15
Aerodrome Control Service
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 15-1
Aerodrome Traffic Zone (ATZ) ................................................................................................................... 15-1
Functions of Aerodrome Control Towers.................................................................................................... 15-2
Traffic and Taxi Circuits ............................................................................................................................. 15-2
Information to Aircraft by Aerodrome Control Towers ................................................................................ 15-5
Control of Aerodrome Traffic ...................................................................................................................... 15-6
Control of other than Aircraft Traffic on the Manoeuvring Area .................................................................. 15-7
Control of Traffic in the Traffic Circuit......................................................................................................... 15-7
Wake Turbulence Categorization of Aircraft and Increased Longitudinal Separation Minima .................... 15-9
Air Law
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 16
Approach Control Service
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................16-1
Departures ..................................................................................................................................................16-1
Arrivals ........................................................................................................................................................16-2
Approach Sequence (Stacking) ..................................................................................................................16-4
Information for Arriving Aircraft ...................................................................................................................16-6
CHAPTER 17
Area Control Service
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................17-1
Separation...................................................................................................................................................17-2
Vertical Separation......................................................................................................................................17-2
Horizontal Separation .................................................................................................................................17-3
Lateral Separation.......................................................................................................................................17-4
Longitudinal Separation ..............................................................................................................................17-6
Reduced Separation Minima.....................................................................................................................17-14
CHAPTER 18
Air Traffic Advisory Service
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................18-1
Objective and Basic Principles....................................................................................................................18-1
Operation ....................................................................................................................................................18-1
Aircraft Using the Air Traffic Advisory Service.............................................................................................18-2
Aircraft Not Using the Air Traffic Advisory Service ......................................................................................18-2
Air Traffic Services Units.............................................................................................................................18-2
CHAPTER 19
Radar in Air Traffic Control
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................19-1
Radar Coverage..........................................................................................................................................19-1
Identification of Aircraft ...............................................................................................................................19-3
SSR Identification Procedures ....................................................................................................................19-3
PSR Identification Procedures ....................................................................................................................19-3
Position Information ....................................................................................................................................19-4
Radar Vectoring ..........................................................................................................................................19-4
Use of Radar in the Air Traffic Control Service ...........................................................................................19-7
Radar Separation Minima ...........................................................................................................................19-7
Emergencies, Hazards, and Equipment Failures ........................................................................................19-9
Use of Radar in the Approach Control Service ...........................................................................................19-9
Radar Approaches ....................................................................................................................................19-11
Use of Radar in Aerodrome Control..........................................................................................................19-12
CHAPTER 20
Secondary Surveillance Radar
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................20-1
Operation of Transponders .........................................................................................................................20-2
Emergency Procedures ..............................................................................................................................20-3
Communication Failure Procedures............................................................................................................20-3
Unlawful Interference with Aircraft in Flight .................................................................................................20-3
Phraseology ................................................................................................................................................20-3
Air Law
xi
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 21
The Alerting Service
Alerting Service .......................................................................................................................................... 21-1
Phases of the Alerting Procedure............................................................................................................... 21-2
Format of Notification of Declaration .......................................................................................................... 21-3
Additional Information for the RCC............................................................................................................. 21-3
Information to Aircraft Operating In the Vicinity of an Aircraft in a State of Emergency.............................. 21-3
Unlawful Interference ................................................................................................................................. 21-3
CHAPTER 22
Search and Rescue
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 22-1
Organisation............................................................................................................................................... 22-1
Operating Procedures ................................................................................................................................ 22-2
Search and Rescue Signals ....................................................................................................................... 22-4
Ground/Air Signals used by Rescue Units ................................................................................................. 22-6
Air-To-Ground Signals ............................................................................................................................... 22-6
CHAPTER 23
Aerodromes
Annex 14.................................................................................................................................................... 23-1
Types of Aerodrome................................................................................................................................... 23-1
Parts of an Aerodrome ............................................................................................................................... 23-1
Aerodrome Reference Code ...................................................................................................................... 23-1
Aeronautical Data....................................................................................................................................... 23-2
Runways .................................................................................................................................................... 23-5
Taxiways .................................................................................................................................................... 23-7
Taxiway Curve ........................................................................................................................................... 23-9
Holding Bays, Taxi Holding Positions......................................................................................................... 23-9
Aprons ...................................................................................................................................................... 23-10
Visual Aids for Navigation ........................................................................................................................ 23-10
Markings .................................................................................................................................................. 23-11
Runway Markings..................................................................................................................................... 23-11
Runway Centre Line Marking ................................................................................................................... 23-12
Threshold Markings.................................................................................................................................. 23-12
Displaced Threshold Marking................................................................................................................... 23-13
Aiming Point Marking ............................................................................................................................... 23-14
Touchdown Zone Marking........................................................................................................................ 23-14
Runway Side Stripe.................................................................................................................................. 23-16
Taxiway Markings .................................................................................................................................... 23-16
Taxiway Centre Line Marking................................................................................................................... 23-16
Runway Holding Position Marking............................................................................................................ 23-16
Taxiway Intersection Marking................................................................................................................... 23-17
VOR Aerodrome Check-Point Marking .................................................................................................... 23-18
Aircraft Stand Markings ............................................................................................................................ 23-19
Apron Safety Lines................................................................................................................................... 23-19
Information Markings................................................................................................................................ 23-19
Signs ...................................................................................................................................................... 23-19
Markers .................................................................................................................................................... 23-23
Aerodrome Lighting.................................................................................................................................. 23-24
Approach Lighting Systems ..................................................................................................................... 23-25
Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI and Abbreviated PAPI) ........................................................... 23-32
Minimum Eye Height (MEHT)................................................................................................................... 23-33
xii
Air Law
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 24
Aviation Security
General .......................................................................................................................................................24-1
Aims and Objectives ...................................................................................................................................24-1
National Organisation .................................................................................................................................24-1
International Co-Operation..........................................................................................................................24-1
Preventative Security Measures .................................................................................................................24-2
Carriage of Legal Weapons ........................................................................................................................24-2
Pre-Flight Checks .......................................................................................................................................24-2
Measures Related to Passengers and their Cabin Baggage ......................................................................24-2
Missing Passengers ....................................................................................................................................24-2
Measures Relating to Access Control .........................................................................................................24-2
Management of Response to Acts of Unlawful Interference .......................................................................24-3
Flight Deck Door .........................................................................................................................................24-3
Training Programmes .................................................................................................................................24-3
Isolated Aircraft Parking Position ................................................................................................................24-3
CHAPTER 25
Aircraft Accident Investigation
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................25-1
Definitions ...................................................................................................................................................25-1
Objective of the Investigation ......................................................................................................................25-2
Protection of Evidence, Custody, and Removal of Aircraft..........................................................................25-2
Request from State of Registry or State of Operator ..................................................................................25-2
Request from State of Design or State of Manufacturer .............................................................................25-3
Notification for Accidents or Serious Incidents ............................................................................................25-3
Reports .......................................................................................................................................................25-4
CHAPTER 26
Facilitation
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................26-1
Entry and Departure of Aircraft ...................................................................................................................26-1
Entry and Departure of Persons and their Baggage ...................................................................................26-3
Departure Requirements and Procedures ..................................................................................................26-4
Inadmissible Passengers, Deportees and Persons in Custody...................................................................26-4
CHAPTER 27
National Law
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................27-1
The Law of the UK ......................................................................................................................................27-1
Major UK Differences ..................................................................................................................................27-1
Royal Flights ...............................................................................................................................................27-3
Military Aerodrome Traffic Zones (MATZ) ...................................................................................................27-3
Air Law
xiii
Table of Contents
xiv
Air Law
INTRODUCTION
This chapter of Aviation Law contains two sections and is intended for use with all the course
material provided:
SECTION 1 COMMON ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE JAA CENTRAL QUESTION BANK
A
A
Ampere
ALT
Altitude
ABM
Abeam
ALTN
Alternate
ABN
Aerodrome beacon
APCH
Approach
AC
Alternating current
APT
Airport
AC
Altocumulus
APU
ACAS
ARR
Arrival
ACFT
Aircraft
AS
Altostratus
ACT
Active
ASDA
AD
Aerodrome
AMSL
ADC
ATA
ADDN
Additional
ATC
ADF
ATIS
ADI
ATO
AEO
ATS
AFIS
AUX
Auxiliary
AFM
AVG
Average
AGL
AWY
Airway
AIP
AZM
Azimuth
BKN
Broken
BRG
Bearing
Degrees Celsius
CI
Cirrus
CAS
CL
Lift coefficient
CAT
Cm
Centimetre
CB
Cumulonimbus
CO
Communications
CC
Cirrocumulus
CP
Critical point
CD
Drag coefficient
CRM
CDI
CS
Cirrostratus
CDU
CTR
Control zone
cg
Centre of gravity
Air Law
CU
Cumulus
CWY
Clearway
1-1
Chapter 1
D
DA
Decision altitude
DG
Directional gyroscope
DC
Direct current
DH
Decision height
DEG
Degrees
DIST
Distance
DEP
Departure
DME
DES
Descent
DP
Dew point
DEST
Destination
DR
Dead reckoning
DEV
Deviation
DVOR
Doppler VOR
D/F
Direction finding
E
East
EICAS
EAS
Equivalent airspeed
EOBT
EAT
EPR
ECAM
EST
Estimated
EFIS
ETA
EGT
ETO
Degrees Fahrenheit
FL
Flight level
FAF
FLT
Flight
FCST
Forecast
FMS
FD
Flight director
FT
Feet
FIS
FT/MIN
FIS
Gramme
GP
Glide path
GAL
Gallons
GPWS
GND
Ground
GS
Ground speed
HDG
Heading
HSI
HF
High frequency
HT
Height
hPa
Hectopascal
Hz
Hertz
HR
Hours
IAS
Indicated airspeed
INT
Intersection
ILS
ISA
IMC
ISOL
Isolated
IMP GAL
Imperial gallons
ITCZ
INS
IVSI
Joule
1-2
Air Law
Chapter 1
K
kg
Kilogramme
kt
Knot
kHz
Kilohertz
kW
Kilowatt
km
Kilometre
LAT
Latitude
LMT
LB
Pounds
LONG
Longitude
LDG
Landing
LT
Local time
LDP
LTD
Limited
LEN
Length
LVL
Level
LLZ
Localiser (Localizer)
LYR
Layer
LMC
M
m
Metre
MLS
Mass
MM
Middle marker
Mach Number
MNM
Minimum
MAC
MNPS
MAP
Manifold pressure
MAPt
MOCA
max
Maximum
MORA
MDH
MPH
MDH/A
MPS, mps
MEA
MSA
MET
Meteorological
MSL
MIN
Minutes
MSU
N
N
Newton
NDB
NGT
Night
NM
Non-directional beacon
Nautical miles
North
NOTAM
Notice to airmen
NAT
NS
Nimbostratus
NAV
Navigation
O
OAT
OM
Operating mass
OBS
OM
Outer marker
OCA(H)
OPS
Operations
OCL
O/R
On request
OEI
OVC
Overcast
Pressure
POS
Position
PAX
Passenger
PSI
PET
PSR
PIC
Pilot in command
PTS
PLN
Flight plan
PWR
Power
PNR
Point of no return
Air Law
1-3
Chapter 1
R
r
Radius
RNAV
Area Navigation
RAC
ROC
Rate of climb
RAS
Rectified airspeed
ROD
Rate of descent
REP
Reporting point
RVR
RMI
RWY
Runway
RMK
Remark
South
SR
Sunrise
SAR
SS
Sunset
SARPs
SSR
SC
Stratocumulus
ST
Stratus
SCT
Scattered
STAR
SDBY
Standby
STD
Standard
SEC
Seconds
STN
Station
SEV
Severe
STNR
Stationary
SFC
Surface
STS
Status
SID
SVFR
Special VFR
SIM
Simulator
SWY
Stop way
SKC
Sky clear
Temperature
THR
Threshold
TA
Transition altitude
TL
Transition level
TAS
True airspeed
T/O
Take-off
TAT
TOC
Top of climb
TC
Tropical cyclone
TORA
TCAS
TS
Thunderstorm
TDP
TWY
Taxiway
U/S
Unserviceable
UTC
US-GAL
US gallons
Volt
VSI
VAR
Magnetic variation
VV
Vertical visibility
VDF
VA
VG
Vertical gyro
VB
VHF
VC/MC
VIS
Visibility
VD
VLF
VF
VMC
VFE
VOLMET
VFO
VOR
VLE
vrb
Variable
VLO
1-4
Air Law
Chapter 1
VLOF
VR
Rotating speed
VMAX TYRE
VREF
VMBE
VS
VMC
VSO
VMCA
VS1
VMCG
VX
VMO/MMO
VY
VMU
V1
VNE
V2
VNO
Watt
W/V
Wind velocity
West
WPT
Way point
WC
Wind component
WS
Wind shear
WCA
WX
Weather
Cross
XX
Heavy
XTK
Cross track
YD
Yard
Air Law
1-5
Chapter 1
except when the injuries are from natural causes, self-inflicted or inflicted by other persons, or
when the injuries are to stowaways hiding outside the areas normally available to the passengers
and crew, or the aircraft sustains damage or structural failure which:
except for engine failure or damage, when the damage is limited to the engine, its cowlings or
accessories; or for damage limited to propellers, wing tips, antennas, tyres, brakes, fairings, small
dents or puncture holes in the aircraft skin, or the aircraft is missing or is completely inaccessible.
Note: An injury resulting in death within 30 days of the date of the accident is classified
as a fatal injury by ICAO.
Note: An aircraft is considered to be missing when the official search has been
terminated and the wreckage has not been located.
Advisory Airspace Airspace of defined dimensions, or designated route, within which air
traffic advisory service is available.
Advisory Route A designated route along which air traffic advisory service is available.
Aerodrome A defined area of land or water (including any buildings, installations, and
equipment) intended to be used either wholly or in part for the arrival, departure, and surface
movement of aircraft.
Aerodrome Beacon Aeronautical beacon used to indicate the location of an aerodrome from
the air.
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Aerodrome Control Service Air traffic control service for aerodrome traffic.
Aerodrome Control Tower A unit established to provide air traffic control service.
Aerodrome Elevation The elevation of the highest point of the landing area.
Aerodrome Identification Sign A sign placed on an aerodrome to aid in identifying the
aerodrome from the air.
Aerodrome Operating Minima The limits of usability of an aerodrome for:
Take-off, expressed in terms of RVR and/or visibility and, if necessary, cloud conditions
Landing in precision approach and landing operations, expressed in terms of visibility and/or
RVR and DA/DH, as appropriate to the category of the operation, and
Landing in non-precision approach and landing operations, expressed in terms of visibility
and/or RVR, MDA/MDH and, if necessary, cloud conditions.
Aerodrome Reference Field Length The minimum field length required for take-off at
maximum certificated take-off mass, sea level, standard atmospheric conditions, still air, and zero
runway slope, as shown in the appropriate aeroplane flight manual prescribed by the certificating
authority or equivalent data from the aeroplane manufacturer. Field length means balanced field
length for aeroplanes, if applicable, or take-off distance in other cases.
Aerodrome Reference Point The designated geographical location of the aerodrome.
Aerodrome Taxi Circuit The specified path of aircraft on the manoeuvring area during
specific wind conditions.
Aerodrome Traffic All traffic on the manoeuvring area of an aerodrome and all traffic flying in
the vicinity of an aerodrome.
Note: An aircraft is in the vicinity of an aerodrome when it is in, entering, or leaving an
aerodrome traffic circuit.
Aerodrome Traffic Zone Airspace of defined dimensions established around an aerodrome
for the protection of aerodrome traffic.
Aeronautical Beacon An aeronautical ground light visible at all azimuths, either continuously
or intermittently, to designate a particular point on the surface of the earth.
Aeronautical Ground Light Any light specifically provided as an aid to air navigation, other
than a light displayed on an aircraft.
Aeronautical Information Circular (AIC) A notice containing information that does not qualify
for the origination of a NOTAM or for inclusion in the AlP, but which relates to flight safety, air
navigation, technical, administrative or legislative matters.
Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP) A publication issued by or with the authority of a
state and containing aeronautical information of a lasting character essential to air navigation.
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Aeronautical Mobile Service A mobile service between aeronautical stations and aircraft
stations, or between aircraft stations, in which survival craft stations may participate; emergency
position-indicating radio beacon stations may also participate in this service on designated
distress and emergency frequencies.
Aeronautical Station A land station in the aeronautical mobile service. In certain instances,
an aeronautical station may be located, for example, on board ship or on a platform at sea.
Aeronautical Telecommunication Station A station in the aeronautical telecommunication
service.
Aeroplane A power-driven heavier-than-air aircraft, deriving its lift in flight chiefly from
aerodynamic reactions on surfaces which remain fixed under given conditions of flight.
AIP Amendment Permanent changes to the information contained in the AIP.
AIP Supplement Temporary changes to the information contained in the AIP that are
published by means of special pages.
AIRAC An acronym (Aeronautical Information Regulation and Control) signifying a system
aimed at advance notification based on common dates, of circumstances that necessitate
significant changes in operating practices
Air-Ground Communication Two-way communication between aircraft and stations, or
locations, on the surface of the earth.
Air Report A report from an aircraft in flight prepared in conformity with requirements for
position, and operational and/or meteorological reporting.
Air Traffic All aircraft in flight or operating on the manoeuvring area of an aerodrome.
Air Traffic Advisory Service A service provided within advisory airspace to ensure
separation, in so far as practical between aircraft which are operating on IFR flight plans.
Air Traffic Control Clearance Authorization for an aircraft to proceed under conditions
specified by an air traffic control unit.
Note: For convenience the term Air Traffic Control Clearance is frequently abbreviated
to Clearance when used in appropriate contexts.
Note: The abbreviated term Clearance may be prefixed by the words Taxi, Take-off,
Departure, Enroute, Approach, or "Landing to indicate the particular portion of flight
to which the Air Traffic Control Clearance relates.
Air Traffic Control Instruction Directives issued by ATC for the purpose of requiring a pilot to
take a specific action.
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Air Traffic Control Service A service provided for the purpose of:
Air Traffic Control Unit A generic term meaning variously, area control centre, approach
control office, or aerodrome control tower.
Air Traffic Service A generic term meaning variously, flight information service, alerting
service, air traffic advisory service, or air traffic control service (area control service, approach
control service, or aerodrome control service).
Air Traffic Services Airspaces Airspaces of defined dimensions, alphabetically designated,
within which specific types of flights may operate and for which air traffic services and rules of
operation are specified.
Note: ATS airspaces are classified as Class A to G
Air Traffic Services Reporting Office A unit established for the purpose of receiving reports
concerning air traffic services and flight plans submitted before departure.
Note: An Air Traffic Services reporting office may be established as a separate unit or
combined with an existing unit, such as another Air Traffic Services Unit, or a unit of the
Aeronautical Information Service.
Air Traffic Services Unit A generic term meaning variously, air traffic control unit, flight
information centre, or air traffic services reporting office.
Aircraft Any machine that can derive support in the atmosphere from the reactions of the air
other than the reactions of the air against the earths surface.
Aircraft Category Classification of aircraft according to specified basic characteristics (e.g.
aeroplane, helicopter, glider, free balloon).
Aircraft Certified For Single-Pilot Operation A type of aircraft that the State of Registry has
determined, during the certification process, can be operated safely with a minimum crew of one
pilot.
Aircraft Equipment Articles, other than stores and spare parts of a removable nature, for use
on board an aircraft during flight, including first aid and survival equipment.
Aircraft Identification A group of letters, figures, or a combination thereof which is either
identical to, or the coded equivalent of, the aircraft callsign to be used in air-ground
communications, and which is used to identify the aircraft in ground-ground ATS communications.
Aircraft Observation The evaluation of one or more meteorological elements made from an
aircraft in flight.
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Aircraft Proximity A situation in which, in the opinion of a pilot or ATS personnel, the distance
between aircraft, as well as their relative positions and speed, have been such that the safety of
the aircraft involved may have been compromised. Aircraft proximity is classified as follows:
Risk Of Collision The risk classification of aircraft proximity, in which serious risk of
collision has existed.
Safety Not Assured The risk classification of aircraft proximity, in which the safety of
the aircraft may have been compromised.
No Risk Of Collision The risk classification of aircraft proximity, in which no risk of
collision has existed.
Risk Not Determined The risk classification of aircraft proximity in which insufficient
information was available to determine the risk involved, or inconclusive or conflicting
evidence precluded such determination.
Aircraft Stand A designated area on an apron intended for parking aircraft.
Aircraft Type All aircraft of the same basic design, including all modifications thereto, except
those modifications which result in a change in handling or flight characteristics.
AIRMET Information Information issued by a meteorological watch office concerning the
occurrence or expected occurrence of specified enroute weather phenomena that may affect the
safety of low-level aircraft operations and which was not already included in the forecast issued
for low-level flights in the FIR concerned or sub-area thereof.
Airborne Collision Avoidance System (ACAS) An aircraft system based on SSR
transponder signals that operates independently of ground based equipment to provide advice to
the pilot on potential conflicting aircraft that are equipped with SSR transponders.
Airline As provided in Article 96 of the Convention, any air transport enterprise offering or
operating a scheduled international air service.
AIRPROX The code word used in an air traffic incident report to designate aircraft proximity.
Airway A control area or portion thereof established in the form of a corridor equipped with
radio navigation aids.
ALERFA The code word used to designate an alert phase.
Alert Phase A situation wherein apprehension exists as to the safety of an aircraft and its
occupants.
Alerting Service A service provided to notify appropriate organisations regarding aircraft in
need of search and rescue aid, and assist such organisations as required.
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Alternate Aerodrome An aerodrome to which an aircraft may proceed when it becomes either
impossible or inadvisable to proceed to or land at the aerodrome of intended landing. Alternate
aerodromes include the following:
Take-off Alternate An alternate aerodrome at which an aircraft can land should this
become necessary shortly after take-off and it is not possible to use the aerodrome of
departure.
Enroute Alternate An aerodrome at which an aircraft would be able to land after
experiencing an abnormal or emergency condition while enroute.
Destination Alternate An aerodrome to which an aircraft may proceed should it
become impossible or inadvisable to land at the aerodrome of intended landing.
Note: The aerodrome from which a flight departs may also be an enroute or a
destination alternate aerodrome for that flight.
Altitude The vertical distance of a level, a point, or an object considered as a point measured
from mean sea level (MSL).
Approach Control Office A unit established to provide ATC service to controlled flights
arriving at, or departing from, one or more aerodromes.
Approach Control Service ATC service for arriving or departing controlled flights.
Appropriate ATS Authority The relevant authority designated by the state responsible for
providing air traffic services in the airspace concerned.
Appropriate Authority
Regarding flight over the high seas The relevant authority of the state of registry.
Regarding flight other than over the high seas The relevant authority of the state
having sovereignty over the territory being over flown.
Apron A defined area, on a land aerodrome, intended to accommodate aircraft for the
purposes of loading or unloading passengers, mail, or cargo, fuelling, parking, or maintenance.
Apron Management Service A service provided to regulate the activities and the movement
of aircraft and vehicles on an apron.
Area Control Centre A unit established to provide Air Traffic Control Service to controlled
flights in control areas under its jurisdiction.
Area Control Service Air Traffic Control Service for controlled flight in Control Areas.
Area Navigation (RNAV) A method of navigation which permits aircraft operation on any
desired flight path within the coverage of the station referenced navigation aids or within the limits
of the capability of self contained aids, or a combination of these.
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Area Navigation Route An ATS route established for the use of aircraft capable of employing
area navigation.
ATIS The symbol used to designate automatic terminal information service.
ATS Route A specified route designed for channelling the flow of traffic as necessary for the
provision of air traffic services.
Note: The term ATS route is used to mean variously, airway, advisory route, controlled
or uncontrolled route, arrival or departure route, etc.
Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) A surveillance technique in which aircraft
automatically provide, via a data link, data derived from on board navigation and position fixing
systems, including aircraft identification, four dimensional position, and additional data as
appropriate.
Automatic Terminal Information Service The provision of current, routine information to
arriving and departing aircraft by means of a continuous and repetitive broadcast throughout the
day, or a specified portion of the day.
Baggage Personal property of passengers or crew carried on an aircraft by agreement with
the operator.
Barrette Three or more aeronautical ground lights closely spaced in a traverse line so that
from a distance they appear as a short bar of light.
Base Turn A turn executed by the aircraft during the initial approach between the end of the
outbound track and the beginning of the intermediate or final approach track. The tracks are not
reciprocal.
Note: Base turns may be designated as being made either in level flight or while
descending, according to the circumstances of each individual procedure.
Blind Transmission A transmission from one station to another station in circumstances
where two-way communication cannot be established, but where it is believed the called station is
able to receive the transmission.
Broadcast A transmission of information relating to air navigation that is not addressed to a
specific station or stations.
Cargo Any property carried on an aircraft other than mail, stores, and accompanied or
mishandled baggage.
Ceiling The height above the ground or water of the base of the lowest layer of cloud below
6000 metres (20 000 ft) covering more than half the sky.
Certify as Airworthy (to) To certify that an aircraft or parts thereof comply with current
airworthiness requirements after maintenance has been performed on the aircraft or parts
thereof.
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Change-over Point The point at which an aircraft navigating over an ATS route segment,
defined by reference to very high frequency omni directional radio ranges, is expected to transfer
its primary navigational reference from the facility behind the aircraft to the next facility ahead of
the aircraft.
Note: Change-over points are established to provide the optimum balance in respect of
signal strength and quality between facilities at all levels to be used and to ensure a
common source of azimuth guidance for all aircraft operating along the same portion of a
route segment.
Circling Approach An extension of an instrument approach procedure which provides for
visual circling of the aerodrome prior to landing.
Clearance Limit The point to which an aircraft is granted an Air Traffic Control Clearance.
Clearway A defined rectangular area on the ground or water under the control of the
appropriate authority, selected or prepared as a suitable area over which an aeroplane may make
a portion of its initial climb to a specified height.
Code (SSR) The number assigned to a particular multiple pulse reply signal transmitted by a
transponder in Mode A or Mode C.
Commercial Air Transport Operation An aircraft operation involving the transport of
passengers, cargo, or mail for remuneration or hire.
Configuration (as applied to the aeroplane) A particular combination of the positions of the
moveable elements, such as wing flaps, landing gear etc, which affect the aerodynamic
characteristics of the aeroplane.
Control Area A controlled airspace extending upwards from a specified limit above the earth.
Controlled Aerodrome An aerodrome at which Air Traffic Control Service is provided to
aerodrome traffic.
Note: The term Controlled Aerodrome indicates that Air Traffic Control Service is
provided to Aerodrome Traffic, but does not necessarily imply that a Control Zone exists.
Controlled Airspace An airspace of defined dimensions within which air traffic control service
is provided to IFR flights and to VFR flights in accordance with the airspace classification.
Note: Controlled airspace is a generic term which covers ATS airspace Class A, B, C, D,
and E.
Controlled Flight Any flight which is subject to an Air Traffic Control Clearance.
Control Zone A controlled airspace extending upwards from the surface of the earth to a
specified upper limit.
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Co-Pilot A licensed pilot serving in any piloting capacity other than as PIC, but excluding a
pilot who is on board the aircraft for the sole purpose of receiving flight instruction.
Crew Member A person assigned by an operator to duty on an aircraft during flight time.
Critical Power Unit(s) The power unit(s) failure of which gives the most adverse effect on the
aircraft characteristics relative to the case under consideration.
Cruise Climb An aeroplane cruising technique resulting in a net increase in altitude as the
aeroplane mass decreases.
Cruising Level A level maintained during a significant portion of a flight.
Current Flight Plan The flight plan, including changes, if any, brought about by subsequent
clearances.
Danger Area An airspace of defined dimensions within which activities dangerous to the flight
of aircraft may exist at specified times.
Dead Reckoning (DR) Navigation The estimating or determining of position by advancing an
earlier known position by the application of direction, time, and speed data.
Decision Altitude (DA) or Decision Height (DH) A specified altitude or height in the precision
approach at which a missed approach must be initiated if the required visual reference to
continue the approach has not been established.
Note: DA is referenced to mean sea level, DH is referenced to threshold elevation
Note: The required visual reference means that section of the visual aids or of the
approach area which should have been in view for sufficient time for the pilot to have
made an assessment of the aircraft position and rate of change of position, in relation to
the desired flight path. In Category III operations with a DH the required visual reference
is that specified for the particular procedure and operation.
Declared Distances
Take-Off Run Available (TORA) The length of runway declared available and
suitable for the ground run of an aircraft.
Take-Off Distance Available (TODA) The length of the take-off run available, plus
the length of the clearway, if provided.
Accelerate-Stop Distance Available (ASDA) The length of the take-off run available,
plus the length of the stopway, if provided.
Landing Distance Available (LDA) The length of the runway that is declared
available and suitable for the ground run of an aeroplane landing.
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Filed Flight Plan The flight plan, as filed with an ATS unit by the pilot or a designated
representative, without any subsequent changes.
Final Approach That part of an instrument approach procedure which commences at the
specified final approach fix or point, or where such a fix or point is not specified:
At the end of the last procedure turn, base turn or inbound turn of a racetrack procedure, if
specified, or
At the point of interception of the last track specified in the approach procedure, and ends at
a point in the vicinity of an aerodrome from which:
Final Approach and Take-Off Area (FATO) A defined area over which the final phase of the
approach manoeuvre to landing is completed and from which the take-off manoeuvre is
commenced.
Final Approach Segment The segment of an instrument runway procedure in which
alignment and descent for landing are accomplished.
Fixed Light A light having constant luminous intensity when observed from a fixed point.
Flight Crew Member A licensed crew member charged with duties essential to the operation
of an aircraft during flight time.
Flight Information Centre A unit established to provide flight information service and alerting
service.
Flight Information Region An airspace of defined dimensions within which flight information
service and alerting service are provided.
Flight Information Service A service provided for the purpose of giving advice and
information useful to the safe and effective conduct of flights.
Flight Level A surface of constant atmospheric pressure, which is related to a specific
pressure datum, (1013.2 Hectopascals (hPa)) and is separated from other surfaces by specific
pressure intervals.
Note: A pressure type altimeter calibrated in accordance with the Standard Atmosphere:
Note: The terms height and altitude used in the above note, indicate altimetric rather
than geometric heights and altitudes.
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Flight Plan Specified information provided to Air Traffic Services Units, relative to an intended
flight or portion of a flight of an aircraft.
Flight Procedures Trainer See Synthetic Flight Trainer.
Flight Recorder Any type of recorder installed in the aircraft for the purpose of complementing
accident/incident investigation.
Flight Simulator See Synthetic Flight Trainer.
Flight Time The total time from the moment an aircraft first moves under its own power for the
purpose of taking-off until the moment it comes to rest at the end of the flight.
Note: Flight time as here defined is synonymous with the term block to block time or
chock to chock time in general usage which is measured from the time an aircraft
moves from the loading point until it stops at the unloading point.
Flight Manual A manual associated with the certificate of airworthiness, containing limitations
within which the aircraft is to be considered airworthy, and instructions and information necessary
to the flight crew members for the safe operation of the aircraft.
Flight Visibility The visibility forward from the cockpit of an aircraft in flight.
Flow Control Measures designed to adjust the flow of traffic into a given airspace, along a
given route, or bound for a given aerodrome, so as to ensure the most effective utilization of the
airspace.
Forecast A statement of expected meteorological conditions for a specified time or period, and
for a specified area or portion of airspace.
Frangible Object An object of low mass designed to break, distort, or yield on impact so as to
present the minimum hazard to aircraft.
Glide Path A descent profile determined for vertical guidance during a final approach.
Ground Equipment Articles of a specialised nature for use in the maintenance, repair, and
servicing of an aircraft on the ground, including testing equipment and cargo/passenger-handling
equipment.
Ground Visibility The visibility at an aerodrome, as reported by an accredited observer.
Hazard Beacon An aeronautical beacon used to designate a danger to air navigation.
Heading The direction in which the longitudinal axis of an aircraft is pointed, usually expressed
in degrees from North (true, magnetic, compass, or grid).
Heavier-than-air Aircraft Any aircraft deriving its lift in flight chiefly from aerodynamic forces.
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Height The vertical distance of a level, a point, or an object considered as a point, measured
from a specified datum, other than mean sea level (MSL).
Heliport An aerodrome, or a defined area on a structure, intended to be used wholly or in part
for the arrival, departure, and surface movement of helicopters.
Holding Bay A defined area where aircraft can be held, or bypassed, to facilitate efficient
surface movement of aircraft.
Holding Point A specified location, identified by visual or other means, in the vicinity of which
the position of an aircraft in flight is maintained in accordance with ATC clearances.
Holding Procedure A pre-determined manoeuvre that keeps an aircraft within a specified
airspace while awaiting further clearance.
Identification Beacon An aeronautical beacon emitting a coded signal by means of which a
particular point of reference can be identified.
IFR The symbol used to designate the instrument flight rules.
IFR Flight A flight conducted in accordance with instrument flight rules.
IMC The symbol used to designate instrument meteorological conditions.
INCERFA The code word used to designate an uncertainty phase.
Incident An occurrence, other than an accident, associated with the operation of an aircraft
that affects, or could affect, the safety of operation
Initial Approach Segment That segment of an instrument approach procedure between the
initial approach fix and the intermediate approach fix or, where applicable, the final approach fix
or point,
Instrument Approach Procedure A series of pre-determined manoeuvres by reference to
flight instruments with specified protection from obstacles from the initial approach fix, or where
applicable, from the beginning of a defined arrival route to a point from which a landing can be
completed and thereafter, if a landing is not completed to a position at which holding or enroute
obstacle clearance criteria apply.
Instrument Flight Time Time during which a pilot is piloting an aircraft solely by reference to
instruments and without external reference points,
Instrument Ground Time Time during which a pilot is practising, on the ground, simulated
instrument flight in a synthetic flight trainer approved by the licensing authority,
Instrument Meteorological Conditions Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of
visibility, distance from cloud, and ceiling, less than the minima specified for visual meteorological
conditions.
Note: The specified minima for VMC are contained within the Aviation Law Notes.
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Instrument Runway One of the following types of runways intended for the operation of
aircraft using instrument approach procedures:
Non-Precision Approach Runway An instrument runway served by visual aids and a
non-visual aid providing at least directional guidance adequate for a straight-in approach.
Precision Approach Runway, Category I An instrument runway served by ILS
and/or MLS and visual aids intended for operations with a decision height not lower than
60 m (200 ft) and either a visibility not less than 800 m, or a runway visual range not less
than 550 m.
Precision Approach Runway, Category II An instrument runway served by ILS
and/or MLS and with visual aids intended for operations with a decision height lower than
60 m (200 ft) but not lower than 30 m (100 ft) and a runway visual range not less than
350 m.
Precision Approach Runway, Category III An instrument runway served by ILS
and/or MLS to and along the surface of the runway and:
CAT IIIA Intended for operations with a decision height lower than 30 m
(100 ft), or no decision height and a runway visual range not less than 200 m.
CAT IIIB Intended for operations with a decision height lower than 15 m
(50 ft), or no decision height and a runway visual range less than 200 m but not
less than 50 m (JAR-OPS: 75 m).
CAT IIIC Intended for operations with no decision height and no runway visual
range limitations.
Instrument Time Instrument flight time or instrument ground time.
Integrated Aeronautical Information Package A package which consists of the following
elements:
The intermediate approach fix and the final approach fix or point, or
Between the end of a reversal, racetrack or DR track procedure and the final approach fix or
point.
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International Airport Any airport designated by the Contracting State in whose territory it is
situated as an airport of entry and departure for international air traffic, where the formalities
incident to customs, immigration, public health, animal and plant quarantine, and similar
procedures are carried out.
International NOTAM Office An office designated by a State for the exchange of NOTAM
internationally.
Investigation A process conducted for the purpose of accident prevention that includes the
gathering and analysis of information for the drawing of conclusions, including the determination
of causes, and when appropriate, the making of safety recommendations.
Landing Area That part of a movement area intended for the landing or take-off of aircraft.
Landing Direction Indicator A device to indicate visually the direction currently designated
for landing and for take-off.
Landing Surface That part of the surface of an aerodrome which the aerodrome authority has
declared available for the normal ground or water run of aircraft landing in a particular direction.
Level A generic term relating to the vertical position of an aircraft in flight, and meaning
variously, height, altitude, or flight level.
Location Indicator A four letter code group formulated in accordance with rules prescribed by
ICAO and assigned to the location of an aeronautical fixed station.
Maintenance Tasks required ensuring the continued airworthiness of an aircraft including any
one or combination of: overhaul, repair, inspection, replacement, modification, or defect
rectification.
Manoeuvring Area That part of an aerodrome to be used for the take-off, landing, and taxiing
of aircraft, excluding aprons.
Marker An object displayed above ground level in order to indicate an obstacle or delineate a
boundary.
Marking A symbol or group of symbols displayed on the surface of the movement area in
order to convey aeronautical information.
Maximum Mass Maximum certificated take-off mass.
Medical Assessment The evidence issued by a Contracting State that the licence holder
meets specific requirements of medical fitness. It is issued following an evaluation by the
licensing authority of the report submitted by the designated medical examiner who conducted
the examination of the applicant for the licence.
Meteorological Office An office designated to provide a meteorological service for
international air navigation.
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Radar Monitoring The use of radar for the purpose of providing aircraft with information and
advice relative to significant deviations from nominal flight path, including deviations from the
terms of their ATC clearances.
Radar Position Indication (RPI) The visual indication, in non symbolic and/or symbolic form,
on a radar display, of the position of an aircraft obtained after automatic processing of positional
data derived from primary and/or SSR.
Radar Position Symbol (RIPS) The visual indication, in symbolic form, on a radar display, of
the position of an aircraft obtained after automatic processing of positional data derived from
primary and/or SSR.
Radar Separation The separation used when aircraft position information is derived from
radar sources.
Radar Service The term used to indicate a service provided directly by means of radar.
Radar Vectoring Provision of navigational guidance to aircraft in the form of specific
headings, based on the use of radar.
Rating An authorisation entered on or associated with a licence and forming part thereof
stating special conditions, privileges, or limitations pertaining to such a licence.
Receiving Unit/Controller ATS unit/ATC controller to which a message is sent.
Rendering (a Licence) Valid The action taken by a Contracting State, as an alternative to
issuing its own licence, in accepting a licence issued by any other Contracting State as the
equivalent of its own licence.
Repetitive Flight Plan A flight plan related to a series of frequently recurring, regularly
operated individual flights with identical basic features, submitted by an operator for retention and
repetitive use by ATS units.
Reporting Point A specified geographical location in relation to which the position of an
aircraft can be reported.
Required Navigation Performance (RNP) A statement of the navigation performance
accuracy necessary for operation within a defined airspace.
Rescue Co-ordination Centre A unit responsible for promoting efficient organization of
search and rescue services and for coordinating the conduct of search and rescue operations
within a search and rescue region.
Restricted Area An airspace of defined dimensions, above the land areas or territorial waters
of a state, within which the flight of aircraft is restricted in accordance with certain specified
conditions.
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Reversal Procedure A procedure designed to enable aircraft to reverse direction during the
initial approach segment of an instrument approach procedure. The sequence may include
procedure turns or base turns.
Runway A defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and take-off
of aircraft.
Runway End Safety Area (RESA) An area symmetrical about the extended runway centre
line and adjacent to the end of the strip primarily intended to reduce the risk of damage to an
aeroplane undershooting or overrunning the aerodrome.
Runway Guard Lights A light system intended to caution pilots or vehicle drivers that they are
about to enter an active runway.
Runway Strip A defined area including the runway and stop way, if provided, intended:
To reduce the risk of damage to aircraft running off the runway, and
To protect aircraft flying over it during take-off and landing operations.
Runway Visual Range (RVR) The range over which the pilot of an aircraft on the centre line
of a runway can see the runway surface markings or the lights delineating the runway or
identifying its centre line.
Secondary Area A defined area on each side of the primary area located along the nominal
flight track in which decreasing obstacle clearance is provided.
Secondary Radar A radar system wherein a radio signal transmitted from the radar station
initiates the transmission of a radio signal from another station.
Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) A surveillance radar system that uses a transmitter
receiver system of interrogators and transponders.
Serious Incident An incident involving circumstances indicating that an accident nearly
occurred.
Note: The difference between an accident and a serious incident lies only in the result.
Serious Injury An injury which is sustained by a person in an accident and which:
Requires hospitalisation for more than 48 hours, commencing within 7 days from the date the
injury was received, or
Results in a fracture of any bone (Not simple fractures of fingers, toes, or nose), or
Involves lacerations which cause severe haemorrhage, nerve, muscle, or tendon damage, or
Involves injury to any internal organ, or
Involves second or third degree burns, or any burns affecting more than 5% of the body
surface, or
Involves verified exposure to infectious substances or injurious radiation.
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State of the Operator The State in which the operators principal place of business is located
or, if there is no such place of business, the operators permanent residence.
State of Registry The State on whose register the aircraft is entered.
Stopway A defined rectangular area on the ground at the end of TORA prepared as a suitable
area in which an aircraft can be stopped in the case of an abandoned take-off.
Synthetic Flight Trainer Any one of the following three types of apparatus in which flight
conditions are simulated on the ground:
Flight Simulator A flight simulator, which provides an accurate representation of the
flight deck of a particular aircraft type to the extent that the mechanical and electrical
systems control functions, the normal environment of flight crew members, and the
performance and flight characteristics of that type of aircraft are realistically simulated.
Flight Procedures Trainer A flight procedures trainer, which provides a realistic flight
deck environment, and which simulates instrument responses, simple control functions of
mechanical and electrical systems, and the performance and flight characteristics of
aircraft of a particular class.
Basic Instrument Flight Trainer A basic instrument flight trainer, which is equipped
with appropriate instruments, and which simulates the flight deck environment of an
aircraft in flight in instrument flight conditions.
Take-off Runway A runway intended for take-off only.
Take-off Surface That part of the surface of an aerodrome which the aerodrome authority has
declared available for the normal ground or water run of aircraft taking off in a particular direction.
Taxi-Holding Position A designated position at which taxiing aircraft and vehicles shall stop
and hold position, unless otherwise authorised by the aerodrome control tower.
Taxiing The movement of an aircraft on the surface of an aerodrome under its own power,
excluding take-off and landing, but including, in the case of helicopters, operation over the
surface of an aerodrome within a height band associated with ground effect and at speeds
associated with taxiing (e.g. air-taxiing).
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Taxiway A defined path on a land aerodrome established for the taxiing of aircraft and
intended to provide a link between one part of the aerodrome and another, including:
Aircraft Stand Taxi Lane A portion of an apron designated as a taxiway and intended
to provide access to aircraft stands only.
Apron Taxiway A portion of a taxiway system located on an apron and intended to
provide a through taxi route across the apron.
Rapid Exit Taxiway A taxiway connected to a runway at an acute angle and
designated to allow landing aeroplanes to turn off at higher speeds than are achieved on
other exit taxiways and thereby minimizing runway occupancy times.
Taxiway Intersection A junction of two or more taxiways.
Taxiway Strip An area including taxiway intended to protect an aircraft operating on the
taxiway and to reduce the risk of damage to an aircraft accidentally running off the taxiway.
Terminal Control Area A control area normally established at the confluence of ATS routes in
the vicinity of one or more major aerodromes.
Threshold (THR) The beginning of that portion of the runway usable for landing.
Total Estimated Elapsed Time For IFR flights, the estimated time required from take-off to
arrive over that designated point, defined by reference to navigation aids, from which it is
intended that an instrument approach procedure will be commenced, or, if no navigation aid is
associated with the destination aerodrome, to arrive over the destination aerodrome. For VFR
flights, the estimated time required from take-off to arrive over the destination aerodrome.
Touchdown The point where the nominal glide path intercepts the runway.
Touchdown Zone The portion of a runway, beyond the threshold, where it is intended landing
aeroplanes first contact the runway.
Track The projection on the earths surface of the path of an aircraft, the direction of which
path at any point is usually expressed in degrees from North (true, magnetic, or grid).
Traffic Avoidance Advice Advice provided by Air Traffic Services Unit specifying manoeuvres
to assist a pilot to avoid a collision.
Traffic Information Information issued by an air traffic services unit to alert a pilot to other
known or observed air traffic, which may be in proximity to the position or intended route of flight,
and to help the pilot avoid a collision.
Transfer of Control Point A defined point located along the flight path of an aircraft, at which
the responsibility for providing ATC service to the aircraft is transferred from one control unit or
control position to the next.
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Transferring Unit ATCU in the process of transferring the responsibility for providing ATC
service to an aircraft to the next ATCU along the route of flight.
Transition Altitude The altitude at or below which the vertical position of an aircraft is
controlled by reference to altitudes.
Transition Layer The airspace between the transition altitude and the transition level.
Transition Level The lowest flight level available for use above the transition altitude.
Uncertainty Phase A situation wherein uncertainty exists as to the safety of an aircraft and its
occupants.
VFR The symbol used to designate the visual flight rules.
VFR Flight A flight conducted in accordance with the visual flight rules.
Visibility The ability, as determined by atmospheric conditions and expressed in units of
distance, to see and identify prominent unlighted objects by day and prominent objects by night.
Visual Approach An approach by an IFR aircraft when either part or all of an instrument
approach procedure is not completed and the approach is executed in visual reference to terrain.
Visual Manoeuvring (Circling) Area The area in which obstacle clearance should be taken
into consideration for aircraft carrying out a circling approach.
Visual Meteorological Conditions Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of visibility,
distance from cloud, and ceiling equal to or better than the specified minima.
Note: The specified minima are contained within these notes.
VMC The symbol used to designate visual meteorological conditions.
Way-Point A specified geographical location used to define an area navigation route or the
flight path of an aircraft employing area navigation.
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Air Law
BACKGROUND
Today, decisions concerning international civil aviation are taken by the member states of the
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). The JAR Aviation Law exam follows the Annexes
and other documents of ICAO. These notes are designed to follow the JAR syllabus and are a
summary of the reference material. Some of the language is difficult to follow because of the use
of the words SHALL and SHOULD. SHALL refers to Standards; SHOULD refers to recommended
practices.
INTRODUCTION
For commercial aviation to operate, it is necessary for states to afford the airlines of other states
the right to fly into and across their territory for both traffic and non-traffic purposes. Agreements
are necessary to achieve this:
SAFETY
International air transport is not just about navigation. The competitive nature of the business
could create the obvious temptation to 'cut corners' and increase profit, so strict regulation is
required to maintain safety. Over the years, the philosophy of a safe airline is a profitable airline'
has evolved. Both Authorities and Operators have embraced safety through a system of
international agreements, which have been translated into law in the contracting states.
INTERNATIONAL LAW
Just as no state has the right to interfere in the internal affairs of another state, no convention has
the right to impose rules and regulations. Only the legislative body of a state can make and
impose law in that state. So the agreements reached at international conventions have to be
translated into national law. If a state accepts the agreement without modification, or after agreed
modification, and it becomes national law, the process is known as 'ratification. Because the text
of the agreement is accepted by all states that ratify the agreement, the agreement is then
'international' in nature, and the ensuing law is also 'international'. The principal sources of
International Air Law are treaties. They are the international agreements entered into between
states. Such treaties or conventions may be multilateral or bilateral.
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This convention was amended and simplified by the 1955 Hague Protocol. The Montreal
Agreement of 1966 further amended the financial liability of operators. The convention lays down
uniform rules governing the air carrier's liabilities in respect of passengers and goods. The
Warsaw Convention deals only with rights and obligations of contracting carriers and applies to
the international carriage of persons, baggage, or cargo performed by aircraft for reward.
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PASSENGER TICKET
A passenger ticket shall be issued for each flight containing:
The absence, irregularity, or loss of the passenger ticket does not affect the validity of the
contract of carriage, which shall be subject to the rules of the convention. If a carrier accepts a
passenger without a ticket, the carrier will not be able to fall back on the provisions of the
convention that limit liability. If a carrier issues an 'electronic' ticket, then the provisions of the
Warsaw Convention must be communicated by other means.
BAGGAGE CHECK
For luggage, other than small personal objects that the passengers take themselves, the carrier
must issue a luggage ticket. The luggage ticket is made out in duplicate, one for the passenger
and the other for the carrier.
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Aircraft used in military, customs, and police services shall be deemed to be State
aircraft.
No State aircraft of a Contracting State shall fly over the territory of another State or
land without authorization by special agreement or otherwise.
The Contracting States undertake, when issuing regulations for their State aircraft,
that they will have due regard for the safety of navigation of civil aircraft.
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Article 7 Cabotage
Each Contracting State shall have the right to refuse permission to the aircraft of other
Contracting States to take on in its territory passengers, mail, and cargo carried for remuneration
or hire and destined for another point within its territory. Each Contracting State undertakes not to
enter into any arrangements that specifically grant any such privilege on an exclusive basis to any
other State or an airline of any other State, and not to obtain any such exclusive privilege from
any other State.
Article 10 Landing At Customs Airport
Except in a case where, under the terms of this Convention or a special authorization, aircraft are
permitted to cross the territory of a Contracting State without landing, every aircraft which enters
the territory of a Contracting State shall, if the regulations of that State so require, land at an
airport for the purpose of customs and other examination. On departure from the territory of a
Contracting State, aircraft shall also depart from a designated customs airport. Particulars of all
designated customs airports shall be published by the State and transmitted to the ICAO
established under Part II of this Convention for communication to all other Contracting States.
Customs Airports are frequently called 'International' airports.
Article 11 Applicability of Air Regulations
Subject to the provisions of this Convention, the laws and regulations of a Contracting State
relating to the admission to or departure from its territory of aircraft engaged in international air
navigation, or to the operation and navigation of such aircraft while within its territory, shall be
applied to the aircraft of all Contracting States without distinction as to nationality, and shall be
complied with by aircraft upon entering or departing from or while within the territory of that State.
Article 12 Rules of the Air
Each Contracting State agrees to adopt measures to ensure that all aircraft flying over or
manoeuvring within its territory and that every aircraft carrying its nationality mark shall comply
with the rules and regulations relating to the flight and manoeuvres of aircraft there in force. Each
Contracting State undertakes to keep its own regulations uniform, to the greatest possible extent,
with those rules established under the Convention. Over the high seas, the rules in force shall be
those established under the Convention. Each Contracting State undertakes to ensure the
protection of all persons violating the regulations applicable.
Article 13 Entry and Clearance Regulations
The laws and regulations of a Contracting State as to the admission to or departure from its
territory of passengers, crew, or cargo of aircraft, such as entry clearance, immigration,
passports, customs, and quarantine, shall be complied with by or on behalf of passengers, crew
or cargo upon entrance into or departure from, or while within the territory of that State.
Article 17 Nationality of Aircraft
Aircraft have the nationality of the State in which they are registered.
Article 18 Dual Registration
An aircraft cannot be validly registered in more than one State, but its registration may be
changed from one State to another.
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Aircraft on a flight to, from, or across the territory of another Contracting State shall
be admitted temporarily free of duty, subject to the customs regulations of the State.
Fuel, lubricating oils, spare parts, regular equipment and aircraft spares on board an
aircraft of a Contracting State, on arrival in the territory of another Contracting State
and retained on board on leaving the territory of that State shall be exempt from
customs duty, inspection fees or similar national or local duties and charges. This
exemption shall not apply to any quantities or articles unloaded, except in
accordance with the customs regulations of the State, which may require that they
shall be kept under customs supervision.
Spare parts and equipment imported into the territory of a Contracting State for
incorporation in or use on an aircraft of another Contracting State engaged in
international air navigation shall be admitted free of customs duty, subject to
compliance with the regulations of the State concerned, which may provide that the
articles shall be kept under customs supervision and control.
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Each Contracting State reserves the right to refuse to recognize, for the purposes of flight above
its own territory, certificates of competency and licences granted to any of its nationals by other
Contracting States.
Article 33 Recognition of Certificates And Licences
Certificates of airworthiness and certificates of competency and licences issued or rendered valid
by the Contracting State in which the aircraft is registered, shall be recognized as valid by other
Contracting States, provided that the requirements under which certificates or licences were
issued or rendered valid are equal to or above the minimum standards established by the
Convention.
Article 36 Photographic Apparatus
Each Contracting State may prohibit or regulate the use of photographic apparatus in aircraft over
its territory.
Article 37 Adoption of International Standards And Procedures
Each Contracting State undertakes to collaborate in securing the highest practicable degree of
uniformity in regulations, standards, procedures and organization in relation to aircraft, personnel,
airways and auxiliary services in all matters in which such uniformity will facilitate and improve air
navigation.
To this end the ICAO shall adopt and amend, as may be necessary, international standards and
recommended practices and procedures dealing with:
and other such matters concerned with the safety, regularity, and efficiency of air navigation as
may from time to time appear appropriate.
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THE ORGANISATION
ASSEMBLY
All Contracting States one member one vote
COUNCIL
33 Contracting States elected by the Assembly
(President of the Council is elected by the Council)
Air Navigation
Commission
Air Transport
Committee
Legal Committee
Committee on Joint
Support of Air Navigation
Services
Finance Committee
Committee on
Unlawful Interference
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Objectives
The aims and objectives of the organization are to develop the principles and techniques of
international air navigation and to foster the planning and development of international air
transport so as to:
Ensure the safe and orderly growth of international civil aviation throughout the world.
Encourage the arts of aircraft design and operation for peaceful purposes.
Encourage the development of airways, airports and air navigation facilities for
international civil aviation.
Meet the needs of the peoples of the world for safe, regular, efficient and economical
air transport.
Prevent economic waste caused by unreasonable competition.
Ensure that the rights of Contracting States are fully respected and that every
Contracting State has a fair opportunity to operate international airlines.
Avoid discrimination between Contracting States.
Promote safety of flight in international air navigation.
Promote generally the development of all aspects of international civil aeronautics.
THE ASSEMBLY
The Assembly shall meet not less than once every three years and shall be convened by the
Council at a suitable time and place. An extraordinary meeting of the Assembly may be held at
any time upon the call of the Council or at the request of not less than 1/5th of the total number of
Contracting States. All Contracting States shall have an equal right to be represented at the
meetings of the Assembly and each Contracting State shall be entitled to one vote. A majority of
the Contracting States is required to constitute a quorum for the meetings of the Assembly.
Unless otherwise provided in this Convention, decisions of the Assembly shall be taken by a
majority of the votes cast.
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ICAO regulations are not automatically the law of a contracting state. All regulations have to be
enacted as part of the law of that state.
Status of Annex Components
All Annexes are made up of the following components, not all of which are necessarily found in
every Annex:
Standards and Recommended Practices
Standards and Recommended Practices (generally known as SARPs) are adopted by the
ICAO Council under the provisions of the Chicago Convention. They are defined as
follows:
Standard
Any specification for physical characteristics, configuration, material,
performance, personnel or procedure, the uniform application of which is
recognized as necessary for the safety or regularity of International Navigation
and to which Contracting States will conform in accordance with the convention.
In the event of non-compliance then notification to the council is compulsory. The
word 'SHALL' defines a standard.
Recommended Practice
Any specification for physical characteristics, configuration, material,
performance, personnel or procedure, the uniform application of which is
recognized as desirable for the safety or regularity of International Navigation
and to which Contracting States will endeavour to conform in accordance with
the convention. In the event of non-compliance then notification to the council is
not compulsory. The word 'SHOULD' defines a recommended practice.
Procedures for Air Navigation Services (PANS)
These are procedures that have been adopted by the council for worldwide use. They can
contain:
New procedures, or those which are too complicated or detailed for inclusion in an
Annex.
Operating procedures that have not attained a status for adoption as International
Standards and Recommended Practices.
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ICAO Circulars
Any information that is of specific interest to contracting states is transmitted by these documents.
The freedom of innocent passage. The right to fly across the territory of a state
without landing.
Two
Freedom of Facilities. The right to use (land in) foreign territory to refuel or carry
out maintenance. This does not give any traffic rights.
Three The right to carry revenue traffic(1) from the operator state (A) to a treaty partner
state (B).
Four
The right to carry revenue traffic from a treaty partner state (B) to the operator
state (A).
Five
The right to carry revenue traffic between any points of landing on flights
between 3 or more treaty partner nations (A to B to C). This is the most important
'freedom' as it effectively facilitates international traffic operations. The term 'a
fifth freedom flight' is used extensively.
(Do not get this freedom mixed up with Cabotage)
SUPPLEMENTARY FREEDOMS
Since 1944, evolution of international air transport has led to situations not envisioned at Chicago.
These are now embodied in 'new' freedoms. (These are outside the learning objectives for 010
Air Law).
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Seven Revenue traffic flown between two nations (A and B) by carrier of a third nation
(C) without the flight originating, terminating, or landing in state C.
Eight
Nine
Code Sharing. The combining of two or more scheduled flights under one
operation. This preserves the schedules but economises on aircraft and
effectively increases passenger loading. Technically, this is a breach of the
schedule agreement between states. However, reduced pollution, reduced noise
nuisance, increased profits, and reduced aerodrome loading all make code
sharing attractive to both aviation authorities and operators alike.
An offence has been committed on board in the territorial airspace of that state.
An offence committed on board has an effect on the territory of the state.
An offence has been committed on board against a national, or permanent resident,
of that state.
An offence has been committed on board against the security of that state.
The offence committed is a breach of the rules or regulations relating to the flight of
aircraft in that state.
The exercise of jurisdiction is necessary to ensure the observance of any multinational agreements between states.
Pilot in Command
If a person commits, or is about to commit, an unlawful act on board an aircraft, the
aircraft commander may impose reasonable measures, including restraint, considered
necessary:
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To enable handing a person over to the competent authorities. This can include
removal of a passenger from an aircraft, or refusal of permission for a person to
board an aircraft.
To carry out his task the aircraft commander may require the assistance of other crew
members. Passengers may also be asked to assist, if necessary.
Commit acts of violence on board aircraft that endanger people and property and the
safety of the aircraft.
Destroy an aircraft in service or cause damage which renders the aircraft incapable of
flight or which is likely to endanger the safety of flight.
Place a device on board an aircraft that is likely to destroy the aircraft, damage it, or
render it unfit for flight.
Destroy or damage any navigation facility or interference with its correct operation.
Interfere with aircraft communications or transmit information known to be false that
endangers the safety of an aeroplane in flight.
Note: In this context, a protocol is a diplomatic method whereby the content of an agreement can
be amended without the need to re-convene the entire convention.
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ADDENDUM TO CHAPTER 2
The LOs for 010 Air Law require the student to have knowledge of defined parts of the Chicago
Convention. For completeness, the remaining Articles of the Convention (those not covered in the
body of Chapter 2) are reproduced below.
The Convention on International Civil Aviation (Chicago Convention)
Article 8 Pilotless Aircraft
No aircraft capable of being flown without a pilot shall be flown without a pilot over the territory of
a Contracting State without special authorization by that State and in accordance with the terms
of such authorization. Each Contracting State undertakes to ensure that the flight of such aircraft
without a pilot in regions open to civil aircraft shall be controlled as to obviate danger to civil
aircraft.
Article 9 Prohibited Areas
Each Contracting State may, for reasons of military necessity or public safety, restrict
or prohibit the aircraft of other States from flying over certain areas of its territory.
This is provided that no distinction in this respect is made between the aircraft of the
State whose territory is involved. Prohibited areas shall be of reasonable extent and
location so as not to interfere unnecessarily with air navigation. Descriptions of
prohibited areas in the territory of a Contracting State, as well as any subsequent
alterations, shall be communicated as soon as possible to other Contracting States
and to the ICAO.
Each Contracting State reserves the right, in exceptional circumstances or during a
period of emergency, or in the interests of public safety, and with immediate effect, to
restrict or prohibit flying over the whole or any part of its territory temporarily. Such a
restriction or prohibition shall be applicable without distinction of nationality to aircraft
of all other States.
Each Contracting State, under any regulations as it may prescribe may require any
aircraft entering the areas in the paragraphs above to effect a landing as soon as
practicable thereafter at a designated airport within its territory.
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Provide, in its territory, airports, radio services, meteorological services and other air
navigation facilities to facilitate international air navigation, in accordance with the
standards and practices recommended or established by the Convention.
Adopt and put into operation the appropriate standard systems of communications
procedures, codes, markings, signals, lighting and other operational practices and
rules which may be recommended or established by the Convention.
Collaborate in international measures to secure the publication of aeronautical maps
and charts in accordance with standards that may be recommended or established
by the Convention.
A certificate of registration
A certificate of airworthiness
The appropriate licences for each member of the crew
A journey log book
If equipped with radio apparatus, the aircraft radio station licence
If passengers are carried, a list of their names and places of embarkation and
destination
If cargo is carried, a manifest and detailed declarations of the cargo
Air Law
Aircraft of a Contracting State may, in or over the territory of other Contracting States,
carry radio-transmitting apparatus if a licence to install and operate the radio has
been issued by the appropriate authorities of the State in which the aircraft is
registered. The use of radio transmitting apparatus in the territory of the Contracting
State whose territory is flown over shall be in accordance with the regulations
prescribed by that State.
Radio transmitting apparatus can only be used by members of the flight crew who are
provided with a radio licence issued by the appropriate authorities of the State in
which the aircraft is registered.
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Any aircraft or part thereof with respect to which there exists an international
standard of airworthiness or performance, and which failed in any respect to satisfy
the standard at the time of its certification, shall have endorsed on or attached to its
airworthiness certificate a complete list of the details in respect of which it failed.
Any person holding a licence who does not satisfy in full the conditions laid down in
the international standard relating to the class of licence or certificate which he holds
shall have endorsed on or attached to his licence the details of the particulars in
which he does not satisfy such conditions.
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Vote annual budgets and determine the financial arrangements of the organization, in
accordance with the provisions of Chapter XII
Review expenditures and approve the accounts of the organization
Refer, at its discretion, to the Council, to subsidiary commissions, or to any other
body any matter within its sphere of action
Delegate to the Council the powers and authority necessary or desirable for the
discharge of the duties of the organization and revoke or modify the delegations of
authority at any time
Carry out the appropriate provisions of Chapter XIII
Consider proposals for the modification or amendment of the provisions of this
Convention and, if it approves of the proposals, recommend them to the Contracting
States in accordance with the provisions of Chapter XXI
Deal with any matter within the sphere of action of the Organization not specifically
assigned to the Council
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Consider and recommend to the Council for adoption, modifications of the Annexes
to this Convention
Establish technical sub-commissions on which any Contracting State may be
represented, if it so desires
Advise the Council concerning the collection and communication to the Contracting
States of all information which it considers necessary and useful for the advancement
of air navigation
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Chapter 3
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Chapter 3
ECAC OBJECTIVES
ECAC membership, which includes all EC countries, needed to institute procedures consistent
with those resulting from the EC treaty and the Single European Act. The recommendations
made by the European Parliament and the Council of Europe needed a co-ordinated approach to
ensure air safety within Europe. In 1970, some European civil aviation authorities started to cooperate with a view to producing common Joint Airworthiness Requirements so as to facilitate
certification of products built jointly in Europe. This led to the Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA)
Board becoming an associated body to ECAC in 1989. The JAA Board oversees arrangements
between a number of ECAC states providing for co-operation in developing and implementing
common safety standards and procedures.
Air Law
To ensure through co-operation common high levels of safety within the member
states.
Through the application of uniform safety standards, to contribute to fair and equal
competition within the member states.
To aim for cost effective safety and minimum regulatory burden so as to contribute to
the European industries international competitiveness.
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The JAA operates in a manner that is as close as possible to a single authority, without yet
formally or legally becoming a single international body where each individual state gives up its
ultimate responsibilities. JAA membership is open to the civil aviation authorities of the ECAC
member States. Each National Aviation Authority (NAA) continues to exist and carry out specific
delegated roles within the JAA. The NAA issues licences and regulates the operators of that
state.
FUNCTIONS OF JAA
The authorities use the JAA to perform the following functions:
To develop, adopt, and publish Joint Aviation Requirements (JARs) for the use of the
Authorities in the field of design, manufacture, maintenance and operations, and the
licensing of aviation personnel.
To develop administrative and technical procedures for the implementation of JARs.
To implement JARs and related administrative and technical procedures in a coordinated and uniform manner.
To adopt measures to ensure, whenever possible, that pursuance of the JAA safety
objective does not unreasonably distort competition between the aviation industries
of member states or place companies of member states at a competitive
disadvantage with those of non-member states.
To provide the principal centre of professional expertise in Europe on the
harmonisation of aviation safety regulations.
To establish procedures for joint certification of products and services and where it is
considered appropriate to perform joint certification.
To co-operate on the harmonisation of requirements and procedures with other
safety regulatory authorities, especially the US Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA).
Where feasible, to co-operate with foreign safety regulatory authorities, especially the
FAA, on the certification of products and services.
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Secretary General
Regulation
Certification
Maintenance
Operations
Licensing
Administration
JAA/FAA HARMONISATION
The two major aircraft producers in the world are the United States and Europe. In the USA the
FAA regulates the industry, whereas in Europe the disparate national authorities were
uncoordinated. In order to overcome this, the JAA acts as the regulatory body to bring the
European procedures into line with the FAA. The effect of this has been to make European
products acceptable to the North American market and also to give European manufacturers a
market in Europe for spares for aircraft made in North America. It is no coincidence that the
regulations concerning large aeroplanes are contained in JAR 25, whereas the FAA equivalent is
FAR 25. Likewise, commuter category aircraft regulations are contained in JAR 23 and FAR 23.
INTENTION
It is the intention to eventually form the European Aviation Authority. This is in keeping with the
aims of the EU and the Council of Europe. Once established, the EAA will be the regulatory body
responsible for civil aviation in Europe. Until then, the NAAs will provide the regulatory framework
and the necessary manpower.
EUROCONTROL
Eurocontrol was formed in 1965, and its membership encompasses most of Europe and some
non-European adjacent states. The stated objectives of Eurocontrol are:
From its origins as the Maastricht (Holland) ACC, providing a centralised ATC service for the
Benelux countries and Northern Germany, Eurocontrol now provides ATC services for most
European flight information regions (FIRs). It actually controls operations in the upper airspace
from two ATCC (Maastricht and Vienna) and has R&D facilities in Luxembourg, Maastricht, and
Bretigny near Paris. Eurocontrol also provides a very efficient centralised enroute charge
recovery service on behalf of the states, which even non-Eurocontrol states use.
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FLOW MANAGEMENT
Since 1988, Eurocontrol has provided the centralised flow management unit (CFMU) for
European airspace. Virtually all flights within Europe are subject to flow management and the
process is expanding to cover 'gate to gate' operations, including operations on the ground at
airports. The R&D operations of Eurocontrol are involved in the use of PRNAV to eliminate
airways and also the elimination of voice communications by the use of data link systems.
ATC HARMONISATION
Eurocontrol is also at the heart of the ATC harmonisation process in Europe and the surrounding
states, which will lead to the development of a data processing and handling system capable of
taking inputs from any ATC system in the world. The first link in this network is the new ATCC at
Swanwick, near Southampton, providing area control for the London FIR and UIR.
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INTRODUCTION
For this particular subject, the Learning Objectives require the student to have knowledge of
ICAO Annex 1 (Personnel Licensing) and JAR Flight Crew Licensing, commonly referred to as
JAR-FCL. However, the majority of the questions in the CQB are drawn from ICAO.
Unfortunately, there are areas where JAR FCL differs from Annex 1.
As these notes are intended only to provide the references to pass the examinations, they must
not be used as a reference for matters relating to your licence. In such cases, consult JAR FCL or
your national Civil Aviation Authority. In the U.K., the U.K. CAA publishes LASORS as guidance.
JAR-FCL
JAR-FCL is published in four parts:
JAR-FCL 1
JAR-FCL 2
JAR-FCL 3
JAR-FCL 4
Aeroplanes
Helicopters
Medical Requirements
Flight Engineers
Student pilots
Private Pilots - PPL(A)
Commercial pilots - CPL(A)
Instrument Rating (Aeroplane) - IR(A)
Class and Type Rating (Aeroplane)
Airline Transport Pilot Licence (Aeroplane) - ATPL (A)
Instructor ratings
Examiners
Theoretical knowledge requirements for examinations (1)
Note 1: Because knowledge of the requirements for examinations is required by the LOs for
010 Air Law, the JAA FCL Committee have determined that the knowledge requirements for
all subjects are examinable under subject 010 Air Law. For this reason, there are questions in
the Air Law exam relating to Met, Mass and Balance, Communications etc.
Air Law
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Chapter 4
Annex 1
Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs) have been established for licensing the
following personnel:
Validity of Licence
In order to exercise the privileges of the licence, the licence must remain valid by maintaining
competency; maintaining necessary ratings; meeting recent experience requirements, and
holding a valid medical assessment.
Period of Licence Issue
Providing the requirements for a valid licence are maintained, a licence issued will remain in force
for a period determined by the State of Licence Issue (ICAO).
JAR-FCL
A licence holder shall not exercise the privileges granted by any licence or rating issued by a
JAA Member State unless the holder maintains competency by meeting the relevant
requirements of JAR-FCL. The validity of the licence is determined by the validity of the
ratings contained therein and the medical certificate. The licence will be issued for a
maximum period of 5 years. Within this period of 5 years the licence may be re-issued by the
authority:
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Chapter 4
The licence holder must apply for the re-issue of the licence. This application must include all
necessary documentation. Valid ratings will be transferred to a new licence document by the
authority.
State of Licence Issue
An applicant shall demonstrate the satisfactory completion of all requirements for licence issue to
the authority of the State under whose authority the training and testing for the licence were
carried out. Following licence issue, this State shall thereafter be referred to as the State of
licence issue. Further ratings may be obtained under JAR-FCL requirements in any JAA Member
State and will be entered into the licence by the State of Licence issue.
Normal Residency
Normal residency means the place where a person usually lives for at least 185 days in each
calendar year because of personal and occupational ties or, in the case of a person with no
occupational ties, because of personal ties which show close links between that person and the
place where they are living.
Exercising the Privileges of the Licence
The holder of a licence or rating shall not exercise privileges other than those granted by that
licence or rating.
Licences, Ratings, Authorisations, Approvals or Certificates Issued by JAA Member States
Where a person, organization, or a service has been licenced, issued with a rating, authorisation,
approval, or certificate by the authority of a JAA member state in accordance with the
requirements of JAR-FCL and associated procedures, such licences, ratings, authorisations,
approvals or certificates shall be accepted without formality by other JAA member states.
Licences Issued by Non-JAA States
A licence issued by a non-JAA State may be rendered valid for use on aircraft registered in a JAA
member state, at the discretion of the authority of that JAA member state. Validation of a
professional pilots licence shall not exceed one year from the date of validation, provided that the
basic licence remains valid. Any further validation for use on aircraft registered in any JAA
member state is subject to agreement by the JAA member states and to any conditions seen fit
within the JAA. The user of a licence validated by a JAA member state shall comply with the
requirements stated in JAR-FCL. If the validation of a non-JAA licence is revoked for any reason,
the State of Licence Issue will be informed by the JAA state.
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Chapter 4
Helicopter
Microlight helicopters
Gyroplanes
Microlights with fixed wings and moveable aerodynamic control surfaces
Flight Instruction
The applicant for a PPL(A) must have completed 25 hours dual instruction and 10 hours
supervised solo, including 5 hours of cross-country flight time. One cross-country flight must be of
at least 150 nm, and include full stop landings at two aerodromes different from the original
departure aerodrome. Where previous credit for PIC time is granted the dual instruction may be
reduced to not less than 20 hours.
Commercial Pilot
(Aeroplane) CPL(A)
Licence
Airline
Transport
Aeroplane (ATPL)
Licence
Minimum Age
18
21
Medical
Fitness
Privileges
and
Conditions
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Chapter 4
ATPL(A) EXPERIENCE
An applicant for an ATPL(A) shall have completed as a pilot of aeroplanes at least 1500 hours of
flight time. A maximum of 100 hours flight simulator time may be included in this figure. Specific
qualifications required within the 1500 hours flight time are:
CPL(A) EXPERIENCE
Integrated Course 150 hours of flight time
Modular Course 200 hours of flight time
The applicant must have completed:
100 hours as PIC, 70 hours if completed during a course of integrated training;
20 hours of cross country flight time as PIC. This must include a cross-country flight of at
least 300 nm during which include full stop landings at two aerodromes different from the
original departure aerodrome;
10 hours of instrument instruction time of which not more than 5 hours is to be instrument
ground time; and
5 hours of night flight time.
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Co-Pilot
Credited in full with all co-pilot time towards the total flight time required for a higher
grade of pilot licence;
The holder of a pilot licence when acting as co-pilot performing under the supervision of
the PIC the functions and duties of a PIC shall be entitled to be credited in full with this
flight time required for a higher grade of licence. The method of supervision must be
approved by the authority.
INSTRUCTOR RATINGS
An instructor rating is valid for 3 years. To be allowed to begin a Flight Instructor (FI(A)) course
the pilot must have 200 hours of flight time of which 100 hours must be PIC if the pilot is the
holder of an ATPL(A) or CPL(A); 150 hours PIC if the holder of a PPL(A) and be the holder of the
knowledge requirements for CPL(A).
The following must also have been carried out:
EXAMINERS (AEROPLANE)
The following examiner roles are recognised:
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Qualification
An applicant for authorisation as an examiner is to hold a licence and rating at least equal to the
licence or rating for which they are applying to be authorised to examine.
Validity of Authorisation
An examiners authorisation is valid for a period of not more than 3 years. Examiners
authorisation is renewed at the discretion of the Authority.
FE(A)
An FE(A) is permitted to conduct skill tests and proficiency checks for the issue of PPL(A) and
CPL(A) licences provided he/she has not less than 2000 hours (1000 hours for PPL(A) only) flight
experience including not less than 250 hours flight instruction.
CLASS RATINGS
Class ratings are established for single pilot aeroplanes not requiring a type rating as follows:
ICAO:
JAR-FCL:
All single engine piston aeroplanes (land and sea)
All touring motor gliders
Each manufacturer of single engined turbo-prop aeroplanes (land and sea)
All multi engined piston aeroplanes (land and sea)
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TYPE RATINGS
Other than those aeroplanes included in the class ratings above, the following aeroplanes require
type ratings:
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Chapter 4
RECENT EXPERIENCE
A pilot shall not operate an aeroplane carrying passengers as the pilot in command or co-pilot
unless he has carried out:
At least 3 take-offs and 3 landings as pilot flying in the same type/class or flight simulator
in the preceding 90 days, and
If the flight is at night, and the holder does not hold a valid Instrument Rating, one of the
take-offs and one of the landings must be carried out at night.
Operators who apply more stringent requirements may apply limiting criteria to pilots (in terms of
Decision Height and prevailing RVR) who nevertheless meet the general recent experience
criteria.
Age 65
The holder of a pilot licence who has reached the age of 65 years shall not act as a pilot of an
aeroplane engaged in commercial air transport operations.
Note: Age 60 means the first day of the pilots 61st year of life. In other words, the day
after he/she is 59 years and 364 days old. Generally, a pilot may exercise the privileges
of an ATPL(A) licence throughout the inclusive ages of 21 59.
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Chapter 4
MEDICAL REQUIREMENTS
Fitness
The holder of a medical certificate shall be mentally and physically fit to exercise safely the
privileges of the applicable licence.
Medical Fitness
An applicant for a licence must hold a medical assessment applicable for the type of licence
being applied for. An initial issue medical assessment in accordance with Annex 1 pt 6 or JARFCL 3 is required for flight-crew members. Re-validation of assessment is achieved by periodic
examination accordance with Annex 1 part 6 or JAR-FCL 3, which is generally less demanding
than the initial assessment. Only an approved aeromedical examiner (AME) may issue a medical
assessment. Flight-crew members shall not exercise the privileges of their licence unless their
medical assessment is in date.
ICAO
Each contracting state designates medical examiners that are authorized to issue the medical
assessment. ICAO has established 3 classes of medical assessment (Classes 1, 2, and 3). The
class 3 medical is applicable to Air Traffic Controllers only.
JAR-FCL
In order to apply for or to exercise the privileges of a licence, the applicant or holder shall hold a
medical certificate issued in accordance with the provisions of JAR-FCL Part 3 (Medical) and
appropriate to the privileges of the licence. The JAA has established 2 classes of medical
assessment (Classes 1 and 2).
Periods of Validity of Medical Assessment
A medical assessment has a period of validity after which re-validation (by medical examination)
is required. Upon expiry of validation, a class 1 medical assessment is automatically reduced to
class 2. Therefore the holder of an ATPL(A) or CPL(A) will then not be permitted to exercise the
privileges of their licence.
ATPL(A)
A class 1 medical assessment is required. The validity of the assessment certificate is
12 months. This reduces to 6 months after the licence holder passes their 40th birthday.
CPL(A)
A class 1 medical assessment is required. The validity of the assessment certificate is
12 months. This reduces (JAR-FCL) to 6 months (is recommended to reduce to
6 months - ICAO) after the licence holder passes their 40th birthday.
PPL(A)
A minimum of class 2 medical assessment is required. The validity of the assessment
certificate is 24 months. ICAO recommends that this is reduced to 12 months after the
licence holder has reached their 40th birthday.
Deferment
ICAO permits the deferment of the required medical examination to revalidate a medical
assessment under certain circumstances. JAR-FCL does not. According to ICAO, a licence
holder engaged in commercial operations in a remote area where an aeromedical examiner is not
resident, may, upon receipt of a favourable report by a physician, extend the period of validity of
the medical assessment for two consecutive periods of three months. The report of the physician
is to be sent to the authority issuing the licence.
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Chapter 4
4-12
Air Law
The Conference of Paris in 1919 required all contracting states to establish registers of all aircraft
in that state other than military. When establishing the register for that state, the state becomes
the State of Registration for all the aircraft in the register. Annex 7 of the Convention of
International Civil Aviation contains the Standards adopted by the ICAO for the marking of
aircraft.
Composition
Apart from Switzerland and Liechtenstein where the national symbols of the States are part of the
markings, the nationality and registration marks consist of a group of characters (Letters or letters
and numbers).
Common Mark
In order to meet the requirements of an international organisation, aircraft operated by such an
organisation may be required to be registered in more than one state. As no aircraft is permitted
to display nationality markings of more than one state, a common marking is used instead of the
nationality mark. ICAO maintains the list of aircraft registered under any common mark, but
allocates responsibility to a contracting state (usually a state involved in the operation) to act as
the State of Registration for the purpose of determining the airworthiness of the aircraft
concerned. The common mark is assigned by ICAO (the Common Mark Agency) from an
available list produced by the International Telecommunications Agency.
Nationality Mark
The nationality mark is selected from the nationality symbols included in the radio call signs
allocated to the State of Registry by the International Telecommunication Union.
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Combination
The nationality or common mark precedes the registration mark. When the first character of the
registration mark is a letter it is preceded by a hyphen.
G
Nationality
Mark
Hyphen
ABCD
Registration
Mark
Acceptable Combinations
The normal combination is one character for the nationality mark and four characters for the
registration mark. Where the nationality mark consists of two characters (i.e. Eire - EI) the
registration mark consists of only 3 characters (i.e. EI ABC). Where the nationality mark
consists of three characters (i.e. Oman A4O) the registration mark consists of only two
characters (i.e. A4O AB).
Prohibited Combinations
When letters are used for the registration mark, combinations containing (in sequence) the
following are not used:
The five letter combinations used in the International Code of Signals (1) ;and
The three letter combinations beginning with Q used in the Q code (ie QUG I am
ditching); and
SOS, XXX, PAN and TTT (2)
Note 1: These are the arrangement of signal flags, each of which indicates a particular
letter or number, used at sea to pass messages visually. Certain arrangements of 5 flags
(hence 5 letters) indicate specific meanings.
Note 2: SOS = distress; XXX and PAN = urgency; TTT = safety (a third level of
emergency communication alert now only used in maritime operations).
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HEAVIER-THAN-AIR AIRCRAFT
Wings
On heavier-than-air aircraft the marks shall appear once on the lower surface of the wing
and shall be at least 50 cm in normally viewed vertical size.
Fuselage and Vertical Tail Surfaces
On heavier-than-air aircraft the marks shall appear on each side of the fuselage between
the wings and the tail surface and shall be at least 30 cm in normally viewed vertical size.
REGISTRATION OF AIRCRAFT
CERTIFICATE OF REGISTRATION
The certificate of registration shall be carried in the aircraft at all times. The certificate of
registration, in wording and arrangement, shall be a replica of the form shown below.
Registration Certificate
State or
Common Mark Registering Authority
Ministry
Department or Service
CERTIFICATE OF REGISTRATION
1. Nationality or Common
Mark and Registration Mark
2. Manufacture and
Manufacturers Designation
of Aircraft
3. Aircraft Serial No
4. Name of Owner .
5. Address of Owner ..
6. It is hereby certified that the above described aircraft has been duly entered on the (Name
of Register) in accordance with the Convention on International Civil Aviation dated 7th
December 1944 and with the .
Signature
Date of Issue ..
* For use by the State of Registry or common mark registering authority
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IDENTIFICATION PLATE
All aircraft must carry an identification plate, secured to the aircraft in a prominent position near
the main entrance plate, made of fireproof metal, or fireproof material inscribed with:
CLASSIFICATION OF AIRCRAFT
AIRCRAFT
Lighter-than-air
Non-Power driven
Free Balloon
Captive
Balloon
Power driven
Airship
Heavier-than-air
Non-Power driven
Glider
Kite
Power driven
Aeroplane
Gyroplane
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Landplane
Seaplane
Amphibian
Ornithopter
Rotorcraft
Land gyroplane
Sea gyroplane
Amphibian
gyroplanes
Helicopter
Land helicopter
Sea helicopter
Amphibian
helicopter
Land ornithopter
Sea ornithopter
Amphibian
ornithopter
Air Law
INTRODUCTION
Annex 8 contains the standards for airworthiness required for aircraft to meet the performance
and operational requirements of Annex 6 (Operation of Aircraft). States should not attempt to
impose operational requirements on visiting aeroplanes other than those established by the State
of Registry, providing they comply with Annex 6. Annex 8 is published in three parts; with part 3
applicable to aircraft engaged in commercial air transport with a MTOM greater than 5700 Kg.
The standards are applicable to the entire aircraft and in order for the standards to be applicable
the aircraft must have at least 2 engines.
CERTIFICATE OF AIRWORTHINESS (C OF A)
The C of A for an aircraft is issued by the State of Registration (or approved representatives). A
state can withhold a C of A if the aircraft is known, or suspected, to have dangerous features not
specifically covered by the airworthiness requirements. An aircraft is not permitted to fly without a
valid C of A. For the initial C of A to be issued the following are required:
An approved design to show that the aircraft complies with the airworthiness
requirements;
Records kept to establish the identification of the aircraft with its approved design;
An inspection of the aircraft during the course of construction to determine that it
conforms to the approved design;
An inspection of the aircraft to establish that its construction and assembly are
satisfactory;
Flight tests as deemed necessary to show compliance with the airworthiness
requirements.
Flight Crew
The minimum number of flight crew personnel necessary to operate the aeroplane should be
listed on the C of A.
Transfer of Registration
When an aircraft which has a valid C of A is entered on the register of another state, the new
State of Registry may accept the C of A as satisfactory evidence that the aircraft is airworthy.
Continuing Airworthiness of Aircraft
The continuing airworthiness of an aircraft shall be determined by the State of Registry in relation
to the requirements in force for that aircraft. The State of Registry shall also develop or adopt
requirements to ensure the continuing airworthiness of an aircraft throughout its life.
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Airworthiness of Aircraft
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Airworthiness of Aircraft
Chapter 6
CERTIFICATE OF AIRWORTHINESS
*
State of Registry
Issuing Authority
CERTIFICATE OF AIRWORTHINESS
1. Nationality or Common
Mark and Registration Mark
2. Manufacture and
Manufacturers Designation
of Aircraft
3. Aircraft Serial No
4. Categories .
This Certificate of Airworthiness is issued pursuant to the Convention on International Civil
Aviation dated 7th December 1944 and .. in respect of the above-mentioned
aircraft which is considered to be airworthy when maintained and operated in accordance with
the foregoing and the pertinent operating limitations.
Date of Issue
Signature ..
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Airworthiness of Aircraft
Air Law
INTRODUCTION
From the early days of flying, rules were established to prevent accidents. Many of the basic rules
now in force have their origins in the days before the use of radios in aircraft and are based on
visual observation of activity in the air and on the ground. Whilst these may seem somewhat
quaint or unnecessary in the age of digital data and radar systems, when the new technology
fails, the mark one eyeball still functions. These rules are now known as the Rules of the Air
(RoA). The Rules are defined as general rules with additional rules for flight under VFR and flight
under IFR. Together the general rules and rules for flight under VFR are known as the Visual
Flight Rules. The general rules and rules for flight under IFR are known as the Instrument Flight
Rules.
Reference:
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Pre-Flight Action
The PIC of an aircraft must plan the flight after having pre-briefed himself with all available
information appropriate to the flight. Flights away from the vicinity of an aerodrome, and all IFR
flights shall include a meteorological brief; a consideration of the fuel requirements and alternative
actions if the flight cannot be completed as planned.
Authority of the Pilot in Command (PIC) of an Aircraft
The PIC of an aircraft shall have final authority over the disposition of an aircraft while in
command. If for safety reasons the PIC decides to ignore the rules of the air or not comply with
an ATC clearance, he/she must report the non-compliance as soon as possible. In any event, a
report is to be submitted to the authority within 10 days.
Use of Intoxicating Liquor, Narcotics, or Drugs
No person is permitted to pilot an aircraft, or act as flight crew while under the influence of
intoxicating liquor, or any narcotic or drug, by reason of which that persons capacity to act is
impaired.
GENERAL RULES
NEGLIGENT OR RECKLESS OPERATION OF AIRCRAFT
An aircraft shall not be operated in a manner so as to endanger life or property of others.
MINIMUM HEIGHTS
An aircraft is not to be flown over the congested areas of cities, towns or settlements, or over an
open air assembly of persons, unless at a height that will permit, in the event of an emergency
(the failure of the critical power unit), a landing to be made without undue hazard to persons or
property on the surface. Exceptions to this rule are during take-off and landing, or with specific
permission from the appropriate authority. Minimum heights for VFR and IFR flights are covered
in the later sections.
CRUISING LEVELS
When established in the cruise, flights are conducted at flight levels (FLs) for flights above the
lowest useable FL or where applicable, above the Transition Altitude; or at an altitude for flights
below the lowest usable FL, or where applicable, at or below the Transition Altitude.
AVOIDANCE OF COLLISIONS
Always maintain a good look-out to detect potential collisions, regardless of the type of flight, the
flight conditions or the class of airspace in which the aircraft is operating, and while operating on
the movement area of an aerodrome.
Note: The movement area of an aerodrome includes the apron and the manoeuvring
area.
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Proximity
An aircraft is not to be operated so close to another aircraft so as to create a collision hazard.
Right of Way
Right of way means the right to proceed without alteration of course. The aircraft that has the
right of way is required to maintain its heading and speed, and observe the other aircraft whilst
the collision risk exists.
Nothing in these rules relieves the PIC of an aircraft that has the right of way, from the
responsibility of taking such action where necessary, including collision avoidance manoeuvres
based on resolution advisories provided by ACAS equipment.
Giving Way
Any aircraft that is obliged to keep out of the way of another aircraft (give way), must not pass
over, under, or in front of that aircraft, unless it is well clear and takes into account the effect of
wake turbulence.
Approaching Head-On
When two aircraft are approaching head-on, or approximately so (+/- 10 of aircraft heading), and
there is a danger of collision, both are required to alter heading to the right. There is no priority of
aircraft type in this case. (Turn the RIGHT way. Why to the right? Because it is the RIGHT thing
to do!)
Approaching Head-On
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Converging
When two aircraft are converging at approximately the same level, the aircraft that has the other
on its right shall give way.
Converging
Converging Exceptions
The following exceptions apply to the general rule for converging aircraft:
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Overtaking
An aircraft that is being overtaken has the right of way and the overtaking aircraft, whether
climbing, descending, or in horizontal flight, shall keep out of the way by altering its heading to the
right. No change in the relative positions of the two aircraft absolves the overtaking aircraft from
this obligation until it is entirely past and clear. An overtaking aircraft is an aircraft that
approaches from the rear on a line forming an angle of less than 70. The pilot of an aircraft is to
be alert at all times to the possibility of being overtaken, therefore before commencing a turn, a
good visual scan is to be made to starboard and port as far as the view from the flight deck
window will allow.
Overtaking
Note: The overtaking aircraft is in a position where it is unable to see either the
aircrafts left (red light) or right (green light) navigation lights.
Landing
An aircraft in flight, or operating on the ground, shall give way to aircraft landing or in the final
stages of an approach to land.
Approaching to land
When two or more heavier-than-air aircraft are approaching an aerodrome to land (straight in
approach or final to land), aircraft at the higher level shall give way to aircraft at the lower level.
No aircraft shall take advantage of this rule by cutting in front of another aircraft that is on its final
approach. Power-driven heavier-than-air aircraft shall give way to gliders.
Emergency Landing
An aircraft that is aware that another aircraft is compelled to land shall give way to that aircraft.
Taking-off
An aircraft taxiing on the manoeuvring area of an aerodrome shall give way to aircraft taking-off
or about to take-off.
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Note 1: Lights such as landing lights and airframe floodlights may be used in addition to the
anti collision light to enhance aircraft conspicuity.
Note 2: Red anti collision lights may meet the requirements above provided that they do not
subject observers to harmful dazzle.
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Failure of Lights
When a pilot is aware that a navigation light has failed, ATC is to be informed and the aircraft is to
land and have the light repaired before continuing the flight.
Anti-Collision Lights
All aircraft, in flight or operating on the movement area of an aerodrome, that are fitted with anticollision lights, shall display these lights at all times. If an anti-collision light fails in flight, the light
is to be repaired prior to the next flight.
Harmful or Dazzling Lights
Pilots are permitted to switch off, or reduce the intensity of, any flashing lights if they adversely
affect the satisfactory performance of duties, or subject an outside observer to harmful dazzle.
FLIGHT PLANS
In this section, the term Flight Plan refers to an ATC flight plan (FPL). An ATC FPL is the method
by which the authority is notified of the intention of a pilot to make a flight where that flight is to be
provided with an ATC service, or is to be conducted in airspace where the authority has
determined that a FPL is to be submitted. The process of submitting a FPL is called filing a FPL.
ATC authorities provide approved formats for the information required in filing a full FPL. The UK
CAA format is the form CA48 that follows the ICAO standard FPL filing form. The student should
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note that a FPL is what the pilot intends to do, not the form upon which the plan is filed. Indeed, in
some circumstances it is not practical to use a form, and the pilots intention (his/her flight plan)
may be communicated by radio to the ATC unit. FPLs are required to be filed before:
Note: Flight across a Flight Information Region (FIR) boundary does not necessarily
require the filing of a FPL. For instance, a flight across the English/Scottish border
crosses the FIR boundary but does not cross an international boundary.
Where and When to File a FPL
When a FPL is necessary for a flight, file it to an Air Traffic Services (ATS) reporting office before
departure. The method of delivering the completed FPL form may be by hand, mail, fax,
electronic media, or verbally (phone). If the FPL is filed directly to the ATC Centre (ATCC), it
cannot be delivered by hand because the security staff will not let you in. A pilot can file an FPL in
flight by radio to an ATS unit, or an Air/Ground radio station. In the case of scheduled operations
or multiple repeats of a flight, a repetitive FPL (RPL) may be filed. To file an RPL, the flight must
be repeated 10 times or more, or repeated over a period of not less than 10 days.
60 minutes
For a flight to be provided with an ATC service or advisory ATC, the FPL is to be filed at
least 60 minutes before departure.
10 minutes
For the filing of a FPL in flight, the FPL is to be filed at least 10 minutes before the aircraft
is estimated to reach:
The intended point of entry into an area where ATC or advisory ATC is to be
provided; or
The point of crossing an airway or advisory route.
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Aircraft identification;
Departure aerodrome;
Destination aerodrome in the case of a diversion to an alternate aerodrome;
Arrival aerodrome;
Time of arrival.
Time
In all communications, time is to be expressed as Co-ordinated Universal Time (UTC) utilising the
24 hour clock. A time check is to be obtained before operating a controlled flight.
ATC Clearances
Commencement of a controlled flight may only be commenced after the receipt of an ATC
clearance. An initial ATC clearance includes the words clear to. It also includes ATC
instructions to be complied with by the pilot. If an ATC clearance received is not satisfactory or
cannot be complied with, the PIC may request an amended clearance. Before taxiing at a
controlled aerodrome a taxi clearance is to be obtained.
Current Flight Plan (CPL)
Flight in accordance with an ATC clearance and any subsequent re-clearance, is defined as flight
in accordance with the current FPL (CPL).
Adherence to the FPL
A pilot operating a controlled flight is required to adhere to the CPL. When flying along a defined
ATS route, the aircraft is to be flown along the centre line of the route. If no defined ATS route
exists, fly the aircraft directly between the navigation facilities used or the points that define the
route.
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Inadvertent Changes
If a controlled flight deviates from the CPL, the following action is to be taken:
Position Reports
Unless specifically exempted by the ATC authority, a pilot of a controlled flight is to make position
reports at the designated reporting points. If no reporting points are specified for a route, position
reports are to be made at intervals determined by the ATC authority. Such reports are to be made
30 minutes after commencement of the flight, then at hourly intervals. A position report includes:
aircraft identification, position, time at that position, and altitude or FL. Where automatic altitude
reporting has been confirmed, omit the altitude report. Additional information may be requested
by the ATC authority. For an airways report, the next position and ETA should be included and
optionally the ensuing position. An example of a full airways position report is:
London Control this is Atlantic 123, Daventry at 33, FL 170,
Bookmans Park at 49, Midhurst next
Termination of Control
When a controlled flight leaves controlled airspace (CAS), the pilot reports that the aircraft is
clear of CAS at which point the provision of an ATC service ceases.
COMMUNICATIONS
A controlled flight is required to maintain two way RTF communications with the controlling
ATCU. Where approved a SELCAL watch is an acceptable alternative. If Controller/Pilot Data
Link Communication (CPDLC) has been established, the requirement to maintain voice RTF
remains.
Communication Failure(1)
If an aircraft is unable to communicate (receive and acknowledge ATC instructions and indicate a
state of emergency), in addition to squawking Mode A/7600 and maintaining a visual watch for
signals, if flying in VMC, maintain VMC and land at the nearest suitable aerodrome. ATC is to be
informed as soon as possible once the aircraft lands. If flying in IMC (2):
7-10
Maintain the last assigned speed and/or level, for a period of 20 minutes after the
failure to report over the last compulsory reporting point(3) ; then;
Proceed in accordance with the FPL to the navigation facility serving the destination
aerodrome and hold on that facility; and
Descend from the facility at the last received and acknowledged Expected Approach
Time (EAT), or where no EAT has been issued, at the ETA from the FPL (4); then
Fly a normal instrument approach; and
Land within 30 minutes of the ETA.
Air Law
Chapter 7
Note 1: An aircraft may have many different systems for communication. These may
include VHF, HF, Data Link, SATCOM, satellite telephone, cell phones, and SSR. ATC
can also transmit voice RTF on the localiser channel of ILS. Total communications failure
in a modern aircraft is a remote possibility.
Note 2: Clearly, at any time during the procedure for failure in IMC, if the pilot finds VMC
then the aircraft should attempt to land whilst maintaining VMC.
Note 3: This would be the time when it can be assumed safely that the ATC authority is
now aware of the communications failure situation.
Note 4: If a communication failure occurs to an aircraft in a terminal holding pattern after
the receipt of an ATC message indicating delay not determined the descent at ETA
would be dangerous as aircraft may still be in the holding pattern below. In this case, the
advice is to leave the holding pattern in a safe direction maintaining the last assigned
level, find VMC and land. Consideration should be given to squawking A/7700.
Communications Failure During a Standard Instrument Departure in European Airspace
A departing controlled IFR flight operating in IMC, having acknowledged an initial intermediate
clearance to climb to a level other than the one specified in the current flight plan for the enroute
phase of the flight, and experiencing two-way radio communication failure should, if no time limit
or geographical limit was included in the climb clearance, maintain the level to which it was
cleared for a period of 7 minutes and then continue its flight in accordance with the current flight
plan. A departing controlled IFR flight vectored by radar away from the route specified in its
current flight plan and experiencing two-way radio communication failure should proceed in the
most direct manner to the route specified in the current flight plan.
Interception
Each State has the right to protect its territory and to satisfy itself that any aircraft applying the
freedoms of the air is bona-fide. If the authority of a state has suspicions that a flight is not what is
supposed to be, or has entered the airspace of a state without permission, it may invoke a
process of interception.
Interception Phraseology
It is usual for military interceptor aircraft to be used for this purpose, and there is a strong
likelihood that the military pilot may not speak English. ICAO has formulated standard
phraseology (reproduced below) and signals to be used in this situation.
Air Law
7-11
Chapter 7
Pronunciation
Meaning
Phrase
Pronunciation
Meaning
CALL SIGN
KOL SA-IN
CALL SIGN
KOL SA-IN
My call sign is
FOLLOW
FOL-LO
Follow me
WILCO
VILL-CO
Understood, will
comply
DESCEND
DEE-SEND
Descend for
landing
CAN NOT
KANN-NOTT
Unable to comply
YOU LAND
YOU-LAND
Land at this
aerodrome
REPEAT
REE-PEET
Repeat your
instruction
PROCEED
PRO-SEED
You may
proceed
AM LOST
AM LOSST
Position unknown
MAYDAY
MAYDAY
I am in distress
HIJACK
HI-JACK
I have been
hijacked
LAND
(Place name)
LAAND
I request to land at
(Place name)
DESCEND
DEE-SEND
I require descent
7-12
Air Law
Chapter 7
VMC Minima
VMC is determined by a required forward visibility from the flight deck (flight visibility) and
required vertical and horizontal distances from cloud. As the reference for this section of the LOs
is ICAO Annex 2, the VMC minima applicable to the RoA as defined in Annex 2 are stated in
Annex 2; Chapter 3; and paragraph 3.9. These are graphically illustrated in table 3-1 which is
reproduced below. The ICAO minima are different from those stated in JAR OPS-1 and those
applied by the UK CAA. The major difference is in the VMC minima specified for class B airspace.
Airspace
Class
A, B, C, D & E
(Note 3)
Distance
From Cloud
1500 m horizontally
300 m (1000 ft) vertically
Flight
Visibility
5 km (Note 2)
G
At and below 900 m
(3000 ft) AMSL or 300 m
(1000 ft) above terrain,
whichever is higher
Notes:
1. When the height of the transition altitude is lower than 3050 m (10 000 ft) AMSL, FL 100 should
be used in lieu of 10 000 ft.
2. When the ATS authority prescribe:
a. Lower flight visibilities to 1500 m may be permitted for flights operating:
1) At speeds that, in the prevailing visibility, give adequate opportunity to observe other
traffic or any obstacles in time to avoid collision, or
2) In circumstances in which the probability of encounters with other traffic would normally
be low e.g. in areas of low volume traffic and for aerial work at low levels.
b. Helicopters may be permitted to operate in less than 1500 m flight visibility, if manoeuvred at
a speed that gives adequate opportunity to observe other traffic or any obstacles in time to
avoid collision.
3. The inclusion of VMC minima for Class A airspace does not imply permitted VFR in Class A
airspace.
Night
ATS authorities may impose conditions, or proscribe VFR flights between sunset and sunrise.
Limits
Unless authorized by the appropriate ATS authority, VFR flights are not operated above FL200 or
at transonic and supersonic speeds.
Air Law
7-13
Chapter 7
Minimum Heights
Except when necessary for take-off and landing, or where permission has been granted from the
appropriate authority, a VFR flight shall not be flown:
Over the congested areas of cities, towns or settlements, or over an open air assembly of
persons, at a height less than 300 m (1000 ft) above the highest obstacle within a radius
of 600 m from the aircraft.
Elsewhere, at a height less than 150 m (500 ft) above the ground or water.
Air Law
Chapter 7
Aircraft Equipment
All aircraft flying under IFR are required to be equipped with suitable instruments and navigation
equipment appropriate to the route to be flown. The exact requirements are detailed in JAR OPS1 and are covered in Operational Procedures.
Minimum Levels
Except when necessary for take-off and landing, or when specifically authorized by the
appropriate authority, an IFR flight is to be flown at a level which is not below the minimum flight
altitude established by the state whose territory is being over flown. If a minimum altitude has not
been established, an IFR flight shall be flown at a level which is at least 300 m (1000 ft) above the
highest obstacle within 8 km (5 nm) of the estimated position of the aircraft. In mountainous
terrain, this is increased to 600 m (2000 ft).
Note: Mountainous terrain is defined as terrain over which the prevailing wind of 37 kts
produces significant downdraughts.
Change from IFR Flight to VFR Flight
An aircraft wishing to change from IFR to VFR in flight shall notify the appropriate ATS unit that
the IFR flight is cancelled and communicate the changes to be made to the current flight plan to
allow the flight to continue under VFR. The phraseology used is:
Coventry Approach this is Atlantic 123, cancel IFR, joining visually for runway.
The reply must be Atlantic 123 roger, IFR cancelled at time .
Note: It is the IFR flight that is cancelled, not the IFR flight plan.
Temporary Cancellation of IFR
When an aircraft operating under IFR is flown in, or encounters VMC, IFR shall not be cancelled
unless it is anticipated, and intended, that the flight will be continued for a reasonable period of
time in uninterrupted VMC.
Note: Reasonable period is interpreted as about 1/3rd of the total expected flight time.
Air Law
7-15
Chapter 7
COMMUNICATIONS
All IFR flights operating outside controlled airspace but within or into areas, or along routes
designated by the appropriate ATS authority shall maintain a listening watch on the appropriate
radio frequency. Two-way communications must be established with the ATS unit providing the
FIS.
POSITION REPORTS
Position reports are to be made by all IFR flights operating outside controlled airspace, and by
aircraft which are required by the appropriate ATS authority to submit a flight plan, maintain a
listening watch on the appropriate frequency or establish two way communications with the
appropriate ATS authority.
Procedure
The clearance given permits flight in meteorological conditions less than VMC providing the pilot
remains clear of cloud and in sight of the ground, and can navigate the aircraft by visual means.
In class A airspace, a SVFR clearance overrides the requirement for mandatory compliance with
IFR. A pilot must request SVFR. It will not be offered by ATC. SVFR is only applicable to CTRs.
The limit of the clearance is to or from the CTR boundary and does not extend beyond the CTR.
In busy CTRs, SVFR traffic lanes (SVFR corridors) are established as standard SVFR routes
beginning at specified points on the CTR boundary and terminating at the aerodrome served by
the route. Under certain circumstances, ATCOs will provide separation of IFR flights from SVFR
flights.
Take-off Conditions
According to ICAO a SVFR flight may take off from an aerodrome in a CTR providing the ground
visibility is not less than 1500 m. JAR OPS requires a ground visibility of not less than 3000 m.
Both references require a minimum flight visibility of 1500 m to continue a SVFR flight.
7-16
Air Law
Chapter 7
CRUISING LEVELS
Semi Circular Rule
The table of flight levels is based on VFR and IFR flight levels determined by reference to the
magnetic track flown. In areas where RVSM is applied, the table is modified. The basic rule is that
vertical separation between IFR FLs below FL290 is 1000 ft, as is the separation between VFR
FLs. Above FL290, the separation is increased to 2000 ft to allow for the inaccuracies in
barometric altimeters at altitudes where the barometric lapse rate is high (see Met notes).
000 Mag
000 Mag
Even
FLs
FLs
40
60
80
etc
up to
280
then
310
350
390
etc
FLs
50
70
90
etc
up to
290
then
330
370
410
etc
Odd
FLs
Even
FLs
+500ft
FLs
45
65
85
etc
up to
285
then
320
360
400
etc
FLs
55
75
95
etc
up to
275
then
300
340
380
etc
Odd
FLs
+500ft
180 Mag
180 Mag
000 Mag
000 Mag
Even
FLs
FLs
40, 60, 80
etc up to
280
then
300
320
340
etc up to
400
then
430
470
Etc
FLs
30, 50, 70
etc up to
290
then
310
330
350
etc up to
410
then
450
490
Etc
Odd
FLs
Even
FLs
+500ft
FLs
45
65
85
etc
up to
285
FLs
55
75
95
etc
up to
275
Odd
FLs
+500ft
180 Mag
180 Mag
7-17
Chapter 7
7-18
Air Law
Chapter 7
FL 410
FL 400
FL 390
FL 380
FL 370
FL 360
FL 350
FL 340
FL 330
FL 320
FL 310
FL 300
FL 290
FL 280
Air Law
7-19
Chapter 7
(2)
(3)
IFR Flights
Altitude
(3)
IFR Flights
Altitude
VFR Flights
Altitude
Altitude
FL
Metres
Feet
FL
Metres
Feet
FL
Metres
Feet
FL
Metres
Feet
10
30
50
70
90
300
900
1500
2150
2750
1000
3000
5000
7000
9000
35
55
75
95
1050
1700
2300
2900
3500
5500
7500
9500
20
40
60
80
100
600
1200
1850
2450
3050
2000
4000
6000
8000
10 000
45
65
85
105
1350
2000
2600
3200
4500
6500
8500
10 500
110
130
150
170
190
3350
3950
4550
5200
5800
11 000
13 000
15 000
17 000
19 000
115
135
155
175
195
3500
4100
4700
5350
5950
11 500
13 500
15 500
17 500
19 500
120
140
160
180
200
3650
4250
4900
5500
6100
12 000
14 000
16 000
18 000
20 000
125
145
165
185
205
3800
4400
5050
5650
6250
12 500
14 500
16 500
18 500
20 500
210
230
250
270
290
6400
7000
7600
8250
8850
21 000
23 000
25 000
27 000
29 000
215
235
255
275
6550
7150
7750
8400
21 500
23 500
25 500
27 500
220
240
260
280
300
6700
7300
7900
8550
9150
22 000
24 000
26 000
28 000
30 000
225
245
265
285
6850
7450
8100
8700
22 500
24 500
26 500
28 500
310
330
350
370
390
9450
10 050
10 650
11 300
11 900
31 000
33 000
35 000
37 000
39 000
320
340
360
380
400
9750
10 350
10 950
11 600
12 200
32 000
34 000
36 000
38 000
40 000
410
450
490
12 500
13 700
14 950
41 000
45 000
49 000
430
470
510
13 100
14 350
15 550
43 000
47 000
51 000
etc
etc
etc
etc
etc
etc
Note 1: Except when, on the basis of regional air navigation agreements, a modified table of cruising levels
based on a nominal vertical separation minimum of 300 m (1000 ft) is prescribed for use, under specified
conditions, by aircraft operating above FL 410 within designated portions of the airspace
Note 2: Magnetic track, or Polar areas at a latitude higher than 70 and within such extensions to those
areas as may be prescribed by the appropriate ATS authorities, grid tracks as determined by a network of
lines parallel to the Greenwich Meridian superimposed as a Polar Stereographic chart in which the direction
towards the North Pole is employed as Grid North
Note 3: Except where, on the basis of regional air navigation agreements, from 090 to 269 and from 270
to 089 is prescribed to accommodate predominant traffic directions and appropriate transition procedures to
be associated therewith are specified
7-20
Air Law
Chapter 7
In Other Areas
TRACK
(1)
(2)
IFR Flights
Altitude
(2)
IFR Flights
Altitude
VFR Flights
Altitude
Altitude
FL
Metres
Feet
FL
Metres
Feet
FL
Metres
Feet
FL
Metres
Feet
10
30
50
70
90
300
900
1500
2150
2750
1000
3000
5000
7000
9000
35
55
75
95
1050
1700
2300
2900
3500
5500
7500
9500
20
40
60
80
100
600
1200
1850
2450
3050
2000
4000
6000
8000
10 000
45
65
85
105
1350
2000
2600
3200
4500
6500
8500
10 500
110
130
150
170
190
3350
3950
4550
5200
5800
11 000
13 000
15 000
17 000
19 000
115
135
155
175
195
3500
4100
4700
5350
5950
11 500
13 500
15 500
17 500
19 500
120
140
160
180
200
3650
4250
4900
5500
6100
12 000
14 000
16 000
18 000
20 000
125
145
165
185
205
3800
4400
5050
5650
6250
12 500
14 500
16 500
18 500
20 500
210
230
250
270
290
6400
7000
7600
8250
8850
21 000
23 000
25 000
27 000
29 000
215
235
255
275
300
6550
7150
7750
8400
9150
21 500
23 500
25 500
27 500
30 000
220
240
260
280
310
6700
7300
7900
8550
9150
22 000
24 000
26 000
28 000
31 000
225
245
265
285
320
6850
7450
8100
8700
9750
22 500
24 500
26 500
28 500
32 000
330
370
10 050
11 300
33 000
37 000
340
380
10 350
11 600
34 000
38 000
350
390
10 650
11 900
35 000
39 000
360
400
10 950
12 200
36 000
40 000
410
450
490
12 500
13 700
14 950
41 000
45 000
49 000
420
460
500
12 800
14 000
15 250
42 000
46 000
50 000
430
470
510
13 100
14 350
15 550
43 000
47 000
51 000
440
480
520
13 400
14 650
15 850
44 000
48 000
52 000
etc
etc
etc
etc
etc
etc
etc
etc
etc
etc
etc
etc
Note 1: Magnetic track, or Polar areas at a latitude higher than 70 and within such extensions to those
areas as may be prescribed by the appropriate ATS authorities, grid tracks as determined by a network of
lines parallel to the Greenwich Meridian superimposed as a Polar Stereographic chart in which the direction
towards the North Pole is employed as Grid North
Note 2: Except where, on the basis of regional air navigation agreements, from 090 to 269 and from 270
to 089 is prescribed to accommodate predominant traffic directions and appropriate transition procedures to
be associated therewith are specified.
Air Law
7-21
Chapter 7
APPENDIX 1 TO CHAPTER 7
SIGNALS FOR USE IN THE EVENT OF INTERCEPTION
Air-to-Air Visual Signals
Both intercepting and intercepted aircraft must adhere strictly to the following signals. All signals
must be given as per the tables below. The intercepting aircraft must pay particular attention to
any signals given by the intercepted aircraft that indicate it is in a state of distress.
Signals Initiated by Intercepting Aircraft and Responses by Intercepted Aircraft
Intercepting Aircraft
Signals
1
Meaning
DAY or NIGHT
Rocking aircraft and flashing
navigational lights at irregular
intervals (and landing lights
in the case of a helicopter)
from a position slightly above
and ahead of, and normally
to the left of, the intercepted
aircraft (or to the right if the
intercepted aircraft is a
helicopter) and after
acknowledgement, a slow
level turn, normally to the left,
(or to the right in the case of
a helicopter) on the desired
heading
Intercepted Aircraft
Responds
Meaning
DAY or NIGHT
You have been
intercepted
follow me
Understood
will comply
NOTE:
Meteorological conditions or
terrain may require the
intercepting aircraft to
reverse the positions and
directions of the turn above.
If the intercepted aircraft is
not able to keep pace with
the intercepting aircraft, the
latter is expected to fly a
series of racetrack patterns
and to rock the aircraft each
time it passes the intercepted
aircraft
7-22
Air Law
Chapter 7
Intercepting Aircraft
Signals
2
DAY or NIGHT
An abrupt breakaway
manoeuvre from the
intercepted aircraft consisting
of a climbing turn of 90 or
more without crossing the
line of flight of the intercepted
aircraft
Meaning
Meaning
DAY or NIGHT
You may
proceed
DAY or NIGHT
Lowering landing gear (if
fitted), showing steady
landing lights and overflying
the runway in use or, if the
aircraft is a helicopter,
overflying the helicopter
landing area. In the case of
helicopters, the intercepting
helicopter makes a landing
approach coming to hover
near the landing area
Intercepted Aircraft
Responds
Rocking the aircraft
Understood
will comply
DAY or NIGHT
Land at this
aerodrome
Understood
will comply
Meaning
DAY or NIGHT
Understood
follow me
In distress
DAY or NIGHT
Irregular flashing of all
available lights
Air Law
Aerodrome you
have
designated is
inadequate
DAY or NIGHT
Regular switching on and off
of all available lights but in
such a manner as to be
distinct from flashing lights
Intercepting Aircraft
Responds
DAY or NIGHT
Raising landing gear (if fitted)
and flashing landing lights
while passing over runway in
use or helicopter landing
area at a height exceeding
1000 ft but not exceeding
2000 ft (in the case of a
helicopter, at a height
exceeding 170 ft but not
exceeding 330 ft) above the
aerodrome level, and
continue to circle runway in
use or helicopter landing
area. If unable to flash
landing lights, flash any other
lights available
Meaning
Understood
DAY or NIGHT
Understood
7-23
Chapter 7
7-24
Air Law
Reference:
INTRODUCTION
When observing or receiving any of the following signals, the pilot of an aircraft shall take the
actions required by the signal. The signals are to be used only for the purposes indicated. No
other signals that are likely to be confused with the authorised signals shall be used.
EMERGENCY SIGNALS
Distress and Urgency Signals These signals are used to indicate that an aircraft (or other
vehicle) is in a state of emergency. However, an aircraft in distress may use any means at its
disposal to attract attention, make known its position, and obtain help.
Distress Signals
The state of DISTRESS means that an aircraft is in grave and imminent danger and requires
immediate assistance. The following signals may be used separately or together:
Urgency Signals
The state of URGENCY exists when an aircraft has an urgent message to transmit regarding the
safety of persons or property on board or within sight. The following signals may be used
separately, or together:
Air Law
8-1
Chapter 8
Signals
AERODROME SIGNALS
Signals for Aerodrome Traffic
Aircraft manoeuvring on or flying in the vicinity of an aerodrome are required to look out for and
comply with visual signals from the ground. If an aerodrome accepts non-radio traffic, a signal
square is positioned on the aerodrome side of the control tower to give information to aircraft
airborne. To complement this, a signals mast is positioned near the control tower to give
information to aircraft taxiing or stationary on the ground. All visual control rooms (VCR) in control
towers are required to be equipped with a signal lamp capable of being aimed at a particular
aircraft; showing red, green, and white light; and capable of transmitting visual Morse code. VCRs
and where situated, runway caravans, are also equipped with pyrotechnic (flare) cartridges and a
means of firing them. The following table contains the lamp and pyrotechnic signals from the VCR
or a runway caravan.
LIGHT
AIRCRAFT ON THE
GROUND
Steady Green
Cleared to land
Steady Red
Stop
Cleared to taxi
Red Pyrotechnic
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
When seen an acknowledgement is given by:
8-2
When in Flight
During the hours of daylight by rocking the aircrafts wings;
During the hours of darkness by flashing the aircrafts landing lights on and off twice
or, if not so equipped, by switching its navigation lights on and off twice.
When on the Ground
During the hours of daylight by moving the aircrafts ailerons or rudder.
During the hours of darkness by flashing the aircrafts landing lights on and off twice
or, if not so equipped, by switching its navigation lights on and off twice.
Air Law
Signals
Chapter 8
A horizontal red square with one yellow diagonal when displayed in a signal area indicates that
owing to the bad state of the manoeuvring area, or for any other reason, special precautions must
be observed in approaching to land or in landing.
Use of Runways and Taxiways
A horizontal white dumbbell (the name of the shape) when
displayed in a signal area indicates that aircraft are required
to land, take-off, and taxi on runways and taxiways only.
The same dumbbell but with black bars indicates
that aircraft are required to land and take-off on
runways only, but other manoeuvres need not be
confined to runways and taxiways.
L AND O R T AK E O FF
Air Law
T HIS WAY
8-3
Chapter 8
Signals
QDM Boards
Two digits displayed vertically at or near to the aerodrome control tower
indicate the direction for take-off. These units are expressed in units of 10
to the nearest 10 of the magnetic compass.
26
Runway
Taxiway
8-4
Signals
Chapter 8
This Bay
Arms above head in vertical position with palms facing forward.
TURN
Turn to Your Left
Right arm downward, left arm repeatedly moved upwardbackward. Speed of arm movement indicating rate of turn.
Move Ahead
Arms a little aside, palms facing backward and repeatedly
moved upward-backward from shoulder height.
Air Law
8-5
Chapter 8
Signals
Stop
Arms repeatedly crossed above the head (the rapidity
of the arm movement should be related to the urgency
of the stop ie the faster the movement the quicker the
stop).
BRAKES
Engage Brakes
Raise arm, and hand with fingers extended, horizontally in front of the body,
then clench the fingers.
Release Brakes
Raise arm, with fist clenched, horizontally in front of body, then extend fingers.
CHOCKS
Chocks Inserted
Arms down, palms facing inwards, move arms from
extended position inwards.
Chocks Removed
Arms down, palms facing outwards, move arms outwards.
Start Engine(s)
Left hand overhead with appropriate number of fingers extended, to indicate
the number of the engine to be started, and circular motion of right hand at
head level.
Cut Engines
Either arm and hand level with shoulder, hand across the
throat, palm downward. The hand is moved sideways with
the arm remaining bent.
Slow Down
Arms down with palms toward ground.
8-6
Air Law
Signals
Chapter 8
Move Back
Arms by sides, palms facing forward, swept forward and upward
repeatedly to shoulder height.
All Clear
Right arm raised at elbow with thumb erect.
Air Law
8-7
Chapter 8
Signals
8-8
Air Law
References:
Procedures for Air Navigation Services - Aircraft Operations (Document 8168Ops/611, Volume 1), Volume I - Flight Procedures
Procedures for Air Navigation Services - Rules of the Air and Air Traffic Services
(Document 4444 RAC/501)
Air Law
9-1
Chapter 9
TRANSITION
Changing from QNH to SPS and the Reverse
In order to maintain ATC separation between arriving and departing IFR flights, the points at
which the altimeter setting is changed from QNH to SPS for departing aircraft, and from SPS to
QNH for arriving aircraft is defined by the authority. ICAO requires that the authorities of all states
define a transition altitude either generally or for each individual aerodrome. At the transition
altitude the QNH is replaced by SPS for departing aircraft. By use of defined tables, the ATC
authority at an aerodrome calculates the transition level at which arriving aircraft reset the
altimeter subscale from SPS to QNH.
Transition Altitude (TA)
ICAO requires the TA at an aerodrome to be not less than 3000 ft. States are permitted to specify
a general TA as in the case of the USA and Canada. In these states the TA is 18 000 ft. In the UK
the TA varies between 3000 ft as generally applied, and 6000 ft for the London CTR. It has been
suggested that a general TA of 6000 ft be applied over the whole of the UK.
Transition Level (TL)
Approach control offices or aerodrome control towers are required to establish the TL to be used
in the vicinity of the aerodrome(s) for the appropriate period of time, on the basis of QNH reports
and forecast msl pressure if required. Adjacent aerodromes may define a common TL based on
the lowest of the aerodromes QNH. The TL is defined as the first available FL above the TA.
Example of Determining the TL
If the TA at an aerodrome is 3000 ft and the QNH is 1012 mb, when a departing pilot
reaches 3000 ft the altimeter is reset from QNH to 1013 mb. This requires 1 mb to be
wound on, increasing the displayed altitude by approx 27 ft. Thus the altimeter will read
3027 ft with 1013 set. The first FL above 3027 ft is FL35. This is then the TL. This
assumes that FL35 is the first available FL. Some states specify a minimum depth to the
Transition Layer (see below). For IFR traffic the first available FL would be FL40 (FL35 is
a VFR FL).
Transition Layer
The airspace between the TA and TL is called the Transition Layer. Generally the maximum
depth of the Transition Layer is 500 ft. However, some states (Norway for example) specify a
minimum depth for the Transition Layer. In the case of Norway, it is 1000 ft.
Note: In the above example of determining the TL, if the state specified a minimum depth
of the Transition Layer of 1000 ft, the TL in that example would be 3027 + 1000 = 4027 ft.
First available FL above 4027 is FL45.
9-2
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Chapter 9
Transition Layer
230 ft
Transition
Level
FL35
TAlt
Set 1013
Transition
Altitude
3000 ft
QNH
1003 mb
1003 mb
1013 mb
Air Law
9-3
Chapter 9
FLIGHT PLANNING
Enroute
Where a transition altitude has not been established, for flights enroute the vertical position of
aircraft is expressed in terms of:
Provision of Information
Altimeter setting information is available from ATCUs and FICs to allow pilots to verify lowest
enroute altitudes and lowest safe FLs and to calculate terrain clearance. The transition level
should be included in an approach clearance when requested by the pilot or when the appropriate
authority deems it necessary. QNH is included in approach clearances or clearances to enter the
traffic circuit, and in taxi clearances for departing aircraft, except when it is known that the aircraft
has already received the information. QFE is provided to aircraft on request or on a regular basis
in accordance with local arrangements.
Round Down
Altimeter settings provided to aircraft are rounded down to the nearest lower whole hectopascal
(mb).
Pre-Flight Altimeter Operational Test
The following test is carried out in an aircraft by flight crew members prior to commencement of a
flight. With the aircraft at a known elevation on the aerodrome:
20 m (60 ft) for altimeters with a test range of 0 to 9000 m (0 to 30 000 ft)
25 m (80 ft) for altimeters with a test range of 0 to 15 000 m (0 to 50 000 ft)
9-4
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Chapter 9
9-5
Chapter 9
9-6
Air Law
References: Procedures for Air Navigation Services - Aircraft Operations (Document 8168OPS/611, Volume 1), Volume I - Flight Procedures
INTRODUCTION
It is not always possible to operate in good visual met conditions. Modern aircraft and radio
navigation facilities permit operations in poor weather and low visibility so that a scheduled
commercial service can meet the commitment of the schedule and the expectation of the
travelling public. In ATC the use of radar has revolutionised terminal control but there is still a
need for the pilot to gain some sort of visual criteria (visual contact with the ground) during
landing operation. To this end, highly technical systems and strictly imposed procedures have
been devised to reduce reliance on visual contact to the minimum. This chapter of the notes
explores the instrument procedures and associated systems which permit what is termed as low
visibility operations.
PUBLICATIONS
ICAO details the SARPs for low visibility operations in Annex 6. Because the subject is large and
technically complex, technical details, procedural amplification, and guidance to operators is
contained in ICAO Document 8168 - Procedures for Air Navigation Services - Aircraft Operations
(This book is known as PANS-OPS). The document consists of two volumes:
Volume I - Flight Procedures
This volume describes the operational procedures recommended for the guidance of flight
operations personnel. It also outlines the various parameters on which the criteria in Volume II
are based so as to illustrate the need for operational personnel including flight crew to adhere
strictly to the published procedures in order to achieve and maintain an acceptable level of safety
in operations.
Volume II - Construction of Visual and Instrument Procedures
This volume is intended for the guidance of procedure specialists and describes the essential
areas and obstacle clearance requirements for the achievement of safe, regular instrument flight
operations. It provides the basic guidelines to States, and those operators and organizations
producing instrument flight charts, that will result in uniform practices at all aerodromes where
instrument flight procedures are carried out. The LOs do not require the student to study this part
of Doc 8168.
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Instrument Procedures
OBSTACLE CLEARANCE
The overriding concern with regard to low visibility operations is the unwanted occurrence of
controlled flight into terrain. Once above the transition level or whilst in the cruise, the
procedures outlined in Chapter 9 provide the necessary elements of safety from terrain. However,
in the process of taking-off and landing the aircraft must inevitably be flown below the defined
safety altitude. During these phases of flights, strict adherence to the procedures and the laid
down minima is required; complying with these minima will keep the aircraft on the specified flight
path and, therefore, safe. However, the man/machine system, despite being highly trained and
technically complex, is not perfect, and tolerances have to be applied to cover inadvertent
deviation. This must inevitably lead to the introduction of risk. In compiling the procedures using
the systems specified in PANS-OPS, an acceptable risk factor has been defined at 1:10 000 000.
ABBREVIATIONS
In Chapter 1, there is a comprehensive list of abbreviations used in the examinations. In this
section, certain specific abbreviations are detailed as required knowledge. These are reproduced
below.
Abbreviations Used
ATIS
C/L
DA/H
DER
DR
EFIS
FAF
FAP
FMS
HSI
IAF
IF
MAPt
MDA/H
MOC
NOZ
NTZ
OCA/H
OIS
OM
PAR
PDG
RNAV
RSR
RSS
SID
SOC
SPI
STAR
TAR
TP
DEPARTURE PROCEDURES
The natural environment of an aircraft is in the air. On the ground or during the transition from
ground to air the machine is at its most vulnerable. Departure procedures ensure the safe take-off
and initial climb to safe flying speed, and then concentrate on positioning the aircraft at the right
point and altitude to commence the en-route portion of the flight. The criteria in part 1 of PANSOPS are designed to provide flight crews and other flight operations personnel with an
appreciation, from the operational point of view, of the parameters and criteria used in the design
of instrument departure procedures which include, but are not limited to, standard instrument
departure (SID) routes and associated procedures. These assume that all engines are operating
normally. The engine-out case or other emergency situation is the subject of special instructions
which the operator is required by law to define. Such procedures are outside the LOs for Air Law.
In order to ensure acceptable clearance above obstacles during the departure phase, instrument
departure procedures may be published as specific routes to be followed (SIDs), or omnidirectional departures (which may specify sectors to be avoided), together with procedure design
gradients (PDGs) and details of significant obstacles.
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10-3
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Instrument Procedures
The PDG is made up of 2.5% gradient of obstacle identification surfaces or the gradient based on
the most critical obstacle penetrating these surfaces, whichever is the higher gradient, plus 0.8%
increasing obstacle clearance. Gradients published will be specified to an altitude/height after
which the minimum gradient of 3.3% is used. The final PDG continues until obstacle clearance is
ensured for the next phase of flight. At this point the departure procedure ends and is marked by
a significant point.
The minimum obstacle clearance equals zero at the DER and increases by 0.8% of the horizontal
distance in the direction of flight assuming a maximum turn of 15. In the turn initiation area and
turn area a minimum obstacle clearance of 90 m (295 ft) is provided.
Where mountainous terrain exists, consideration is given by the procedure designer to increasing
the minimum obstacle clearance.
Whenever a suitably located DME exists, additional specific height/distance information intended
for obstacle avoidance may be published. RNAV way-points or other suitable fixes may be used
to provide a means of monitoring climb performance.
Where obstacles exist affecting the departure route, PDGs greater than 3.3% are promulgated to
an altitude/height after which the 3.3% gradient is considered to prevail. Gradients to a height of
60 m (200 ft) or less, caused by close-in obstacles, are not specified.
Mountainous Terrain
In areas where the terrain is described as mountainous the minimum obstacle clearance (MOC)
is increased from 1000 ft to 2000 ft. Mountainous terrain is defined as terrain over which the
prevailing wind of 37 km/h generates significant downdraughts.
PDG = 3.3%
This altitude/height
is to be published if
more than 200 ft
2.5%
= 0.8%
4.5%
3.7%
OIS
2.5%
5m (16ft)
DER
Obstacle
Aerodrome Elevation
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Instrument Procedures
Chapter 10
Aircraft Categories
In defining procedures where turns are required, the aircraft speed must be taken into account so
that the aircraft remains in the protected zone, established by the procedure designer, during the
turn. The following table defines the maximum speeds for the different categories of aircraft:
Maximum Speeds For Turning Departures
Aeroplane
Category
Maximum
Speed km/h (kts)
A
B
C
D
E
225(120)
305(165)
490(265)
540(290)
560(360)
STRAIGHT DEPARTURES
A straight departure is one in which the initial departure track is within 15 of the runway centre
line. Track guidance may be provided by a suitably located facility (VOR or NDB) or by RNAV. By
definition, track guidance for a straight departure must be attained from a navigation facility within
20 km (10.8 nm) from DER.
DER
15
15 C/L
1.9 nm
Area 1
Max 15
VOR/NDB
Departure Track
Area 2
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Chapter 10
Instrument Procedures
TURNING DEPARTURES
When a turning departure requires a turn of more than 15, a turning area is constructed and the
turn required is commenced upon reaching a specified altitude/height, at a fix or at a facility
(VOR/NDB). Straight flight is assumed until reaching an altitude of 120 m (394 ft) above the
elevation of DER. Track guidance must be obtained within 10 km (5.4 nm) after the completion of
the turn.
Splay angle
VOR 7.8/NDB 10.3
C/L
VOR/NDB
15
Departure Track
3.7 km (2 nm) VOR
4.6 km (2.5nm) NDB
30
30
Fix Tolerance
15
15
DER
CONTINGENCY PROCEDURES
Development of contingency procedures required covering the case of engine failure or an
emergency in flight that occurs after V1, is the responsibility of the operator. When it is necessary
to develop turning procedures to avoid an obstacle which would have become limiting, then the
procedure should be detailed in the appropriate operators manual. The point for a start of a turn
in this procedure must be readily identifiable by the pilot when flying under instrument conditions.
Omni-directional Departures
Where no track guidance is provided in the design, the departure criteria are developed by using
the omni-directional method.
The departure procedure commences at the DER, which is the end of the area declared suitable
for take-off, either the end of the runway or clearway as appropriate. Since the point of lift-off will
vary, the departure is constructed on the assumption that a turn at 120 m (394 ft) above the
elevation of the aerodrome will not be initiated sooner than 600 m from the beginning of the
runway.
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Air Law
Instrument Procedures
Chapter 10
Unless otherwise specified, a 3.3% PDG is presumed. The basic procedure ensures that the
aircraft will climb on the extended runway centre line to 120 m (394 ft) before turns can be
specified, and at least 90 m (295 ft) of obstacle clearance will be provided before turns greater
than 15 can be specified. Where obstacles do not permit the development of omni-directional
procedures, it is necessary to fly a departure route, or ensure that the ceiling and visibility will
permit obstacles to be avoided by visual means. The omni-directional departure procedure is
designed using any one of a combination of the following:
30
15
Centre Line
Area 1
Area 2
3.5 km
(1.9 nm)
or less
Air Law
10-7
Chapter 10
Instrument Procedures
PUBLISHED INFORMATION
Departure routes and standard instrument departures (SIDs) are produced and published in
accordance with Annex 11 and Annex 4. The information listed will be published for operational
reasons. For departure routes, the following information is promulgated:
RNAV Routes
Departure routes are labelled as RNAV only when that is the primary means of navigation
utilized.
Omnidirectional Departures
For omni-directional departures, the restrictions will be expressed as sectors in which
minimum gradients and/or minimum altitudes are specified to enable an aeroplane to safely
overfly obstacles. The published minimum gradient will be the highest in any sector that may
be expected to be overflown. The altitude to which the minimum gradient is specified will
permit the aircraft to continue at the 3.3% minimum gradient through that sector; a
succeeding sector, or to an altitude authorized for another phase of flight eg en-route, holding
or approach. A fix may also be designated to mark the point at which a gradient in excess of
3.3% is no longer required.
10-8
Air Law
Instrument Procedures
Chapter 10
Radar
Where radar is used for approach control, once identified by SSR a pilot may be instructed to
route directly to position. In such cases the aircraft will be navigated directly to that position
without compliance with the SID.
Noise Abatement
SIDs reflect the preferred noise abatement routes. Initially, the SID will require a climb to 120 m
(394 ft) but in practice (and to make system management easier) a climb to 500 ft is specified. At
500 ft turns may be commenced, and the pilot is required to continue the climb as required by the
SID with power, gear, flaps and lift enhancers in the noise abatement configuration, and to fly at
the specified speed. In an emergency, or when the PIC considers that his aircraft would be
hazarded by compliance with noise abatement procedures, any power or configuration may be
used, however, the operator/pilot will have to justify the action subsequently.
GNSS Procedures
The use of GNSS is approved for departure procedures in many states and procedures are
published in the form of GNSS/FMS/RNAV SIDS. Where a GNSS SID is used, the pilot must
have available data from non GNSS sources (i.e. VOR/DME) so that a cross check can be made
to ensure the system is functioning correctly. GNSS SIDs are titled RNAV (PRNAV).
SID Chart Publication
Each state publishes SID charts in the AIP AD section as part of the entry for the appropriate
aerodrome. Charts are also commercially published by Jeppesen, Aeradio, and some operators
print their own (e.g. Airtours). The SARPs specify the basic information to be displayed but the
commercial charts are usually far more comprehensive. If a pilot is instructed to fly a procedure
for which he/she doesnt have the chart, ATC will, on request, detail the procedure by RTF.
The following SID charts are reproductions of aerodrome procedures from the UK AIP. The first
chart depicts the Midhurst SIDs from Heathrow. These departure procedures would be used for
flights to Northwest France, The Channel Islands and possibly Spain and Portugal. They place
the departing aircraft in a position to join airway A34 and then into A1 at FL75 and above. The
Manchester SIDs via Honiley depict the route flown by flights joining A1 southbound. The final
chart depicts a trial route for FMS/GNSS operations from Luton to the East and South East. Note
the accuracy of the check positions for the waypoints (accurate to 1/100 of a second of longitude,
approximately 30 cm).
SID Designators
SIDs are ATS routes (see Chapter regarding ATS and Airspace). Each SID is given a unique
identifier called a designator. The chart below (London Heathrow Midhurst SIDs) shows all the
current SIDs from the departure runways at Heathrow terminating at the Midhurst VOR. The route
from 27R is called MID4F. The full designator would be London Heathrow SID MID4F. The
number relates to the progressive series of routes. At some point in history there was MID1, the
current MID series is 3 and 4. The letter shows the amendment/change status of the SID route.
When the series reaches 9 and a new series is required, the number reverts to 1. An amendment
to SID MID4F would be called MID4G.
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10-10
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Instrument Procedures
Chapter 10
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Chapter 10
System
minima
Decision Height
RVR requirement
CAT I
60 m
(200 ft)
CAT II
30 m
(100 ft)
CAT III A
Nil
CAT III B
Nil
Less than 50 ft or no DH
CAT III C
Nil
No DH
None
Chapter 10
Instrument Procedures
Vat
Range of
speeds for
initial
approach
Range of
final
approach
speeds
Max
speed
for
visual
circling
Final
<91
90/150
(110*)
70/100
100
100
110
91/120
120/180
(140*)
85/130
135
130
150
121/140
160/240
115/160
180
160
240
141/165
185/250
130/185
205
185
265
166/210
185/250
155/230
240
230
275
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Instrument Procedures
Chapter 10
Fixes
The approach segments begin and end at designated fixes. Under certain circumstances the
segments may begin at specified points where no fixes are available. For example: The final
approach segment of a precision approach may originate at the point of intersection of the
designated intermediate flight altitude with the nominal glide path.
Straight In Approaches
Wherever possible, a straight-in approach will be specified which is aligned with the runway
centre line. In the case of non-precision approaches, a straight-in approach is considered
acceptable if the angle between the final approach track and the runway centre line is 30 or less.
Circling Approach
In those cases where terrain or other constraints cause the final approach track alignment or
descent gradient to fall outside the criteria for a straight-in approach a circling approach will be
specified. The final approach track of a circling approach procedure is in most cases aligned to
pass over a portion of the usable landing surface of the aerodrome.
Minimum Sector Altitude (MSA)
Minimum sector altitudes are established for each aerodrome and provide at least 300 m (984 ft)
obstacle clearance within 46 km (25 nm) of the homing facility associated with the approach
procedure for that aerodrome.
Track Maintenance
The procedures are defined by tracks to be made good and pilots are expected to allow for the
wind. During Precision Approach Radar (PAR) and Surveillance Radar Approach (SRA)
procedures, the controller talking the aircraft down will adjust the required heading to counter the
effects of drift. For ILS approaches pilots are required to maintain aircraft position to within half
scale disposition of the deviation displays.
OBSTACLE CLEARANCE
Obstacle clearance is a primary safety consideration in the development of instrument approach
procedures. The criteria used and the detailed method of calculation are covered in PANS-OPS,
Volume II. The obstacle clearance applied in the development of each instrument approach
procedure is considered to be the minimum required for an acceptable level of safety in
operations. The protected areas and obstacle clearance applicable to individual types of
approaches are specified later.
Obstacle Clearance Altitude/Height (OCA/H)
For each individual approach procedure an obstacle clearance altitude/height (OCA/H) is
calculated for a procedure and published on the instrument approach chart. In the case of
precision approach and circling approach procedures an OCA/H is specified for each category of
aircraft.
OCA/H for Precision Procedures
A precision procedure is a runway approach procedure therefore the reference for the
calculation of OCA/H must be the elevation of the threshold of the landing runway.
Air Law
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Chapter 10
Instrument Procedures
Minimum (ft)
System
Minimum (ft)
100
250
200
300
250
VOR
300
250
NDB or Locator
300
250
VDF
300
VOR/DME
250
350
10-16
Air Law
Instrument Procedures
Chapter 10
Altitude
O
C
A
O
C
H
M
D
A
M
D
H
Air Law
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Chapter 10
Instrument Procedures
Altitude
Margin
The margin is dependent upon aircraft approach
speed, height loss and altimetry and is
adjustable for steep glide paths and high level
aerodromes
O
C
A
O
C
H
M
D
A
M
D
H
Threshold Elevation
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Air Law
Instrument Procedures
Chapter 10
Altitude
O
C
A
O
C
H
M
D
A
M
D
H
Aerodrome Elevation
Air Law
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Chapter 10
Instrument Procedures
MOC
MOC
Obstacle
Obstacle
Secondary
Area
Primary Area
Secondary
Area
Total width
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Instrument Procedures
Chapter 10
ACCURACY OF FIXES
Fixes and points used in designing approach procedures are normally based on standard
navigation systems. These include, but are not limited to:
Nominal Fix
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Chapter 10
Instrument Procedures
VOR
5.2 (this value includes a flight technical tolerance of 2.5)
ILS Localiser 2.4 (this value includes a flight technical tolerance of 2)
NDB
6.9 (this value includes a flight technical tolerance of 3)
VOR
ILS Localizer
NDB
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Chapter 10
Missed approach
Point (MAPt)
FAF
Primary area
Secondary area
FAF Location
For the final approach segment (contained between FAF and MAPt), the optimum and maximum
distances for locating the FAF relative to the threshold are 9 km (5 nm) and 19 km (10 nm)
respectively.
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Chapter 10
Instrument Procedures
DESCENT GRADIENT
In designing instrument approach procedures adequate space is allowed for descent from the
facility crossing altitude/height to the runway threshold for straight-in approach or to OCA/H for
circling approaches.
Establishing a maximum allowable descent gradient for each segment of the procedure provides
adequate space for descent.
The optimum descent gradient in the final approach should not exceed 5% (50 m/km,
approximately 300 ft/nm) which is equivalent to a 3 glidepath.
Where a steeper descent gradient is necessary, the maximum permissible is 6.5% (65 m/km,
approximately 400 ft/nm) which is equivalent to a 3.8 glidepath. In the case of a precision
approach the operationally preferred glidepath angle is 3. An ILS glidepath in excess of 3 is
used only where alternate means of satisfying obstacle clearance requirements are impractical.
In certain cases the maximum descent gradient of 6.5% (65 m/km) results in descent rates that
exceed the recommended rates of descent for some aircraft. Pilots should consider carefully the
descent rate required for non-precision final approach segments before starting the approach.
APPROACH SEGMENTS
There are five segments to a standard instrument approach procedure.
Air Law
Instrument Procedures
Chapter 10
This convergence begins at 46 km (25 nm) before the IAF if the length of the arrival route is
greater than or equal to 46 km (25 nm). It begins at the starting point of the arrival route if the
length is less than 46 km (25 nm).
The arrival route normally ends at the initial approach fix. Omni-directional or sector arrivals can
be provided taking into account MSA. When terminal radar is employed the aircraft is vectored to
a fix, or onto the intermediate or final approach track, at a point where the pilot may continue the
approach.
STARs are published in the AD section of the AIP under the appropriate aerodrome. An example
of a STAR is reproduced below. This particular STAR covers arrivals from the West and North
West and terminates at the Ockham VOR. This is the Initial Approach Fix (IAF) for procedures to
land on runway 09L at Heathrow.
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Chapter 10
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Chapter 10
Instrument Procedures
MISSED APPROACH
If at any time during a procedure the pilot wishes to abandon the procedure, or at DH/A for a
precision approach and at the missed approach point (MAPt) for a non-precision approach, when
the visual criteria as defined by the operator is not obtained, the pilot is to fly a missed approach
procedure.
In commercial aviation this is commonly referred to as the Go Around procedure, implying that
the pilot is going around the pattern again. During the missed approach phase, the pilot is faced
with the demanding task of changing the aircraft configuration, attitude, and altitude. For this
reason the design of the missed approach is kept as simple as possible. A missed approach
procedure consists of three phases: Initial Missed Approach; Intermediate Missed Approach, and
Final Missed approach.
Turns greater
than 15
permitted
Climb established
MAPt
2.5%
No turns greater
than 15
MDA(H)
30m
MOC
50m MOC
can be
maintained
Runway
Initial Missed
Approach Segment
Intermediate Missed
Approach Segment
Final Missed
Approach
Segment
Obstacle Clearance
A missed approach procedure is designed to provide protection from obstacles throughout the
missed approach manoeuvre. The procedure is applicable to the landing runway but may be
modified to cater for the instrument aid being used. The procedure specifies a point where the
missed approach begins and a point or an altitude/height where it ends.
The missed approach is to be initiated not lower than DA/H in the precision approach or at a
specified point (MAPt) in non-precision approach procedures where the aircraft is not lower than
the MDA/H.
The MAPt in a procedure may be the point of intersection of an electronic glide path with the
applicable DA/H, a navigational facility, a fix, or a specified distance from the FAF.
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When a navigational facility or a fix defines the MAPt, the distance from the FAF to the MAPt is
normally published, and may be used for timing to the MAPt. In cases where timing is not
authorised, the procedure is annotated timing not authorized for defining the MAPt.
Initiating the Procedure
Pilots are expected to fly the missed approach procedure as published. In the event that a missed
approach is initiated prior to arriving at the MAPt, the pilot will normally proceed to the MAPt and
then follow the missed approach procedure in order to remain within the protected airspace.
Climb Gradient
Procedures are based on a nominal missed approach climb gradient of 2.5%. A gradient of 2%
may be used in the procedure construction if the necessary survey and safeguarding can be
provided with the approval of the appropriate authority. Gradients of 3, 4, or 5% may be used for
aircraft whose climb performance permits an operational advantage to be thus obtained.
If a gradient other than a 2.5% gradient is used, this is indicated on the instrument approach
chart. A missed approach procedure which is based on the nominal climb gradient of 2.5%
cannot be used by all aeroplanes when operating at or near maximum certificated gross mass
and engine out conditions. The operation of these aeroplanes needs special consideration at
aerodromes where there are critical obstacles on the missed approach area. These obstacles
may result in a special procedure being established with a possible increase in the DA/H or
MDA/H.
Initial Missed Approach
The initial phase begins at the MAPt and ends at the point where the aircraft is established in the
climb. In the initial segment, the pilot establishes the climb and changes aircraft configuration.
The procedure will call for the climb to be started on the final approach track therefore no turns
are specified in this phase.
Intermediate Phase
The intermediate phase is the phase within which the climb is continued, normally straight ahead.
It extends to the first point where 50 m (164 ft) obstacle clearance is obtained and can be
maintained. Turns of no more than 15 may be specified. During this phase, it is assumed that the
pilot will make track corrections.
Final Phase
The final phase begins at the point where 50 m (164 ft) obstacle clearance is first obtained and
can be maintained. It extends to the point where a new approach is started, the aircraft enters a
holding pattern, or the aircraft returns to the enroute structure. Turns may be prescribed during
this phase.
Turning Missed Approach
Turns in a missed approach procedure are only prescribed where terrain and other factors make
a turn necessary. If a turn from the final approach track is made, a specially constructed turning
missed approach area is specified. The turning point is specified in one of two ways:
Air Law
Chapter 10
Instrument Procedures
Aircraft category
Speed for each category
Wind speed, 46 km/h (25 kt) throughout the turn, and
Bank angle, 20 average or 3 per second, whichever requires less bank
Aircraft
Category
Minimum
Obstacle
Clearance
m (ft)
Lowest OCH
above aerodrome
elevation
m (ft)
Minimum
Visibility
km (nm)
90 (295)
120 (394)
1.9 (1.0)
90 (295)
150 (492)
2.8 (1.5)
120 (394)
180 (591)
3.7 (2.0)
120 (394)
210 (689)
4.6 (2.5)
150 (492)
240 (787)
6.5 (3.5)
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Chapter 10
PUBLISHED INFORMATION
The VM(C) OCA for the aerodrome is published on the chart for the instrument part of the
approach. The fixed margin is added to OCA for each category of aircraft.
Highest
obstacle in
area
Radius from
end of Runway
The radius is
based on aircraft
category/speed
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Instrument Procedures
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Localiser Ident
and Frequency
MSA
Holding Pattern
FAP (there is no
defined FAF)
IF
IAF
Procedure Turn
Glidepath
interception
Missed Approach
Procedure
OCA (OCH)
Glidepath
information
VM(C) OCA
PROCEDURE
An arriving aircraft would usually enter the holding pattern above the LUT NDB(L), the IAF for the
procedure, at an altitude above the lowest holding altitude (LHA) and wait for clearance to begin
the procedure. When cleared to the LHA in the hold, the aircraft speed will be adjusted and
aircraft configuration adjusted. The ATC clearance would be (callsign) cleared ILS runway
08 advising turning inbound at 2000 ft The aircraft leaves the hold on a track of 258mag to a
point on the reciprocal of the ILS localiser at DME range 5 nm. The pilot would advise ATC
(callsign) turning inbound at 2000 ft. The controller will then clear the aircraft (callsign)
report established ILS 08. The aircraft is then flown through a procedure turn that places the
aircraft in a position to intercept the localiser beam inbound. Once established on the localiser
and reported so, the controller will instruct the pilot to report glidepath descending to the
aerodrome controller. The aircraft is flown along the localiser beam until the glidepath is
intercepted, and descent is commenced. If at DH the visual criteria is not obtained, the go
around (missed approach) procedure is flown as published on the chart.
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Instrument Procedures
Track Reversals
There are several different track reversal methods. The diagram below shows:
Procedure turns;
Base turn; and
Racetrack.
Note: In all the procedures, tracks are flown. Therefore pilots must make allowance for the wind.
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Normal
procedure
without holding
Racetrack
Chapter 10
Instrument Procedures
Note: The student must not confuse a racetrack with a holding pattern. The racetrack is
only used for track reversal; similarly, a holding pattern is only used for holding.
Dead Reckoning Segment
Where an operational advantage can be obtained, an ILS procedure may include a dead
reckoning segment from a fix (usually the IAF) to the localiser. The DR track will intercept the
localiser at 45 and will not be more than 19 km (10 nm) in length. The point of intersection of the
localiser is the beginning of the intermediate segment and will allow time for establishing on the
localiser before descent is required.
45
Centre line
ILS Localiser
OM
DR segment
10 nm max
DR Fix
VOR/DME
DME range
Dead Reckoning Segment
HOLDING PROCEDURES
Inevitably aircraft will not be able to make a straight in approach and will need to temporarily
park whilst awaiting clearance to commence the approach procedure. The process of parking is
known as holding. We have already seen that the single beacon reversing turn procedure usually
starts at a holding point and it is usual for the missed approach procedure to end at a holding
point. Holding is achieved by the pilot flying the aircraft around a holding pattern. The process of
flying around the pattern is called shuttling. As part of the IRT the student will be required to fly
holding patterns to a precise degree, and this will be achieved after a lot of practice. In the
Chapters concerned with Approach Control, the student will be introduced to the process known
as stacking, but first the holding pattern needs to be described and the procedures for joining
and flying the pattern discussed.
Deviation Warning
Deviations from the procedures for holding may incur the risk of excursions beyond the perimeter
of the holding area into airspace used for other purposes. As such pilots must adhere to the
published procedures modified where necessary by ATC instructions or local instructions
published on STAR and instrument approach charts, and enroute charts.
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Standard Pattern
A holding pattern normally involves a right turn at the holding point. Left hand patterns may be
specified where airspace considerations warrant. A left hand pattern and the associated joining
procedures are a mirror image of a right hand pattern.
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Instrument Procedures
Holding Speeds (Note: Speeds and heights in bold are required knowledge)
Holding Speeds
Levels
Normal Conditions
2
Turbulence Conditions
3
0.83 M
0.83 M
1. The levels tabulated represent altitudes or corresponding flight levels depending upon the altimeter setting in use.
2. When the holding procedure is followed by the initial segment of an instrument approach procedure promulgated
at a speed higher than 425 km/h, (230 kt), the holding should also be promulgated at this higher speed wherever
possible.
3. The speed of 520 km/h, (280 kt) (0.8 M) reserved for turbulence conditions shall be used for holding only after prior
clearance with ATC, unless the relevant publications indicate that the holding area can accommodate aircraft flight at
these high holding speeds.
4. For holdings limited to CAT A and B aircraft only.
5. Wherever possible, 520 km/h (280 kt) should be used for holding procedures associated with airway route
structures.
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Semi-mixed operations
Mode
1 or 2
4
4
3
Mixed operations
All modes of operation are possible
1,2,3 or 4
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INTRODUCTION
Annex 15 to the Chicago Convention covers the provision of an Aeronautical Information Service
(AIS). The object of AIS is to ensure the flow of information necessary for the safety, regularity
and efficiency of international air navigation. Corrupt or erroneous aeronautical information can
potentially affect the safety of air navigation. The role and importance of aeronautical
information/data changed significantly with the implementation of:
To satisfy the uniformity and consistency in the provision of aeronautical information that is
required for operational use, states shall, as far as possible, avoid standards and procedures
other than those established for international use.
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Note: AlPs are intended primarily to satisfy international requirements for the exchange
of aeronautical information of a lasting character essential to air navigation. When
practicable, the form of presentation is designed to facilitate their use in flight.
WGS 84
As of 1 January 1984, published geographical co-ordinates indicating latitude and longitude shall
be expressed in terms of the World Geodetic System - 1984 (WGS 84).
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SNOWTAM Form
The SNOWTAM Form is broken into 17 sections as shown in the form below.
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Interpretation
When a runway is reported as DRY, DAMP, or WET, pilots may assume an acceptable level of
braking friction is present. WATER PATCHES or FLOODED means that braking may be affected
by hydroplaning and appropriate adjustments should be considered. Water patches will be
reported if at least 25% of the runway is affected. When a runway is notified as slippery when
wet take-offs and landings in wet conditions should only be considered if the distances equal or
exceed the distances required for icy runways as defined in the aircraft manual.
Snow, Slush, or Ice on a Runway
Whenever a runway is affected by snow, slush, or ice and it has not been possible to clear the
precipitant fully, the condition of the runway should be assessed, and the friction coefficient
measured. The table below, with associated descriptive terms, was developed from friction data
collected in compacted snow and ice and should not be taken as absolute values applicable in all
conditions. If the surface is affected by snow or ice and the braking action is reported as good,
pilots should not expect to find conditions as good as on a clean dry runway (where the available
friction may well be greater than that needed). The value good is a comparative value and is
intended to mean that aeroplanes should not experience directional control or braking difficulties
especially when landing.
Table: Braking Action
Measured Coefficient
Code
Good
Medium to good
Medium
Medium to poor
Poor
5
4
3
2
1
ASHTAM
Information concerning an operationally significant change in volcanic activity, a volcanic eruption
and/or volcanic ash cloud is reported by means of an ASHTAM. An ASHTAM provides
information on the status of activity of a volcano, when a change in its activity is expected, or is,
of operational significance. Information is passed using a volcano level of alert colour code given
in the table.
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Red Alert
Orange Alert
Yellow Alert
Green Alert
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Example of AIC system: The following is the UK system for coding AICs:
Pink
Matters relating to safety
Yellow Operational matters including ATS facilities and requirements
White Administrative matters e.g. exam dates and fees
Mauve Airspace reservations
Green Maps and charts
Note: Mauve is purple.
Uses
An AIC shall be originated whenever it is desirable to promulgate a long term forecast of any
major change in legislation, regulations, procedures, or facilities; information of a purely
explanatory or advisory nature liable to affect flight safety; information, or notification of an
explanatory or advisory nature concerning technical, legislative, or purely administrative matters.
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Designated authorities;
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AD 3 Heliports
Relating specifically to heliports.
Charts Related to an Aerodrome
The requirement is for charts related to an aerodrome to be included in the following order:
Aerodrome/heliport chart;
Aircraft parking/docking chart;
Aerodrome ground movement chart;
Aerodrome obstacle chart for each runway;
Precision approach terrain chart;
Area chart departure and transit routes;
Standard departure chart;
Area chart arrival and transit routes;
Standard arrival chart;
Instrument approach chart;
Visual approach chart;
Bird concentrations in the vicinity of aerodrome.
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Reference:
INTRODUCTION
Since the introduction of modern Air Traffic Control service following WWII, procedures and
technology have advanced and kept pace with the growth of air traffic and the advances in
aircraft design. The modern ATC system is as different today to a 1950s ATCO as would be the
flight deck of a Boeing 777 to a Comet pilot.
Whilst there is still reliance on the individual skill of the controller, modern digital data systems,
digital radar displays, and hi-speed communications all help make the controllers job less
stressful and more professional, thus enhancing safety. The success of an ATC system depends
on the adherence to procedures and the application of standards.
The training of Air Traffic Control Officers (ATCOs) is no less demanding than that of pilots.
ATCOs are required to hold a class 1 medical certificate and are subject to regular skill tests and
proficiency checks as are aircrew. As aircrew, you will see only a little of what goes on in the
ATCC or the control tower, and your only contact with ATCOs will usually be by RTF. However,
the LOs for 010 Air Law require the ATPL student to understand the types of ATC offered to
pilots, knowledge of the types of airspace, and the standards for separation applied in them.
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Alerting Service
To notify appropriate organizations regarding aircraft in need of SAR aid, and assist such
organizations as required.
The Air Traffic Control Service is further sub-divided into three parts:
CLASSES OF AIRSPACE
When it has been determined that ATS will be provided in a particular portion of airspace or at a
particular aerodrome, the airspace is designated according to the services to be provided. The
designation (classes) of airspace is as follows:
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Class
Rules
Service
ATC
Clearance
Separation
IFR
ATC
Required
IFR-IFR
IFR
ATC
Required
VFR
ATC
IFR-IFR
IFR-VFR
VFR-IFR
VFR-VFR
IFR
ATC
ATC
VFR
ATC
FIS
IFR
ATC
(1)
ATC
VFR
ATC
FIS
IFR
ATC
FIS
Required
VFR
FIS
FIS
None
None
IFR
ADV
ATC
None
IFR-IFR
(as far as
practical)
VFR
FIS
None
None
(1)
Required
Traffic Info
and
avoidance
IFR IFR
IFR VFR
Speed
Limit
Radio
Watch
SVFR
Use
No
Yes
Yes
Airway; CTA;
CTR; ATZ
No
Yes
Yes
Airway; CTA;
CTR; ATZ
Yes
Yes
Airway; CTA;
CTR; ATZ
Yes
Yes
Airway; CTA;
CTR; ATZ
No
Airway; CTA
No
Advisory
Routes
No
FIS Routes
Open FIR
No
VFR IFR
VFR-VFR
Yes
IFR-IFR
IFR-VFR
Required
None
VFR-IFR
VFR-VFR
Yes
IFR-IFR
IFR-VFR
VFR-IFR
VFR-VFR
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
IFR
VFR
Yes
Yes
FIS
None
None
Yes
No
Note 1: In Class D, traffic information and avoidance is provided by a service called Radar Information
Service (not to be confused with the UK RIS). This is not ATC and it is not Advisory ATC as in Class F. For
this purpose it is classified as ATC.
Speed Limit
Where imposed, the speed limit is 250 kts IAS. ATC may impose lower speed restrictions to
facilitate separation. Other speed restrictions may be applied to aircraft flying a STAR and the
start point of such limits will be published on the STAR chart.
Flight Information Regions (FIRs)
Those portions of the airspace where it is determined that FIS and alerting service will be
provided are designated as FIRs. All the airspace within the territorial limits of a state is contained
with FIRs.
Controlled Airspace (CAS)
All airspace defined as requiring ATC or Advisory ATC providision is classified as Controlled
Airspace (CAS). Outside of CAS only FIS and the Alerting Service services are provided.
Control Areas and Control Zones
Those airspace parts determined to receive ATC service for IFR flights and controlled VFR flights,
are designated Control Areas (CTAs) or Control Zones (CTRs). The difference between a CTA
and a CTR is discussed later. Where designated within a FIR, CTAs and CTRs shall form part of
that FIR. ICAO states that Class E airspace cannot be used for CTRs.
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Controlled Aerodromes
Those aerodromes where it is determined that ATC service will be provided to aerodrome traffic,
are designated as controlled aerodromes.
Oceanic Control Areas
Airspace outside the territorial limits of states and therefore not subject to domestic ATC
arrangements, is organised into Oceanic Control Areas (OCA). The ATC procedures applied in
OCAs are defined in Doc 7030 SUPPS. The student will study the organisation of the NAT region
in 070 Operational Procedures. The NAT area incorporates of the following OCAs:
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Class E
Where traffic is light or the activity of the traffic mainly transiting, CTAs are established with
Class E airspace. Class E permits IFR and VFR but neither imposes nor offers any control
over VFR traffic. Indeed, VFR traffic may operate as non-radio traffic in Class E airspace.
ICAO proscribes the use of Class E for CTRs therefore SVFR is not permitted in Class E
airspace. Where an airway passes through Class E airspace, the airway adopts that
classification.
Class F
Advisory ATC service is provided in Class F airspace to participating IFR flights only. Other
IFR and VFR flights are permitted but they only receive FIS. Advisory ATC is limited to the
provision of the service for aircraft enroute therefore Class F is restricted to advisory routes,
similar in characteristics to an airway. There is no Class F airspace in the USA.
Class G
Both IFR and VFR are permitted but no service other than FIS is provided. FIS routes may be
defined along which FIS is guaranteed to be available. Class G is known as the Open FIR
and comprises all the airspace of an FIR outside of controlled airspace (CAS).
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SCOTTISH FIR
LONDON FIR
CONTROL AREAS
CTAs (including airways, Terminal Manoeuvring Areas (TMAs), and Terminal Control Areas
(TCAs)), are designated so as to encompass enough airspace to contain the flight paths of IFR
flights for which it is desired to provide protection, taking into account the capabilities of the
navigation aids within the area and the activity of the traffic in the area. CTAs are established at
the confluence of airways in the vicinity of major aerodromes.
Within a CTA, vertical delineation may be established to permit varying activities to take place. At
the top of a CTA the traffic will be transiting and will not affect the activity below. Below the
cruising levels of transiting traffic, arriving and departing traffic for aerodromes served by the CTA
will be manoeuvring to enter and leave the airway structure. Where this is specifically organised
the area within vertical limits is called a TCA. At lower levels, traffic may be separated for arrival
and departure at specific aerodromes as in the case of Heathrow, Gatwick, Stansted and Luton.
Where this organised, the area is called a TMA.
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AIRWAY
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TERMINAL
CONTROL AREA
AIRWAY
CONTROL ZONE
Airways
Airways are control areas in the form of a corridor linking other CTAs. The base of an airway is
defined to include the lowest cruising level above the highest terrain within a defined distance of
the airway centreline. In normal terrain the base would be 1000 ft above the highest terrain or in
mountainous areas, 2000 ft above. The base of an airway, when defined as a FL, will be a VFR
FL. Airways are normally classified as either class A or class B, but where an airway passes
through a CTA or CTR of lesser classification, the classification of the airway is reduced
accordingly.
CONTROL ZONES
CTRs are defined to include all the airspace, outside of CTAs, used for IFR flights arriving at and
departing from aerodromes. The lateral limit of a CTR should extend at least 9.3 km (5 nm) from
the centre of the aerodrome, or aerodromes (in the case of the CTR covering more than one
aerodrome), in the direction(s) from which approaches may be made. If a CTR is located within
the lateral limits of a CTA, it will extend upwards from the surface to at least the lower limit of the
CTA. The upper limit of a CTR may be higher than the lower limit of an overlying CTA. Where
there is no overlying CTA, the upper limit of the CTR is defined. When this limit is above 900 m
(3000 ft) msl it should coincide with a VFR cruising level.
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Note: Even in states that do not recognise VFR FLs, the lower and upper limits of
controlled airspace (Airways, CTAs and CTRs) are defined in terms of the vertical
displacement which would coincide with a VFR FL. For instance, the UK does not
recognise VFR FLs but the base of airways in the UK is always a FL + 500 ft i.e. FL75. It
is generally accepted that the practical maximum upper limit of any defined CAS is
FL660. If you refer to the table of FLs you will find this is a VFR FL.
Note: It is common practice to define the upper limit of CTRs as altitudes where the
upper limit coincides with or is less than the transition altitude for the aerodrome(s)
served by the CTR, even if this is above 900 m (3000 ft). In N America, for any CTR or
CTA with an upper limit below 18 000 ft, the upper limit is defined as an altitude.
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To make unambiguous reference to any ATS route without the need to resort to the use
of geographical co-ordinates or other means in order to describe it;
To relate an ATS route to a specific vertical structure of the airspace, as applicable;
To indicate a required level of navigation performance accuracy, when operating along
an ATS route or within a specified area; and
To indicate that a route is used primarily or exclusively by certain types of aircraft.
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Composition of Designators
Designators for controlled, advisory and uncontrolled ATS routes, with the exception of standard
arrival and departure routes, have the following format:
A letter followed by a number; with;
One prefix; and
One suffix.
Number of Characters
The number of characters required to compose the designator:
Shall not exceed 6 characters, but
Should be kept to a maximum of 5 characters.
Route Designator Letter
Selection of the letter shall be made from:
A, B, G, R for routes which form part of the regional networks of ATS routes and are not
area navigation routes;
L, M, N, P for area navigation routes which form part of the regional networks of ATS
routes;
H, J, V, W for routes which do not form part of the regional networks of ATS routes and
are not area navigation routes; and
Q, I, Y, Z for area navigation routes which do not form part of the regional networks of
ATS route.
Note: RNAV routes are defined by waypoints (VOR radial and DME range etc.); nonRNAV routes are defined by overflying beacons (VOR; NDB etc.)
Note: Regional refers to the ICAO regions and implies that routes are not restricted to
the domestic airspace of a state. Non regional implies that the route does not extend
beyond the domestic airspace of a state.
Route Designator Number
The basic designator number following the letter is any number between 1 and 999.
Prefix
Where applicable, one supplementary letter is added as a prefix to the basic designator to
designate the following:
K to indicate a low level route established for use primarily by helicopters;
U to indicate that a route or portion of that route is established in the upper airspace;
and
S to indicate a route established exclusively for use by supersonic aircraft during
acceleration, deceleration and while in supersonic flight.
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Suffix
A supplementary letter may be added after the basic designator of the ATS route to indicate the
type of service provided or the turn performance required on the route. The following are the
applicable suffixes:
F indicates that the route is an advisory route (class F airspace).
G indicates that the route is an FIS route in class G airspace.
Y indicates that for RNP 1 routes at and above FL200, all turns on the route between 30
and 90 shall be made within the allowable RNP tolerance of a tangential arc between
the straight leg segments defined with a radius of 22.5 nm.
Z indicates that for RNP 1 routes at or below FL 190, all turns on the route between 30
and 90 shall be made within the allowable RNP tolerance of a tangential arc between
the straight leg segments defined with a radius of 15 nm.
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Belfast CTA/TMA/CTR
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Proximity of Aircraft;
Procedural inadequacy;
Equipment malfunction.
AIRPROX
The ATIR dealing with proximity of aircraft (one aircraft getting too close to another) is called an
AIRPROX report. After the report is filed a process of investigation starts which amongst other
things, will determine the degree of risk involved. This will be classified as:
Risk of collision;
Safety not assured;
No risk of collision;
Risk not determined.
Filing an ATIR
If the ATCO becomes aware of a breach of separation standard then an AIRPROX (Controller) is
to be raised. If a pilot observes or becomes aware of an aircraft too close or cleared to or through
the same level/altitude or to commence a manoeuvre that would cause proximity concern, then
he/she is to raise an AIRPROX (Pilot).
ICAO has published a standard reporting form for AIRPROX (Pilot). When a pilot makes an
AIRPROX report, an initial report is to be made by RTF to the ATCU providing control at that
time. The form has shaded boxes for the information needed to be transmitted for the initial
report. When the aircraft has landed, the pilot is to complete the form and file it either directly with
the ATCU at the aerodrome of landing or through the Operator or the Operators agent.
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INTRODUCTION
Annex 11 to the Chicago Convention is concerned with the SARPs to be used in the delivery of
ATC. The SARPs are complex and the underpinning organisation and system for the formulation
of procedures and service provided, is too detailed to be included in the Annex. ICAO Document
4444, entitled PANS Air Traffic Management (ATM), has been specially written to provide the
definitive reference for the establishment of an ATC system within a state. Clearly, the content of
Doc 4444 is of primary interest to ATCOs and system designers, however, the introduction to
PANS ATM states that the content of Doc 4444 will be of interest to pilots. Indeed, the attention of
pilots is drawn to a statement that the objectives of an ATC service do not include the prevention
of collision with terrain. It continues: The procedures described in the document (Doc 4444), with
the exception of Radar Vectoring, do not relieve the pilot of his/her responsibility for ensuring that
any clearance issued by ATCUs are safe in this respect.
Note: The ATC service provided to VFR traffic in class D airspace is a Radar Information
service.
Provision of Air Traffic Control Service
Air traffic control service is provided by the various ATC units (ATCUs) detailed below. The RTF
callsigns of ATCUs consist of the geographic location of the unit, or the name of the airspace
(if one has been allocated) in which the service is to be provided, plus a suffix indicating the
service offered.
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Note: The provision of approach control at aerodromes outside of CTRs is advisory only. At
some busy aerodromes, the aerodrome authority has established approach control, the use
of which is not mandatory. Example aerodromes are Oxford and Cambridge. It may not be
sensible to ignore the service offered.
Aerodrome Control Service
The aerodrome control service provides ATS to aircraft on the ground and flying in the vicinity of
the aerodrome. The level of service provided depends upon the class of airspace that contains
the aerodrome. At all controlled aerodromes, an aerodrome traffic zone (ATZ) is established. The
class of airspace of the ATZ is that of the surrounding airspace. If the aerodrome is within a class
D CTR, then the ATZ is class D. If there is no CTR then the ATZ is class G. The RTF callsign of
the aerodrome controller is the aerodrome name, or the name suffixed with tower. The service is
provided by an aerodrome control tower.
Note: The task of providing specified services on the apron may be assigned to an
aerodrome control tower or to a separate unit known as the Apron Management Service.
Procedural Control
Modern ATC systems use radar in almost all ATC situations. With radar including SSR, the ATCO
probably knows where the aircraft is better than the pilot does when flying in IMC. However, the
basic ATC system uses procedural control where the pilot tells the ATCO where the aircraft is
and what altitude it is at. Based on this information and the ATCOs knowledge of the positions
and altitude of other aircraft, the ATCO issues a clearance to the aircraft. Procedural control is
based on time for horizontal separation. The specific standards will be detailed under Area
Control. Throughout the chapters dealing with Approach Control and Area Control, the underlying
provision of service is through procedural control. For this reason, the procedures may seem
cumbersome and outmoded in todays radar environment. Radar control, where separation is
based on distance, is discussed in the chapter dealing with Radar.
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Be provided with information on the intended movement of each aircraft and with current
information on the actual progress of each aircraft;
Determine from the information received, the relative positions of known aircraft to each
other;
Issue clearances and information for the purpose of preventing collisions between aircraft
under its control and of expediting and maintaining an orderly flow of traffic;
Co-ordinate clearances as necessary with other units:
Whenever an aircraft might otherwise conflict with traffic operated under the control
of such other units;
Before transferring control of an aircraft to such other units.
Separation
Separation is the act of physically ensuring that collisions between aircraft do not take place.
Clearances issued by ATCUs provide separation:
Separation Methods
Separation can be obtained by at least one of the following:
Vertical separation
Obtained by assigning different altitudes or FLs to geographically adjacent aircraft.
Horizontal separation
Obtained by providing:
Longitudinal separation
By maintaining an interval between aircraft operating along the same, converging or
reciprocal tracks, expressed in time or distance; or
Lateral separation
By maintaining aircraft on different routes or in different geographical areas.
Composite separation
Consisting of a combination of vertical and one of the other forms of separation. The
minima for use with each of these is possibly less than, but never less than of, those
for use with each of the combined elements when applied individually. Composite
separation is applied only on the basis of regional air navigation agreements.
Note: Communications failure procedure in the NAT area uses composite separation.
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Arriving Aircraft
The responsibility for the control of an aircraft approaching to land is transferred from the
unit providing approach control service to the unit providing aerodrome control service, as
soon as the aircraft is in the vicinity of the aerodrome and:
It is considered that it will be able to complete its approach and landing with visual
reference to the ground; or
It has reached uninterrupted VMC; or
Has landed.
Departing Aircraft
The responsibility for control of a departing aircraft is transferred from the unit providing
aerodrome control service to the unit providing Approach Control service at the earliest
opportunity:
In VMC:
In IMC:
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Chapter 13
Co-Ordination of Clearances
An ATC clearance is to be co-ordinated between ATC units to cover the entire route of an aircraft,
or a specified portion of a route as follows. An aircraft is normally cleared for the entire route to
the aerodrome of first intended landing:
When it has been possible, prior to departure, to co-ordinate the clearance between all
the units under whose control the aircraft will come, or
When there is reasonable assurance that prior co-ordination will be effected between
those units under whose control the aircraft will subsequently come.
Limited Clearance
When co-ordination has not been achieved or is not anticipated, the aircraft will only be cleared to
a point where co-ordination is reasonably certain. Prior to reaching such a point, or at that point,
the aircraft must receive a further clearance, with holding instructions being issued as
appropriate.
A clearance limit is specified by using the name of the appropriate reporting point, or aerodrome,
or CAS boundary. When prior co-ordination has been effected with units under whose control the
aircraft will subsequently come under or if there is reasonable time prior to the assumption of
control, the clearance limit is the destination aerodrome or, if not practicable, an appropriate
intermediate point, and co-ordination shall be expedited so that a clearance to the destination
may be issued as soon as possible.
Note: If the clearance for the levels covers only part of the route, it is important for the
ATCU to specify a point to which the part of the clearance regarding levels applies.
ATC Clearance Expiry
One of the following phrases may be included in the initial clearance when the Air Traffic situation
necessitates:
Expiry Time
The time of expiry of a clearance indicates the time after which the clearance will be automatically
cancelled if the flight has not been started; in which case, a new clearance will have to be
requested by the pilot.
Entering a CTA
When an aircraft intends to depart from an aerodrome within a CTA, to enter another CTA within
a period of 30 minutes, co-ordination with the subsequent area control centre is obtained prior to
the issue of the departure clearance.
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Route of Flight
The route of flight is detailed in each clearance when deemed necessary. The phrases used and
meanings are:
The clearance shall be for a specified portion of the flight during climb or descent and
subject to further restrictions as and when prescribed on the basis of regional air
navigation agreements.
If there is a possibility that flight under VMC may become impracticable an IFR flight shall
be provided with alternative instructions to be complied with in the event that flight in
VMC cannot be maintained for the term of the clearance.
The pilot of an IFR flight, on observing that conditions are deteriorating and considering
that operation in VMC will become impossible, shall inform ATC before entering IMC and
shall proceed in accordance with the alternative instructions given.
Note: The provision of vertical or horizontal separation by an ATCU is not applicable in
respect of any specified portion of a flight cleared subject to maintaining own separation
and remaining in VMC. It is for the flight so cleared to ensure that, for the duration of the
clearance, it is not operated in such proximity to other flights as to create a collision
hazard.
Note: As a VFR flight must remain in VMC at all times, the issuance of a clearance to a
VFR flight to fly subject to maintaining own separation and remaining in VMC has no
other meaning other than to signify that, for the duration of the clearance, the provision of
separation by ATC is not applicable.
Note: This information will inevitably relate to controlled flights cleared subject to maintaining
own separation and remaining in VMC.
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Vehicles and vehicles towing aircraft shall give way to aircraft which are landing, takingoff or taxiing (1); and
Vehicles shall give way to other vehicles towing aircraft; and
Vehicles shall give way to other vehicles in accordance with local instructions; and
Notwithstanding the above, vehicles and vehicles towing aircraft shall comply with
instructions issued by the aerodrome control tower.
Note 1: In the UK aircraft taxiing are required to give way to aircraft being towed.
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13-8
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Air Law
APPLICATION
FIS is provided to all aircraft which are likely to be affected by the information and which are
provided with air traffic control service, or otherwise known to the relevant ATS units.
Precedence
Where ATS units provide both FIS and air traffic control service, the provision of air traffic control
service has precedence over the provision of FIS whenever the provision of air traffic control
service so requires.
Use of Radar
ICAO SARPs allow the use of radar in the provision of a FIS. Where this is provided it is known
as a radar information service. Do not confuse this with the UK radar service offered to traffic
inside and outside of controlled airspace under the LARS service which is called Radar
Information Service (RIS).
Additional Information
FIS provided to flights includes, in addition to the information already outlined, the provision of
information concerning weather conditions reported or forecast at departure, destination and
alternate aerodromes, and collision hazards to aircraft flying in airspace Classes C, D, E, F and
G. For flight over water areas, in so far as practicable and when requested by a pilot, any
available information such as radio call sign, position, true track, speed, etc., of vessels in the
area.
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HF OFIS broadcast
VHF OFIS broadcast
Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS)
ATIS
ATIS broadcasts are provided at aerodromes where there is a requirement to reduce the
communication load on the ATS VHF air-ground communication channels. ATIS is established as
Voice ATIS (V-ATIS) which can be supplemented with Data ATIS (D-ATIS).
V-ATIS
A discrete VHF frequency is used for ATIS broadcasts. If a discrete frequency is not available, the
transmission may be made on the voice channel of the most appropriate terminal navigation aid,
preferably a VOR, provided the range and readability are adequate and the identification of the
navigation aid is sequenced with the broadcast so that the latter is not obliterated. ATIS
broadcasts are not to be transmitted on the voice channel of ILS. When provided V-ATIS
comprises:
D-ATIS
D-ATIS is transmitted continuously on the data link system from an ACC. Because it is
transmitted continuously and consists of data rather than voice information, it can be updated
virtually instantaneously. In any one data transmission information concerning multiple
aerodromes can be included together with appropriate administrative information. D-ATIS is
displayed on the flight deck through the EFIS system.
VOLMET
Meteorological information (TAFS and Metars) is broadcast on both HF and VHF where there is a
need. The term VOLMET is taken from meteorologie de vol. A VOLMET broadcast is transmitted
by the FIS of a FIR (VHF) or an OCA (HF). It typically covers many aerodromes either within the
FIR or adjacent FIRs.
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Air Law
Reference: Procedures for Air Navigation Services, Rules of the Air and Air Traffic Services, Doc
4444 - RAC/501
INTRODUCTION
There is no regulatory requirement for an aerodrome that is outside CAS and used only for VFR
flying to have an aerodrome controller. However, where an aerodrome is used for commercial
operations under IFR the aerodrome must be licensed and under the licensing requirements the
provision of an aerodrome controller will be required.
The aerodrome controller must be a licensed ATCO. Such an aerodrome is defined by ICAO as a
controlled aerodrome. The aerodrome controller usually uses the aerodrome name plus the word
tower as an RTF callsign e.g. Coventry Tower. Alternatively, the word local refers to the
aerodrome controller also. The aerodrome controller may be assisted by a ground movements
controller whose function would be to advise pilots of collision risks and to pass other
aeronautical information. If the ground controller is required to provide ATC to aircraft on the
ground, he/she must be a licenced ATCO.
An alternative to a licensed ATCO is to use a Flight Information Service Officer (FISO) who is
licensed to provide FIS. Where a FISO is appointed his/her RTF callsign will have the suffix
Information, for example: Redhill Information. At busy aerodromes e.g. Heathrow, there is an
arrivals controller and a departures controller, both of whom share the responsibility of the
aerodrome controller.
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The holding of all departures other than those which file an IFR flight plan and obtain
approval from the area control centre;
The recall of all local flights operating under VFR or special VFR;
The notification of the area control centre of the action taken; and
The notification of all operators, or their designated representatives, of the reason for
taking such action if necessary or requested.
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Final
Ba
se
Le
Downwind Leg
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Chapter 15
Circuit Positions
The following positions of aircraft in the traffic and taxi circuits are the positions where the aircraft
normally receive aerodrome control tower clearances, whether these are given by light signals or
radio. Aircraft should be watched closely as they approach these positions so that proper
clearances may be issued without delay. Where practicable, all clearances are issued without
waiting for the aircraft to initiate the call.
15-4
Position 1
Aircraft initiates call to taxi for departing flight, runway in use information and taxi
clearances given.
Position 2
If there is conflicting traffic, the departing aircraft is held at this point. Engines of the
aircraft would normally be run-up here.
Position 3
Take-off clearance is issued here if not practicable at position 2.
Position 4
Clearance to land is issued here.
Position 5
Clearance to taxi to hangar line or parking area is issued here.
Position 6
Parking information issued here if necessary.
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PRIOR TO TAKE-OFF
Aircraft are advised of any significant changes in the surface wind direction and speed, the air
temperature, and the visibility or RVR value(s) given, and significant meteorological conditions in
the take-off and climb out area, except when it is known that the information has already been
received by the aircraft.
COLLISION AVOIDANCE
When operating under VMC, it is the responsibility of the PIC of an aircraft to avoid collision with
other aircraft. However, due to the restricted space on and around manoeuvring areas, it is often
essential that traffic information be issued to aid the PIC of an aircraft to avoid collision. Essential
local traffic is considered to consist of any aircraft, vehicle, or personnel on or near the
manoeuvring area, or traffic operating in the vicinity of the aerodrome, which may constitute a
hazard to the aircraft concerned. Information on essential local traffic is issued either directly or
through the unit providing approach control service when, in the judgement of the aerodrome
controller the information is necessary in the interests of safety, or when requested by aircraft.
OTHER HAZARDS
In issuing clearances or instructions, air traffic controllers should take into account the hazards
caused by jet blast and propeller slipstream to taxiing aircraft, to aircraft taking-off or landing,
particularly when intersecting runways are being used, and to vehicles and personnel operating
on the aerodrome.
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Note: The movement area of an aerodrome consists of the apron and the manoeuvring area.
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Air Law
The preceding departing aircraft has crossed the end of the runway in use; or
The preceding departing aircraft has started a turn away from the runway centreline;
or
All preceding landing aircraft are clear of the runway in use.
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Chapter 15
Where the ATS authority has agreed alternative procedures, they will not be permitted:
TAKE-OFF CLEARANCE
Take-off clearance may be issued to an aircraft when there is reasonable assurance that the
separation prescribed will exist when the aircraft starts its take-off run. In the interest of expediting
traffic, a clearance for immediate take-off may be issued to an aircraft before it enters the runway.
On receipt of such a clearance the aircraft shall taxi onto the runway and start the take-off run in
one continuous movement.
CONTROL OF ARRIVING AIRCRAFT
Unless other procedures have been approved and are in force, landing aircraft will not normally
be permitted to cross the beginning of the runway on its final approach until:
A preceding departing aircraft has crossed the upwind end of the runway, or
A preceding departing aircraft has turned away from the runway centreline, or
A preceding landing aircraft has moved off the runway.
15-8
The landing aircraft must be able to keep the preceding aircraft in sight;
It must be during day time;
The braking action must not be adversely affected by runway contaminants;
The pilot of the landing aircraft must agree to the procedure being used;
The operators of the aircraft concerned agree to the procedure being used.
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HEAVY (H)
MTOM equal to or greater than 136 000 kg
MEDIUM (M)
MTOM less than 136 000 kg but greater than 7000 kg
LIGHT (L)
MTOM equal to or less than 7000 kg
Opposite Direction
Separation of 2 minutes shall be applied between a LIGHT or MEDIUM aircraft and a HEAVY
aircraft and between a LIGHT aircraft and a MEDIUM aircraft when the heavier aircraft is making
a low missed approach, and the lighter aircraft is:
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Air Law
Reference: Procedures for Air Navigation Services, Rules of the Air and Air Traffic Services, Doc
4444 -RAC/501
INTRODUCTION
Approach Control is the interface between the Aerodrome Controller and the Area Controller.
Normally Approach control is provided out to a range of 25 nm from a controlled aerodrome
situated within a CTR. It is normal to use radar to supplement the procedural service. Approach
control is mandatory for all IFR traffic and all controlled VFR flights within a CTR.
DEPARTURES
Departing Aircraft
Approach Control is provided to all IFR departing flights and departing VFR controlled flights. IFR
flights normally follow a Standard Instrument Departure (SID) profile to a convenient point at
which control is transferred to an area controller for insertion into the adjacent airways system.
General Procedures for Departing Aircraft
The approach controller will, in consultation with the relevant airspace controller of an adjacent
CTA, give ATC clearances for departing controlled flights. Such clearances are to specify:
Note: To minimise RTF transmission and to standardise procedures, the above information is
delivered by instructing the pilot to comply with a published SID. Also to ensure an orderly
flow of air traffic, ATCUs should attempt to permit aircraft departing on long distance flights to
proceed on heading with as few turns or other manoeuvres as possible, and to climb to
cruising level without restrictions.
Expeditious Flow
Departing aircraft may be expedited by suggesting a take-off direction that is not into wind. It is
the responsibility of the PIC of an aircraft to decide between making such a take-off, and waiting
for normal take-off in a preferred direction.
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Delays
It is normal ATFM practice to delay take off rather than incur excessive holding at destination. If
departures are delayed, delayed flights shall normally be cleared in an order based on their ETD,
however, deviations from this may be made to facilitate the maximum number of departures with
the least average delay. ATCUs should advise aircraft operators or their designated
representatives when anticipated delays due to traffic conditions are likely to be substantial and in
any event, when they are expected to exceed 30 minutes.
Minimum Separation Between Departing Aircraft
The following minimum procedural separations are used:
One minute if the departing tracks diverge by at least 45 immediately after take-off. This
may be reduced for parallel runway or diverging runway operations. The latter need
specific ATS approval.
Two minutes where the first aircraft has filed a cruising speed that is 40 knots faster than
the second, and both aircraft intend to follow the same track.
Five minutes while vertical separation does not exist.
ARRIVALS
Arriving Aircraft
Arriving flights are normally handed over from the area controller or the CTA controller, to the
approach controller at a convenient point usually located in the vicinity of a radio navigation
facility. Flights under approach control will normally be handed over to the aerodrome controller
when the pilot has reported field in sight or has passed a specific point on an instrument
approach.
General Procedures for Arriving Aircraft
When it becomes evident that delays in holding will be encountered by arriving aircraft, the
operator or a designated representative is notified and kept informed of any changes in the
expected delays, in order that diversionary action can be planned as far in advance as possible.
Arriving aircraft may be required to report when leaving or passing a reporting point, when
starting a procedure turn or base turn, or to provide other information required by the controller to
expedite departing aircraft.
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The pilot has reported passing an appropriate point defined by a radio aid; or
The pilot reports that the aerodrome is and can be maintained in sight; or
The aircraft is conducting a visual approach; or
The aircrafts position has been positively determined by the use of radar.
Straight-in Approach
If the aircraft is to be cleared for a straight-in approach then only the last item of the above list
need be specified.
Missed Approach Procedure
The missed approach procedure will be specified when deemed necessary.
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Full Procedure
If visual reference to terrain is established before completion of the approach procedure, the
entire procedure must be flown unless the pilot requests, and is cleared for, a visual approach.
Specific Procedure
A particular approach procedure may be specified to expedite traffic. The omission of a specified
approach procedure will indicate that any authorised approach may be used at the discretion of
the pilot.
Speed Control
In the clearance to commence the instrument procedure, the pilot will be instructed to fly at a
defined speed to facilitate separation. Where radar is used to apply separation, speed adjustment
instructions will be given to the pilot to maintain separation.
Holding
Holding and holding pattern entry has to be accomplished in accordance with procedures
established by the appropriate ATS authority and published in Aeronautical Information
Publications (AIP).
If entry and holding procedures have not been published or if the procedures are not known to the
PIC of an aircraft, the appropriate ATCU will describe the procedures to be followed. Aircraft must
be held at a designated holding point. The required minimum vertical, lateral or longitudinal
separation from other aircraft, according to the system in use at that holding point, will be
provided.
When aircraft are being held in flight, the appropriate vertical separation minima shall continue to
be provided between holding aircraft and enroute aircraft while such aircraft are within 5 minutes
flying time of the holding area, unless the correct lateral separation exists. Levels at holding
points are assigned in a manner that facilitates the clearance of each aircraft to approach in its
proper priority. Normally, the first aircraft to arrive over a holding point should be at the lowest
level, with following aircraft at successively higher levels. Aircraft particularly sensitive to high fuel
consumption at low levels, such as supersonic aircraft, are permitted to hold at higher levels than
their order in the approach sequence indicates, without losing their order in the sequence. This is
allowed whenever the availability of discrete descent paths and/or radar makes it possible to clear
the aircraft for descent through the levels occupied by other aircraft. If a PIC of an aircraft advises
of an inability to comply with the approach control holding or communication procedures, the
alternative procedure(s) requested by the PIC should be approved if known traffic conditions
permit.
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Priority
The stack is established in a manner that will permit arrival of the maximum number of aircraft
with the least average delay. A special priority may be given to an aircraft which anticipates being
compelled to land because of factors affecting the safe operation of the aircraft; or hospital
aircraft or aircraft carrying any sick or seriously injured person requiring urgent medical attention.
Flow
Succeeding aircraft are cleared for approach when the preceding aircraft:
Has reported that it is able to complete its approach without encountering IMC; or
Is in communication with and sighted by the aerodrome control tower and reasonable
assurance exists that a normal landing can be accomplished; or
Radar separation has been applied between the aircraft and the preceding aircraft.
Remaining Holding
If the pilot of an aircraft in a stack has indicated an intention to hold for weather improvement, or
for other reasons, such action shall be approved. When other holding aircraft indicate their
intention to continue the approach to land, and alternative procedures are not available, the pilot
desiring to hold will be cleared to an adjacent fix for holding. Alternatively, the aircraft should be
given a clearance to place it at the top of the stack so that other holding aircraft may be permitted
to land. The aircraft operator, or a designated representative, shall be advised of the action taken
immediately after the clearance is issued, if practicable.
Credit Time
An aircraft which has been deliberately delayed by ATC enroute to minimise terminal holding, and
is still required to enter the stack, will be given credit for the time lost due to delay and placed in
the stack at an appropriate position.
Timed Approach Procedures
When approved by the appropriate ATS authority, the following procedure can be used to
expedite the approaches of a number of arriving aircraft:
A suitable point on the approach path, which shall be capable of being accurately
determined by the pilot, is specified to serve as a check point in timing successive
approaches;
Aircraft shall be given a time at which to pass the specified point inbound. This time will
allow the desired interval between successive landings on the runway to be achieved
while respecting the applicable separation minima at all times, including the periods of
runway occupancy.
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Runway in use
Current meteorological information
Current runway surface conditions, in case of precipitants or other temporary hazards
Changes in the operational status of visual and non-visual aids essential for approach
and landing
16-6
The latest information, if any, on wind shear and/or turbulence in the final approach area
including the current visibility representative of the direction of approach and landing or,
when provided, the current RVR value(s) and the trend, if practicable, supplemented by
slant visual range value(s) if provided.
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B Start of
Procedure Turn
45
45
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INTRODUCTION
The provision of an ATC service to aircraft flying along airways or transiting through control areas
is called area control. Area control is only provided in CAS and only provided to IFR traffic or
controlled VFR traffic where the class of airspace permits such traffic. Whilst the complexity of the
operation may appear less than that of approach control, the numbers of aircraft involved,
especially over continental Europe and North America, make area control a specifically
demanding aspect of the ATC service. Generally area control is applied above the levels used for
terminal manoeuvring and outside of CTAs, at the normal cruising levels for the activity of the
traffic concerned. The unit providing an area control service is an Area Control Centre (ACC).
Procedural Control
The system underpinning area control is procedural ATC. In order for this to function, pilots are
required to make position reports at mandatory reporting points enroute. On enroute charts such
points are noted by a black triangle (S). Unless ordered to cease position reporting, pilots are to
make the necessary reports. In any event, a pilot is to make a report when at the FIR boundary.
Adjacent FIRs
In order to allow international commercial operations to operate, the area controller in one FIR
must co-ordinate the movement of aircraft into adjacent FIRs. To do this, pilots may be asked to
adjust the route to be flown or to accept lower levels than flight planned. Instructions such as
route via (position) or maintain FL190 until (position) or request level change enroute are
used for revisions or interim clearances. At the point of transfer of control to a succeeding FIR,
the controllers concerned will co-ordinate a handover such that there is a positive handover of
control. Where radar is used, this will involve radar identification by the assuming controller based
on information from the relieving controller and SSR information.
Flight Levels
As flights progress aircraft are able to cruise at higher flight levels (or altitudes). Area controllers
will attempt to accommodate all requests for higher levels within operational constraints.
Instructions such as request higher after (position) or advise when able higher are used when
level adjustment is not practical at that time.
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Airways
When flying along ATS corridor routes (airways), pilots are responsible for their own navigation.
Area controllers expect aircraft to navigate along the centre line of airways and route via the
defining radio navigation aids. When cleared to climb and descend, such action should be
commenced immediately and completed as expeditiously as possible. Instructions such as from
(position) route via (position) or from present position proceed directly to (position) will be used
to expedite the flow of traffic along routes or through areas by missing intermediate points on the
flight planned route.
SEPARATION
General Provisions for Separation
The LOs for 010 Air Law require the student to have knowledge of the separation standards as
applied in area control. These are complex but follow a definite pattern. It is not unusual for
several questions to appear in a paper concerning the separation standards. In general, the
provision of vertical separation will take precedent over horizontal separation. The philosophy is
that two aircraft at different altitudes cannot hit each other!
Application of Separation
In area control, vertical or horizontal separation is provided between:
VERTICAL SEPARATION
Vertical Separation Application
Vertical separation is obtained by requiring aircraft to use prescribed altimeter setting procedures
to operate at different levels expressed in terms of flight levels or altitudes.
Vertical Separation Minimum
The vertical separation minimum shall be:
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HORIZONTAL SEPARATION
Horizontal Separation Definition
There are two types of horizontal separation: lateral and longitudinal. Broadly, lateral separation
requires aircraft to fly on different tracks separated by the required minima in terms of distance,
whereas longitudinal separation involves arranging flights along the same track to be separated
by time (or in certain circumstances, by distance).
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LATERAL SEPARATION
Application
Lateral separation is applied so that the distance between aircraft that are to be laterally
separated is never less than an established distance (the minima) taking into account
navigational inaccuracies plus a specified buffer. This buffer is determined by the appropriate
authority and is included in the lateral separation minima.
Buffer A contrivance to lessen the shock of concussion. In this context, the word
buffer means distance or time which is added into a situation that allows more space to
ensure that the risk of two aircraft colliding is minimised.
Means of Achieving Lateral Separation
Lateral separation of aircraft at the same level is obtained by:
Track Separation Between Aircraft Using the Same Navigation Aid or Method
Aircraft fly on specified tracks which are separated by a minimum amount appropriate to
the navigation aid or method employed. By doing so, separation would be deemed to
exist when one or both aircraft are:
VOR: Flying tracks separated by least 15, and one or both aircraft have reported
at a distance of 28 km (15 nm) or more from the facility.
28 km (15NM)
VOR
15
28 k
m (1
17-4
5NM
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NDB: Flying tracks separated by least 30, and one or both aircraft have reported
at a distance of 28 km (15 nm) or more from the facility
28 km (15NM)
NDB
30
28
km
(1
5N
M)
28
km
)
5N
(1
Reduced Distance
When aircraft are operating on tracks which are separated by considerably more than
these minima, States may reduce the distance at which the lateral separation is
achieved.
Oceanic Entry Track
Separation between aircraft entering oceanic airspace is to be achieved before the
aircraft enter the OCA by flying tracks separated by the minima applied in the OCA.
Alternatively, until separation is achieved, the aircraft are to fly tracks which continue to
diverge by at least 15 until the appropriate lateral separation minimum is established and
it is possible to ensure, by means approved by the appropriate ATS authority, that the
aircraft have the navigation capability necessary to ensure accurate track guidance.
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LONGITUDINAL SEPARATION
Application
Longitudinal separation is applied so that the spacing between the estimated positions of the
aircraft being separated is never less than the prescribed minimum. The specified spacing
reflects the accuracy of the navigation aids being used or the accuracy with which the pilot can
determine his/her position. Beacon hopping is a fairly simple case but the use of RNAV over
remote areas such as oceans or deserts will require much greater distances to be applied.
Longitudinal separation between aircraft following the same or diverging tracks may be
maintained by the application of the Mach Number technique in which aircraft are required to fly
maintaining a specified mach number in relation to another aircraft also flying at specified mach
number. It is the underlying principle that the local speed of sound for two aircraft in relatively
close proximity will be the same. Longitudinal separation is established by requiring aircraft:
15 MIN
Navigational
Aid
10 MIN
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5 minutes: in the following cases, providing that in each case the lead aircraft is
maintaining a TAS of 37 km/h (20 kt) or more, faster than the aircraft following:
Aerodrome
or
Reporting Point
5 MIN
3 minutes: in the cases listed below provided that in each case the lead aircraft is
maintaining a TAS of 74 km/h (40 kt) or more faster than the aircraft following.
Aerodrome
or
Reporting Point
3 MIN
15 MIN
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Navigational
Aid
Navigational
Aid
10 MIN
Navigational
Aids
FL 250
1 5 M IN
FL 240
1 5 M IN
or when descending,
1 5 M IN
FL 260
FL 250
1 5 M IN
FL 240
1 5 M IN
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10 minutes: at the time the level is crossed, where navigation aids permit frequent
determination of position and speed;
10 MIN
FL 260
FL 250
10 MIN
FL 240
10 MIN
NAVIGATION AID
10 M IN
FL 260
FL 250
10 M IN
FL 240
10 M IN
5 minutes: at the time the level is crossed, provided that the level change is commenced
within 10 minutes of the time the second aircraft has reported over an exact reporting
point (climbing and descending cases applicable).
5 M IN
FL 260
5 M IN
FL 250
1 0 M IN
F L 2 40
5 M IN
N A V IG A T IO N A ID
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FL 250
15 M IN
FL 240
15 M IN
FL 250
10 MIN
FL 240
10 MIN
NAVIGATION AID
10 MIN
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37 KM (20 NM)
19 km (10 nm) provided the lead aircraft maintains a TAS of 37 km/h (20 kt) or more
faster than the aircraft following; each aircraft utilizes "on-track" DME stations, and
separation is checked by obtaining simultaneous DME readings from the aircraft at
intervals as necessary to ensure that the minimum established and will not be infringed.
37 KM (20 KT)
or Faster
DME
19 KM
(10 NM)
DME
1
(1 9 K
0
NM M
)
37 KM (20 KT)
or Faster
or,
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3
(2 7 K
0
NM M
)
DME
FL 260
FL 250
19 KM
10 NM
FL 240
19 KM
10 NM
or when descending,
19 KM
10 NM
FL 260
19 KM
10 NM
19 KM
10 NM
FL 250
FL 240
DME
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WAY-POINT
150 KM
80 NM
A 150 km (80 nm) RNAV distance based separation minimum may be used provided
each aircraft reports its distance to or from the same "on-track" way point, and separation
is checked by obtaining simultaneous RNAV distance readings from the aircraft at
frequent intervals to ensure that the minimum will not be infringed.
Aircraft Climbing or Descending on the Same Track
A 150 km (80 nm) RNAV distance based separation minimum may be used at the time
the level is crossed, provided each aircraft reports its distance to or from the same "ontrack" way point. One aircraft maintains a level while vertical separation does not exist,
and separation is established by obtaining simultaneous RNAV distance readings from
the aircraft.
150 KM
80 NM
150 KM
80 NM
150 KM
80 NM
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WAY-POINT
FL 260
FL 250
FL 240
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or when descending,
150 K M
W A Y -P O INT
F L 2 60
8 0 NM
FL 25 0
1 50 KM
8 0 NM
F L 24 0
150 K M
8 0 NM
WAY -POINT
150 km
80 NM
W AY -POINT
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RNAV Operations
When RNAV equipped aircraft operate within the coverage of electronic aids that provide the
necessary updates to maintain navigation accuracy, separation may also be reduced.
Separation When Using the Mach Number Technique
The Mach number technique requires turbo jet aircraft to fly at the Mach number approved by
ATC. A request is to be made to ATC before any changes to Mach number are made. If it is
essential to make immediate changes to Mach number for safety reasons (i.e. turbulence) ATC is
to be informed as soon as possible. If it is not possible to maintain assigned Mach number during
en route climbs or descents, ATC is to be informed at the time of clearance issue. Separation
based on Mach number is deemed to exist when the required time interval between aircraft
exists. The minimum longitudinal separation standard when using the Mach number technique is
10 minutes providing the preceding aircraft maintains a Mach speed equal to or greater than that
of the following aircraft. This may be reduced if the preceding aircraft has Mach speed greater
than the following aircraft:
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9 minutes
8 minutes
7 minutes
6 minutes
5 minutes
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Reference: Procedures For Air Navigation Services, Rules of the Air, and Air Traffic Services,
Document 4444-RAC/501
INTRODUCTION
The establishment of the formal route structure for airways in the FIR cannot always meet the
requirements of remote aerodromes or areas of a state. For instance, until the boom in the oil
exploration and recovery business in the North Sea, the Shetland and Orkney Isles of the UK
were remote areas where boats were the main means of transportation to the mainland. There
were aerodromes there but no long distance scheduled air services served the islands. Small
regional operators used small aeroplanes to provide a limited service. The ATC support for this
was very limited confined to no more than aerodrome control and enroute FIS. This effectively
limited the services to VFR only.
As the level of traffic increased, and in order to offer a more formalised service and a greater
degree of safety, the UK CAA established a system of advisory routes for IFR traffic to use, along
which all IFR traffic using the route and asking for the service would be provided with ATC. It was
envisaged that this service would be, and to a certain extent has remained, purely procedural.
With the introduction of the ICAO airspace classification system in the early 1980s, the airspace
in which this service was offered was titled Class F airspace, and a sub-division of ATC created
called the Air Traffic Advisory Service. Today, ICAO permits the use of radar in the provision of
an advisory service, however, this should not be confused with the UK radar service provided
under the LARS, RAS (Radar Advisory Service).
OPERATION
Air traffic advisory service does not afford the same degree of safety and cannot assume the
same responsibilities as air traffic control service in respect of the avoidance of collisions, since
information regarding the disposition of traffic in the area concerned available to the unit providing
air traffic advisory service may be incomplete. To make this quite clear, air traffic advisory service
does not deliver clearances but only advisory information, and it uses the words advise or
suggest when a course of action is proposed to an aircraft.
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The Commanders of aircraft flying to destinations served by class F routes or airspace, must
request the service. This is done by filing a FPL and annotating the remarks to make it clear that
the Advisory Service is requested. The ATCU responsible for the operation of the service will
acknowledge receipt of the FPL, but no clearance will be issued. When RTF contact is
established between the aircraft and the ATCU, the pilot will be advised which altitude or FL
should be used and advised of any other known traffic (IFR or VFR) flying along or in the vicinity
of the route. If conflictions arise, the pilots of aircraft in receipt of the service will be offered
suggestions or advice as to the approved method of de-confliction. Under no circumstances will
the ATCO apply ATC procedures nor will he/she assume any responsibility for separation.
IFR/VFR
The service is only available to pilots who have stated their intention to fly under IFR by filing an
IFR FPL. The use of the routes or airspace is not restricted to IFR only, but no service is offered
or available to VFR pilots other than the usual FIS. Likewise no service is offered to pilots of
aircraft flying under IFR who have not requested the service despite having filed a FPL.
Note: Pilots flying under IFR because they are flying in IMC must file a FPL before entering class
F airspace. If the service is required it must be requested.
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Advisory Philosophy
The criteria used above should be at least those laid down for aircraft operating in CAS and
should take into account the limitations inherent in the provision of air traffic control advisory
service, navigation facilities, and air-ground communications prevailing in the region.
Designation of Airspace
Class F airspace consists of advisory routes and advisory airspace. As the service is limited in
scope, there is no facility for co-ordination of traffic flying along advisory routes with FIRs of
adjacent states. Class F routes are therefore limited to domestic FIRs only and do not cross the
international FIR boundary between states. Class F routes are given the suffix F by ICAO. A
typical advisory route designator may be: W911F.
Note: In the UK, advisory routes are given the suffix D therefore the 'ICAO' route W911F would in
the UK be designated W911D. You find this route on E(Lo)1. It runs from Newcastle via the IoM
and stops at the London/Shannon FIR boundary.
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Reference: Procedures For Air Navigation Services, Rules of the Air, and Air Traffic Services,
Document 4444-RAC/501
INTRODUCTION
Radar is now used widely in ATC, and the advances including digital systems and data handling
systems have revolutionised ATC. Radar allows the ATCO to supervise the airspace from the
ground without reliance on pilot reports and thus enhance safety. Whilst procedural control is
retained because if all else fails it is still there, almost 90% of air traffic services use radar in one
form or another. Radar is used extensively in area control where airways and upper air routes are
virtually exclusively radar controlled, in approach radar for zone and terminal activity, and for
monitoring SIDs and STARs. Radar is also used in aerodrome control both for traffic control in the
visual circuit and for surface movement guidance. The early GCA systems were replaced by
PAR, and now with the demise of MLS, computerised PAR is again being installed primarily at
busy military aerodromes.
RADAR COVERAGE
The use of radar in ATS is by necessity, limited to specified areas of radar cover and shall be
subject to limitations as specified by the appropriate ATS authority. Information on the operating
methods used is published in AlPs.
Types of Radar
Primary surveillance radar (PSR) and secondary surveillance radar (SSR) can be used either
alone or in combination, provided reliable coverage exists in the area, and the probability of
detection, the accuracy, and the integrity of the radar system are satisfactory. PSR systems
should be used in circumstances where SSR alone would not meet the ATS needs. SSR
systems, especially those with monopulse technique or Mode S capability, may be used alone,
including in the provision of separation between aircraft, provided the carriage of SSR
transponders is mandatory within the area, and aircraft identification is established and
maintained by use of assigned discrete SSR codes.
Note: Monopulse technique uses azimuth information derived from aircraft responses
using comparison of signals received by two or more antenna beams. This gives greatly
improved azimuth resolution and less garbling (see Radio Navigation notes) than
conventional SSR sensors.
Presentation of Radar Information
The minimum radar derived information available for display to the controller is to include, radar
position indications, radar map information, and when available, information from SSR Mode A,
Mode C and Mode S.
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IDENTIFICATION OF AIRCRAFT
Before providing a radar service to an aircraft, radar identification must be established and the
pilot informed. Thereafter, radar identification must be maintained until termination of the radar
service. If radar identification is subsequently lost, the pilot must be informed accordingly, and
when applicable, appropriate instructions issued. Radar identification is to be established by at
least one of the following methods:
By correlating a particular radar contact with an aircraft reporting its position over, or as
bearing and distance from a point displayed on the radar map, and by confirming that the
track of the particular radar position is consistent with the aircraft path or reported
heading;
By correlating an observed radar contact with an aircraft which is known to have just
departed, provided that the identification is established within 2 km (1 nm) from the DER
of the runway used;
By transfer of radar identification;
By ascertaining aircraft heading, if circumstances require, and following a period of track
observation;
Instructing the pilot to execute changes of heading of 30 or more and correlating the
movements of one particular radar contact with the aircrafts acknowledged execution of
the instructions given; or
Correlating the movements of a particular radar contact with manoeuvres currently
executed by an aircraft having so reported.
Use of VDF
Use may be made of direction finding bearings to assist in radar identification of an aircraft. This
method shall not be used as the sole means of establishing radar identification, unless so
prescribed by the ATS authority for particular cases under specified conditions.
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POSITION INFORMATION
An aircraft to be provided with radar service should be informed of its position:
On initial identification;
On transfer of radar identification from another radar unit;
When the pilot requests this information;
When a pilots estimate differs significantly from the radar controllers contact position;
When the pilot is instructed to resume own navigation after radar vectoring;
Immediately before termination of radar service.
Defining Position
Position information is passed to aircraft in one of the following forms:
As a geographical position;
As magnetic track and distance to a significant point, an enroute navigation aid, or an
approach aid;
As direction and distance from a known position;
As distance to touchdown, if the aircraft is on final approach; or
As distance and direction from the centre line of an ATS route.
RADAR VECTORING
Radar vectoring is a procedure that allows a radar controller to position an aircraft by issuing
specific headings for the aircraft to fly to maintain the desired track. This allows an aircraft to be
positioned at a point where visual criteria is obtained; or that allows an instrument procedure to
be commenced; or traffic to be avoided; or terrain and restricted airspace to be avoided.
Procedure
Radar vectoring is only carried out in a defined Radar Vectoring Area (RVA) within CAS. Details
of all RVA are published in the AIP for a state and the RVA for Manchester is reproduced below.
When vectoring an aircraft, a radar controller should tell the pilot what the purpose of the
vectoring is, and where practicable, vector the aircraft along routes or tracks on which the pilot
can monitor the aircraft position with reference to navigation aids. When terminating radar
vectoring, the radar controller will instruct the pilot to resume own navigation, giving the pilot the
aircrafts position and appropriate instructions as necessary. During radar vectoring, the pilot
should fly the heading given and not correct for the wind. The radar controller will amend the
vectoring instructions to take account of observed drift.
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Limit of Vectoring
Except when transfer of radar control has been effected prior to transfer of communication,
aircraft are not to be vectored closer than 4.6 km (2.5 nm), or a distance equivalent to of the
radar separation minimum (where radar separation greater than 9.3 km (5 nm) is prescribed),
from the edge of the RVA, unless local arrangements have been made to ensure that separation
will exist with radar controlled aircraft operating in adjoining areas. Controlled flights will only be
vectored into uncontrolled airspace:
Obstacle Clearance
Whilst providing radar vectoring the ATCO will take responsibility for terrain avoidance (although
the pilot should monitor the situation closely). When vectoring an IFR flight, the radar controller
shall issue altitude instructions such that the required obstacle clearance will exist until the aircraft
reaches the point where the pilot will resume own navigation. Whenever possible, minimum
vectoring altitudes should be sufficiently high to minimize activation of GPWS. Operators are to
report incidents involving the activation of aircraft GPWS so that locations can be identified, and
altitude, routing, and/or aircraft operating procedures can be altered to prevent recurrences.
Compass Failure
When an aircraft has reported unreliable directional instruments, the radar controller will advise
the pilot to make all turns at an agreed rate (normally rate 1; 3 per sec) and to start the turn
immediately upon receipt. The controller will time the turn and advise the pilot to stop the turn
after the appropriate arc has been turned through.
Information Regarding Adverse Weather
Information that an aircraft appears likely to penetrate an area of adverse weather should be
issued in sufficient time to permit the pilot to decide on an appropriate course of action, including
that of requesting advice on how best to circumnavigate the adverse weather, if so desired. In
vectoring an aircraft for circumnavigating any area of adverse weather, the radar controller should
ascertain that the aircraft can be returned to its intended or assigned flight path within the
available radar coverage, and, if this does not appear possible, inform the pilot of the
circumstances.
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To provide radar services to improve airspace utilization, reduce delays, provide for direct
routings and more optimum flight profiles, as well as to enhance safety;
To provide radar vectoring to departing aircraft;
To provide radar vectoring to resolve potential conflicts;
To provide radar vectoring to arriving aircraft;
To provide radar vectoring to assist pilots in their navigation;
To provide separation and maintain normal traffic flow when an aircraft experiences
communication failure within the area of radar coverage;
To maintain the monitoring of air traffic;
When applicable, maintain a watch on the progress of air traffic, in order to provide a
non-radar controller with:
Improved position information regarding aircraft under control;
Supplementary information regarding other traffic; and
Information regarding any significant deviations, by aircraft from the terms of their
respective ATC clearances, including their cleared routes as well as levels when
appropriate.
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The average runway occupancy time of landing aircraft does not exceed 50 seconds;
Braking action is good and runway occupancy times are not adversely affected by
runway contaminants such as slush, snow, or ice;
A radar system with appropriate azimuth and range resolution and an update rate of
5 seconds or less is used in combination with suitable radar displays; and
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The aerodrome controller is able to observe the runway in use and associated exit
and entry taxiways (visually, by surface movement radar (SMR), or a surface
movement guidance and control system (SMCGS));
The wake turbulence radar separation minima does not apply;
Aircraft approach speeds are closely monitored by the controller, and when
necessary, adjusted so as to ensure that separation is not reduced below the
minimum;
Aircraft operators and pilots have been made fully aware that during reduced
minimum operations of the requirement for runway occupancy time not exceeding 50
secs; and
The procedures used are published in AIP.
Preceding aircraft
Succeeding aircraft
HEAVY
HEAVY
MEDIUM
LIGHT
7.4 km (4 nm)
9.3 km (5 nm)
11.1 km (6 nm)
MEDIUM
LIGHT
9.3 km (5 nm)
Aircraft category
Conditions
The minima set out above apply when:
An aircraft is operating directly behind another aircraft at the same altitude or less
than 300 m (1000 ft) below the preceding aircraft, or
Both aircraft are using the same runway, or parallel runways separated by less than
760 m, or
An aircraft is crossing behind another aircraft, at the same altitude or less than 300 m
(1000 ft) below.
Speed Control
Radar controllers may request aircraft to adjust their speed in order to facilitate radar control.
Aircraft may be requested to maintain maximum speed, minimum speed, minimum clean speed,
minimum approach speed, or specific speed. Where a specific speed is given it is expressed in
multiples of 20 km/h (10 knots) IAS, or multiples of 0.01 Mach. Only minor speed adjustments of
not more than 40 km/h (20 knots) should be requested of aircraft established on an intermediate
or final approach. No speed control should be applied after 8 km (4 nm) from the threshold on the
final approach. Aircraft should be advised once speed control is no longer required.
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Descent Point
Final Vector
Separation
A minimum of 3 nm separation is given to aircraft on the same localiser course.
Vectoring to the Visual
Vectoring for a visual approach may be initiated provided the reported ceiling is above the
minimum altitude applicable to radar vectoring and meteorological conditions are such that, with
reasonable assurance, a visual approach and landing can be carried out. Clearance for a visual
approach will only be issued after the pilot has reported the aerodrome, or the preceding aircraft,
is in sight. At that time radar vectoring would be terminated, and the pilot instructed to contact
tower.
Transfer of Control to the Aerodrome Controller
Transfer of communication and control to the aerodrome controller should be carried out at such
a point or time to permit clearance to land or alternative instructions to be issued. It is normal ATC
practice to transfer control once the pilot has reported established on the localiser (or final
approach track for non ILS approaches).
Landing Clearance
Clearance to land should be passed to an aircraft before it reaches 2 nm from touchdown. If no
clearance to land has been received at that range and no other instructions issued, then the
published missed approach procedure must be carried out.
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RADAR APPROACHES
Before Commencement
Before a radar approach is started, the pilot is to be informed of:
RTF
During a radar approach, the pilot will maintain communication with the radar approach controller.
The radar controller will liaise with the aerodrome controller by intercom and relay any essential
traffic information to the pilot. On completion of the radar approach, communication may be
transferred directly to the ground movement controller when the pilot reports to the radar
controller that the aircraft is clear of the active runway.
Discontinuation
If for any reason the radar approach has to be discontinued, the pilot will be informed
immediately. If possible, the approach is to be continued utilising another aid or visually if the pilot
reports accordingly. If continuation is not possible, the pilot will be given alternative instructions.
Undercarriage
At a point on final approach, the pilot of an aircraft making a radar approach is to be asked to
confirm that the landing gear is down and locked.
Landing Clearance
The aerodrome controller is to be advised when an aircraft making a radar approach is 8 nm from
touchdown. At this point the aerodrome controller may either issue a landing clearance or state
that the clearance will be issued subsequently. If landing clearance has not been issued at 8 nm,
the radar controller will advise the aerodrome controller again when the aircraft is at 4 nm from
touchdown and request landing clearance on behalf of the pilot. In busy circuit situations, the
aerodrome controller may delay the landing clearance providing it is issued before the aircraft
reaches 2 nm from touchdown. If the clearance has not been issued by 2 nm, the radar controller
will instruct the pilot to carry out the missed approach procedure without further delay.
Missed Approach
An aircraft making a radar approach should be instructed to execute the missed approach
procedure when the aircraft appears to be dangerously positioned on final approach, for reasons
of conflicting traffic, if no landing clearance has been received by 2 nm, or on instructions from
the aerodrome controller. If at any time during the radar approach radar contact is lost for any
significant interval of time, the pilot will be instructed to make a missed approach. Unless required
by exceptional circumstances, instructions issued by the radar controller concerning missed
approach are to be in accordance with the published procedure.
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PAR
During a precision approach radar procedure, the pilot is talked down the glide path and along
the centre line. This is achieved by radar vectoring using very accurate radar information relating
to the aircraft position in azimuth and elevation with reference to the centre line and the defined
glide path. At the start of the procedure the pilot will be instructed not to acknowledge any further
instructions unless requested. Range information is passed and the pilot will be instructed to
commence descent at the appropriate point. The radar controller then transmits continuously
passing range, heading and adjustments to heading, and adjustments to the rate of descent to
maintain the centre line and the glide path. At 4 nm from touchdown, whilst keeping up the
talkdown, the radar controller will ask the aerodrome controller for clearance to land. If given,
this is relayed to the pilot together with a request for landing gear confirmation and instruction to
acknowledge. The talkdown will continue until the aircraft reaches the decision height or is seen
on radar to be making a missed approach.
Surveillance Radar Approach (SRA)
If PAR is available then a final approach using SRA should not be carried out unless
meteorological conditions are such that there is a reasonable certainty that the SRA can be
completed successfully. When conducting an SRA the radar controller must comply with the
following:
At or before the commencement of the final approach the aircraft shall be informed of
the point at where the SRA will be terminated (1 nm or 2 nm from touchdown);
The aircraft shall be informed when the aircraft is approaching the point at where the
descent should begin;
Before reaching the computed descent point, the aircraft shall be informed of the
OCA/H and instructed to descend and check the appropriate minima;
At the descent point the aircraft will be instructed to begin descent as for a 300 ft per
mile glide path;
Distance to touchdown is normally passed at every 2 km (1 nm) with the precomputed level the aircraft should be passing;
The approach shall be terminated at the earliest of:
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monitoring aircraft and vehicles on the manoeuvring area for compliance with
clearances;
determining that the runway is clear before aircraft land or take off;
providing essential local traffic information on or near the manoeuvring area;
determining the location of aircraft and vehicles on the manoeuvring area;
providing directional assistance to aircraft taxiing when requested by the pilot;
providing assistance and advice to emergency response vehicles.
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Reference: Procedures for Air Navigation Services, Aircraft Operations (Document 8168OPS/611, Volume 1), Volume I - Flight Procedures
INTRODUCTION
The use of Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) has radically affected the provision of ATC
especially in the enroute (Area) and terminal (Approach) phases of flight. Modern ATC systems
use SSR not just to identify aircraft but to give information regarding aircraft callsign, altitude or
level, and destination. The system can also be used to identify a particular airframe and is a
fundamental part of the ACAS/TCAS systems. SSR has its origins in WWII with the invention of a
system known as Identification Friend or Foe (IFF). The equipment fitted to aircraft that performed
the task was given the code name parrot and this is evident in some of the phraseology we still
use.
System
The technology and the equipment used are discussed in detail in Radio Navigation, but
simplistically, a ground station transmits a signal that is received by the aircraft equipment and retransmitted back to the ground station. The aircraft equipment is called a transponder: a
transmitter that responds. The signal from the aircraft is coded with the identification code
allocated to the aircraft by the controller, which when received, permits access to the details of
the aircrafts flight plan held in the ATC data system. The transmitted signal operates in different
modes, with mode A used for ident codes and mode C used for automatic altitude reporting.
Special Codes
Under certain circumstances, pilots are required to set special codes on the SSR system to
indicate aircraft situation to the controller. These are:
Mode A code 7700
Mode A code 7600
Mode A code 7500
Mode A code 2000
Emergency
Radio failure
Unlawful interference
Entering an area where radar services are available
and will be requesting such a service
Operating in an area where radar service is available
but not in receipt of a radar service
Unserviceable transponder
Mode S
Pilots of aircraft equipped with Mode S having an aircraft identification feature shall set the aircraft
identification in the transponder. This setting shall correspond to the aircraft identification
specified in item 7 of the ICAO flight plan, or, if no flight plan has been filed, the aircraft
registration.
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OPERATION OF TRANSPONDERS
In commercial aviation an aircraft is not permitted to commence a flight with an unserviceable
transponder. Unless advised by the ATC authority, the transponder is to be operated at all times
during flight, regardless of whether the aircraft is inside or outside airspace where SSR is used for
ATS purposes. If a transponder fails in flight and cannot be repaired at an intermediate stop
enroute, approval may be given for the flight to continue to planned destination with the
unserviceable transponder. In such circumstance, item 10 of the FPL (information concerning the
carriage of SSR) is to be annotated N for nil. In the absence of any ATC directions (code
instructions) or regional air navigation agreements (specific code requirements), the transponder
should be set to mode A code 2000.
Setting a Code
The approved procedure for setting a code is designed to prevent inadvertent squawking of a
special code. Before changing a code character, set the transponder control to standby. Change
the code and then reselect ON. Alternatively, where the aircraft system includes twin SSR
controllers, select the new code on the control unit not being used and then operate the
changeover switch to activate the controller that has the desired code set.
Confirm Squawk
When requested by ATC to Confirm Squawk the pilot shall:
Ident Feature
The system includes a facility which graphically draws the attention of the radar controller to the
symbol relating to the aircraft on the radar display. It is usual for the symbol to flash when the
pilot operates the ident feature. Pilots are not to squawk IDENT unless requested by ATC.
Use of Mode C
Whenever Mode C is in use, level (or altitude) is to be reported to the nearest full 30 m or 100 ft
as indicated on the pilots altimeter, in communication with ATC. The tolerance value used by
ATC to determine that Mode C derived level information displayed to the controller is accurate, is
the reported altitude/level 300 ft (JAR OPS requires a tolerance of 200 ft).
Level Occupancy
An aircraft is considered to be maintaining its assigned level as long as the Mode C
indicates that it is within 300 ft of the assigned level.
Climbing or Descending
An aircraft is deemed to have crossed a level when the Mode C indicates it has passed
this level by more than 300 ft in the required direction.
Passing a Level
An aircraft is deemed to be passing through a level when the Mode C indicates it is within
300 ft of the stated level ascending or descending in the required direction.
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Departing a Level
An aircraft is considered to have left its previously assigned level when the Mode C
indicates that it is more than 300 ft from the previously assigned level.
Reaching a Level
An aircraft is considered to have reached its newly assigned level when the Mode C
indicates that it is within 300 ft of the assigned level
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
If the pilot thinks necessary, when in an emergency the mode A code 7700 should be squawked.
This will activate alarm signs and sounds in the radar control room and alert all concerned to the
identity of the aircraft suffering the emergency. If the pilot is already in communication with the
radar controller and the emergency is declared on the radar controllers frequency after the
aircraft has been radar identified, the 7700 squawk may be superfluous.
Note: Military automatic emergency squawk is mode A code 7777.
PHRASEOLOGY
When acknowledging mode/code setting instructions, pilots shall read back the mode and code to
be set.
ATC System
In accordance with the Regional Air Navigation agreement (RAN), ATCUs utilising SSR are
allocated a block of codes for the unit to use. There are 4096 individual codes encompassing all
the possible combinations of the digits 0 7 in 4 digit sets. So a code containing the digits 8 or 9
is invalid. A particular ATCU is usually identified by the first two digits of a code. The third digit
indicates the control console and the last digit the allocated track number for that console. For
example the code 4321 would indicate a radar approach unit at a specific location, console
number 2, track 1.
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Gate-to-Gate Operations
Within the gate to gate concept of European ATC being pioneered by Eurocontrol, each flight will
be allocated a specific SSR code during the pre-tactical phase of the ATFM procedure, and that
code will remain with the aircraft until the aircraft lands at the final destination.
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ALERTING SERVICE
It is essential that an aircraft experiencing an emergency or any other form of difficulty is able to
communicate the fact and get assistance. Underpinning the ATS is a system of communication,
liaison, co-operation and information interchange that is utilised to assist aircraft. This system is
called the Alerting Service and is the third part of the ATS system.
Application
The Alerting Service is provided for all aircraft provided with air traffic control service; in so far as
is practicable, all aircraft having filed a flight plan or otherwise known to the ATS, and any aircraft
known or believed to be the subject of unlawful interference.
Collection and Dissemination of Information
Flight information centres or area control centres shall serve as the central point for collecting all
information relevant to a state of emergency of an aircraft operating within the FIR or CTA
concerned and for forwarding such information to the appropriate Rescue Co-ordination Centre
(RCC).
Notification
In the event of a state of emergency arising to an aircraft while it is under the control of an
aerodrome control tower or approach control office, such unit shall notify immediately the flight
information centre or area control centre responsible which shall in turn notify the RCC.
Notification of the area control centre, flight information centre or RCC shall not be required when
the nature of the emergency is one that can be dealt with by the service concerned.
Local Response
Whenever the urgency of the situation so requires, the aerodrome control tower or approach
control office responsible shall first alert and take other necessary steps to set in motion all
appropriate local rescue and emergency organizations which can give the immediate assistance
required.
Notification of Rescue Co-Ordination Centres
Without prejudice to any other circumstances that may render such notification advisable, ATS
units shall notify RCCs immediately an aircraft is considered to be in a state of emergency in
accordance with the following phases:
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No communication has been received from an aircraft within a period of thirty minutes
after the time a communication should have been received, or from the time an
unsuccessful attempt to establish communication with the aircraft was first made,
whichever is earlier, or when
An aircraft fails to arrive within thirty minutes of the ETA last notified to, or estimated
by, ATS units.
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UNLAWFUL INTERFERENCE
When an ATS unit knows or believes that an aircraft is being subjected to unlawful interference,
no reference shall be made in ATS air-ground communications to the nature of the emergency
unless it has been referred to in communications from the aircraft involved and it is certain that
such reference will not aggravate the situation.
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Air Law
INTRODUCTION
Article 25 of the Chicago Convention obliges all contracting states to provide search and rescue
(SAR) assistance to aircraft in a state of emergency in the territory of a state and adjacent areas
of responsibility. Annex 12 contains the SARPs for SAR and ICAO also publishes Doc 7333
which provides guidance to setting up a SAR service. The level of service provided depends
much upon the ability of the state (financial and expertise) but it is an obligation that is taken very
seriously and states will co-operate even where there is animosity between the co-operating
states. Some smaller states with limited GNP have entered into arrangements with larger
neighbours or treaty states where the SAR service is provided by the other state. Typically, the
RAF provides the SAR service for Cyprus whereas the USN provides SAR cover for the
surrounding sea areas of Iceland. The United Kingdom and Eire share the responsibility for the
provision of SAR in the 3 FIRs and also for the Shanwick OCA. In other ocean areas, or areas of
undetermined sovereignty, where SAR services have to be established, such services are
organised on the basis of regional air navigation agreements. A Contracting State having
accepted the responsibility to provide a SAR service in such areas is to arrange for the service to
be established and provided in accordance with Annex 12.
Note: The phrase regional air navigation agreements refers to the agreements
approved by the Council of ICAO normally on the advice of Regional Air Navigation
Meetings.
ORGANISATION
Establishment and Provision of Search and Rescue Service
SAR services are to be available on a 24 hour basis. In providing assistance to aircraft in distress
and to survivors of aircraft accidents, contracting states are required to do so regardless of the
nationality of such aircraft or survivors.
Establishment of Search and Rescue Regions
Contracting states shall publish the SAR areas (regions) within which they will provide SAR
services. Such regions shall not overlap. Boundaries of SAR regions should, in so far as
practicable, be coincident with the boundaries of corresponding FIR.
Establishment and Designation of Search and Rescue Service Units
Contracting States shall establish a rescue co-ordination centre (RCC) in each SAR region.
Contracting States should establish rescue sub-centres whenever this would improve the
efficiency of SAR services. In areas where public telecommunications would not permit persons
observing an aircraft in emergency to notify the RCC concerned directly and promptly, states
should designate suitable units of public or private services as alerting posts.
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OPERATING PROCEDURES
Information Concerning Emergencies
Any authority or any element of the SAR organization having reason to believe that an aircraft is
in an emergency shall give all available information to the RCC concerned immediately. RCCs
shall, immediately upon receipt of information concerning aircraft in emergency, evaluate such
information and determine the extent of operation required. When information concerning aircraft
in emergency is received from other sources than ATS units, the RCC shall determine to which
emergency phase the situation corresponds and shall apply the procedures applicable to that
phase.
Uncertainty Phase
During the uncertainty phase, the RCC shall co-operate to the utmost with ATS units and
other appropriate agencies and services in order that incoming reports may be speedily
evaluated.
Alert Phase
Upon the occurrence of an alert phase the RCC shall immediately alert appropriate SAR
services units and rescue units and initiate any necessary action.
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Distress Phase
When an aircraft is believed to be in distress, or when a distress phase exists, the RCC
shall:
Initiate action by appropriate SAR services units and rescue units in accordance with
the detailed plan of operation;
Ascertain the position of the aircraft, estimate the degree of uncertainty of this
position, and, on the basis of this information and the circumstances, determine the
extent of the area to be searched;
Notify the operator, where possible, and keep him informed of developments;
Notify adjacent RCCs, the help of which seems likely to be required, or which may be
concerned in the operation;
Notify the associated ATS unit, when the information on the emergency has been
received from another source;
Request at an early stage such aircraft, vessels, coastal stations, or other services
not specifically included in SAR services or rescue units as are in a position to do so
to:
Maintain a listening watch for transmission from the aircraft in distress or from an
emergency locator transmitter;
Note: The frequencies used by emergency locator beacons are 121.500 MHz
and 406 MHz.
From the information available, draw up a plan for the conduct of the search
and/or rescue operation required and communicate such plan for the
guidance of the authorities immediately directing the conduct of such an
operation;
Amend as necessary, in the light of circumstances, the guidance already
given above;
Notify the State of Registry of the aircraft;
Notify the appropriate accident investigation authorities.
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Supply
Red
Blue
Yellow
Black
Air Law
No.
Message
Require assistance
No or negative
Yes or affirm
Symbol
V
X
N
Y
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Message
Operation completed
Symbol
LLL
LL
XX
NN
AIR-TO-GROUND SIGNALS
To indicate that the ground signals have been understood, an aircraft will, during the hours of
daylight rock the aircrafts wings, or during the hours of darkness, flash on and off twice the
aircrafts landing lights or, if not so equipped, switch on and off twice its navigation lights. Lack of
the above signals indicates that the ground signal is not understood.
SAR Communications
Perhaps the most important role a civilian aircraft can perform in the SAR scenario is to act as a
communications link. By remaining at high altitude the aircraft can relay messages from SAR
units on the surface or at low level to ATCUs or directly to the RCC using VHF or HF. The aircraft
at high level can also relay messages between SAR units on the surface which are not in direct
line of sight communication with each other. The following radio frequencies are used for SAR:
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Frequency
Application
Modulation
Silence
Period
Note
500 KHz
CW (Morse)
H+15; H+45
2182 KHz
AM (voice)
H+00; H+30
4125 KHz
AM (voice)
None
3023 KHz
5680 KHz
AM (voice)
None
8364 KHz
Lifeboat HF
AM (voice)
None
121.500 MHz
AM (voice)
None
156.8 MHz
FM (voice)
None
Ship/shore VHF
123.100 MHz
AM (voice)
None
243.000 MHz
AM (voice)
None
AM
Sweeping tone
repeated
may have
voice
None
Simultaneous
transmissions on 121.500
MHz
406.000 MHz
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Air Law
ANNEX 14
This is the Annex to the Chicago Convention that specifies the SARPs for the construction of and
services required for aerodromes. Annex 14 is only concerned with aerodromes that are open to
the public, in other words, aerodromes which conduct commercial operations. This does not limit
the application of the SARPs to state owned or authority operated aerodromes, but implies that
an aerodrome licensed for commercial operations must comply with the SARPs in order for the
licence to be granted. This Annex contains SARPs that detail the physical characteristics and
obstacle limitation surfaces to be provided for at aerodromes, and certain facilities and technical
services normally provided at an aerodrome. It is not intended that these specifications limit or
regulate the operation of an aircraft. At certain types of aerodrome used occasionally for
commercial air transport, differences under article 38 can be notified (i.e. military aerodromes).
TYPES OF AERODROME
ICAO does not categorise aerodromes as does, for instance, the CAA of the UK. ICAO does
however, specify different SARPs to aerodromes used only for VFR operations compared to
those for aerodromes used for instrument procedures.
PARTS OF AN AERODROME
All licensed aerodromes have an apron, a manoeuvring area, and a movement area (see
definitions Chapter 1). Where necessary, or commercial interests prevail, an aerodrome may
have a technical area. Where established, a technical area, except for the entrance to and exit
from, are not under ATC control. On some very busy international aerodromes the control of
surface traffic and operations on the apron is delegated to an apron management service
operated by the aerodrome operator.
AERODROME REFERENCE CODE (ARC)
For the benefit of aerodrome designers and constructors, ICAO specifies an Aerodrome
Reference Code. Operators are required to ascertain that any aerodromes they intend to use for
commercial operations are fit for that purpose. Where an operator has established schedules
using aerodromes and the necessary aerodrome operating minima, it is not necessary for the
pilot to confirm that the aerodrome is suitable for operations. Knowledge of the ARC is only
required for examination purposes. The ARC consists of a code number and letter based on the
requirements of the largest aeroplane for which the aerodrome is intended to be used.
Code Element 1
The code number for element 1 is determined by selecting the code number
corresponding to the highest value for the aeroplane reference field lengths of the
aeroplanes for which the runway is intended. Aeroplane reference field length is the
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minimum take-off distance required at maximum certificated take-off mass under still air
and ISA conditions.
Code Element 2
The code letter for element 2 is determined by selecting the code letter which
corresponds to the greatest wing span, or the greatest outer main gear wheel span,
whichever gives the more demanding code letter of the aeroplanes for which the use of
the aerodrome is intended.
Note: Outer main gear wheel span is the distance between the outermost wheels of the
main undercarriage. The runways and taxiways have to be at least as wide as this.
Aerodrome Reference Code
Code Element 1
Code
Number
Aeroplane
Reference Field
Length
Code Element 2
Code
Letter
Wing Span
Up to but not
including 15 m
Up to but not
including 4.5 m
15 m up to but not
including 24 m
24 m up to but not
including 36 m
6 m up to but not
including 9 m
36 m up to but not
including 52 m
9 m up to but not
including 14 m
52 m up to but not
including 65 m
9 m up to but not
including 14 m
65 m up to but not
(1)
including 80 m
14 m up to but not
including 16 m
(2)
Notes:
1. Planning considerations for aeroplanes with wing span greater than 80 m are contained
in the ICAO aerodrome design manual.
2. The Air Law CQB was written before the introduction of code F.
AERONAUTICAL DATA
GEOGRAPHICAL CO-ORDINATES
Geographical co-ordinates indicating latitude and longitude are determined and reported in terms
of the World Geodetic System - 1984 (WGS-84).
AERODROME REFERENCE POINT (ARP)
An ARP is established for each aerodrome. The ARP is typically located near the initial or
planned centre of the aerodrome. The position is measured and reported to the aeronautical
information services in degrees, minutes, and seconds. The ARP is usually the centre of the
longest runway.
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DECLARED DISTANCES
The following distances shall be calculated to the nearest metre or foot for a runway intended for
use by international commercial air transport:
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TORA
TODA
ASDA
LDA
Clearway
TORA
ASDA
LDA
TODA
Stopway
TORA
TODA
LDA
ASDA
LDA
TORA
TODA
ASDA
Clearway
Stopway
LDA
TORA
ASDA
TODA
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RUNWAYS
USABILITY
For an aerodrome to be used for co mercial transport, the schedules agreed must be able to be
operated. This means that the runways are not only long enough and strong enough for the
aeroplanes to use, but also sited to take into account prevailing meteorological conditions, air
traffic requirements, and obstacle clearance. Wind is probably the most important meteorological
consideration and runway direction must be biased towards the prevailing wind. It is a
requirement of ICAO that an aerodrome must be useable for not less than 95% of the notified
hours of operation.
CROSS WIND COMPONENTS
Operations are to be suspended when the crosswind component exceeds:
TYPES OF RUNWAY
Runways are described by the types of operations that can be conducted on the runway:
Instrument Runway
A runway to which instrument arrival and departure procedures are applied.
There are two types of instrument runways:
Take-off Runway
A runway used only for take-off operations usually due to excessive obstacles
precluding a useful approach.
LOCATION OF THRESHOLD
The beginning of the landing runway is defined as the threshold of the landing runway. It normally
starts at the beginning of a paved runway or the beginning of the marked area for a grass runway.
The marked threshold may be displaced from the start of the paved area where there is a
requirement for the landing aircraft to avoid the first part of the paved area, or there is a need for
the aircraft to cross the beginning of the paved area at a height greater than would be achieved
for the normal positioning of the threshold marking.
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LENGTH OF RUNWAYS
The actual length of a runway should be sufficient to permit normal operations to be carried out
by the aeroplanes for which the runway is intended. It should take into account local conditions
(elevation, temperature, slope, humidity, surface type), but not abnormal aircraft operating
conditions.
RUNWAY WIDTH
The width of a runway should be:
Table: Runway Width
Code
Number
18 m
18 m
23 m
23 m
23 m
30 m
30 m
30 m
30 m
45 m
45 m
45 m
Code Letter
D
45 m
60 m
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TAXIWAYS
In planning the layout of taxiways, the designer must consider the need for taxiways to move
aircraft to and from the runways to the apron(s) in the most expeditious and uncomplicated
manner. Consideration has to be given to the manoeuvrability of aircraft on the ground, poor
visibility from the flight deck, and the density of traffic. The physical construction of taxiways must
take into account the ability of an aircraft to turn through the angle required with the wheels
turning, wing span and jet efflux. Taxiways must be of equal load bearing to the runway, and
marked or otherwise delineated so as not to be confused with runways. Runway entrances and
exits need to be planned to permit rapid egress to and from the runway and to meet the obstacle
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clearance requirements for precision operations. In some cases, the runway may be used for
taxiing. Where this is the case, additional areas at the end of the runway may be necessary to
provide turning space or a turning loop.
TAXIWAY DIMENSIONS
The most important consideration in taxiway design is width. The designer must make sure that
the aircraft has enough room on the taxiway. The design of a taxiway should be such that, when
the flight deck of the aeroplane remains over the taxiway centre line markings, the clearance
distance between the outer main gear wheel of the aeroplane and the edge of the taxiway should
be not less than:
Table: Wheel to Taxiway Edge Clearance
Code
Letter
Clearance
1.5 m
2.25 m
4.5 m
4.5 m
4.5 m
WIDTH OF TAXIWAY
The width of the straight portion of a taxiway should not be less than:
Table: Taxiway Width
23-8
Code
Letter
Taxiway Width
7.5 m
10.5 m
23 m
25 m
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TAXIWAY CURVES
Changes in direction along taxiways should be as few as possible and the radius of the curve
must be compatible with the manoeuvrability of the aircraft using the taxiway at normal taxi
speeds. Where necessary, widening fillets are used to increase the width of a taxiway. This
provides additional space to cope with main gear wander. The pilot should attempt to keep the
nosewheel on the centre line. Pilots should also be aware of swept wing growth during turns.
Taxiway widening to
achieve minimum wheel
to edge clearance
Taxiway Curve
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Code Number
1
Non Instrument
30 m
40 m
75 m
75 m
Non Precision
Approach
40 m
40 m
75 m
75 m
Precision Cat I
60 m(2)
60 m(2)
90 m(1,2)
90 m(1,2,3)
90 m(1,2)
90 m(1,2,3)
Take-off
30 m
40 m
75 m
75 m
APRONS
REQUIREMENT
Aprons are defined as the places on an aerodrome where passengers, mail and cargo are loaded
and unloaded, as well as minor servicing of aircraft, such that aerodrome traffic is not disrupted.
The total apron areas should be sufficient to allow the expeditious handling of traffic at maximum
anticipated density. Aprons are constructed to handle slow moving traffic and to withstand higher
stresses than runways.
ISOLATED PARKING AREA
A special parking area is to be designated for the parking of aircraft that have been subjected to
unlawful interference. This is to be not less than 100 m from any other parking area, building,
public area, or over underground utilities (gas, aviation fuel, electrical, or communications cables).
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MARKINGS
Markings are symbols, designs or characters painted on the surface of a runway, taxiway or
apron. The colour of a marking usually indicates where the marking is, for instance all runway
markings are white whereas all taxiway markings are yellow.
RUNWAY MARKINGS
Runway Designation Marking
A runway designation marking shall be provided at the thresholds of a paved runway. The runway
designation marking shall be located at the threshold as shown in the diagram below.
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Runway Designator
showing magnetic
azimuth (QDM) of the
runway direction
27
27
27
27L
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Chapter 23
Runway Width
Number of Stripes
18 m
23 m
30 m
45 m
60 m
4
6
8
12
16
27
27
27
X
27
Permanently
displaced
(pre threshold
area fit for aircraft
movement)
Air Law
Temporarily
displaced
for 6 months or
less (runway
designator is
not moved)
X
Pre threshold
area not fit for
aircraft
movement
Pre threshold
area fit for use
by aircraft as a
stopway only
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Less than
800 m
800 m up to but
not including
1200 m
1200 m up to
but not
including
2400 m
2400 m
and above
150 m
250 m
300 m
400 m
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Pair(s) of
markings
1
2
3
4
5
Spacing of Markings
The pairs of markings shall be provided at longitudinal spacing of 150 m beginning from
the threshold, except that pairs of touchdown zone markings coincident with or located
within 50 m of an aiming point marking shall be deleted from the pattern.
Aiming point marking
150 m
150 m
150 m
150 m
150 m
300 m
900 m
Touchdown Zone Markings (Pattern A)
on a runway less than 2400 m (aiming point 300 m from threshold)
Aiming point marking
400 m
150 m
150 m
150 m
150 m
150 m
900 m
Touchdown Zone Markings (distance coded - Pattern B)
on a runway 2400 m or more (aiming point 400 m from threshold)
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Runway
Runway
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Aerodromes
Intermediate
Holding Position
VOR
116.3
147
VOR
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SIGNS
Signs are provided on aerodromes to convey mandatory instructions, information on a specific
location, or information on surface movement guidance.
CHARACTERISTICS
Signs shall be frangible (not rigidly constructed so as to damage aircraft if hit), and when near a
runway or taxiway, they must be sufficiently low to allow clearance for engines and propellers.
Signs are to be illuminated for use in RVR conditions less than a value of 800 m, or at night in
association with instrument runways, or at night in association with non-instrument runways
where the runway length is 1200 m or greater.
MANDATORY INSTRUCTION SIGNS
Mandatory signs have a red background with white characters. Mandatory instruction signs may
identify a location beyond which an aircraft taxiing or vehicle shall not proceed unless authorized
by the aerodrome control tower. Mandatory signs include runway designation signs, category I, II,
or III runway holding position signs, taxi-holding position signs, road holding position signs and
NO ENTRY signs. A runway designation sign at a taxiway/runway intersection shall be located on
the left side of a taxiway or if practicable both sides, facing the direction of approach to the
runway. A NO ENTRY sign shall be located at the beginning of the area to which entrance is
prohibited on the left side or if practicable both sides, of the taxiway. A category I, II or III holding
position sign shall be located on either side of the holding position marking facing the direction of
the approach to the critical area.
RUNWAY TAXI HOLDING SIGNS
A taxi-holding position sign must be located on the left side of the taxiway (facing the direction
from which aircraft approach the runway), but ideally, on both sides.
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27
27
Instrument Runway
Holding Point for CATII
operations for Runway 27
on taxiway D
D 27 CAT II
27 CAT II D
Position A1
A1 27
27 A1
Position A2
A2 27 CAT II/III
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27 CAT II/III A2
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27
09 - 27
27 CAT I
09 - 27 CAT
27 CAT II
09 - 27 CAT II
27 CAT III
09 - 27 CAT III
27 CAT II/III
27 CAT I/II/III
09 - 27 CAT I/II/III
B2
27 - APPCH
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A B1
27
A
A
27
MIL
Direction Sign
27- 09
27y31
APRON
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5
APRON SIGNS
Signs on aprons conveying information to pilots (stand numbers etc.) consist of white characters
on a blue background. The sign below indicates that this is stand number B3.
B3
MARKERS
A marker is an object that is positioned to indicate an obstacle or to mark a boundary. Markers
are used where there are no lights or where lighting is inadequate. Markers must be frangible or
capable of being trampled. Those located near a runway or taxiway shall be sufficiently low to
preserve clearance for propellers and engines.
UNPAVED RUNWAY EDGE MARKERS
Markers should be provided when the extent of an unpaved runway is not clearly indicated.
Where runway lights are provided the markers should be incorporated in the light fixtures. Where
there are no lights, markers of flat rectangular or conical shape should be placed so as to identify
the runway clearly.
STOPWAY EDGE MARKERS
The stopway edge markers shall be sufficiently different from any runway edge markers used to
ensure that the two types of markers cannot be confused.
TAXIWAY EDGE MARKERS
A taxiway edge marker shall be reflective blue and be frangible. Their height shall be sufficiently
low to ensure clearance for propellers and engines.
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Aerodromes
Type A
60 cm
1m
60 cm
Min
60 cm Min
Type C
Not less
than 3 m
Type B
AERODROME LIGHTING
An aerodrome at night is a profusion of lights. Apart from the main stadium lighting around the
apron and passenger areas, the runways are lit as are the taxiways; buildings and vehicles have
lights on them as do aircraft. All the coloured lights have a purpose and the arrangements of
lights also have meanings. The design aspects of lighting systems are beyond the LOs for this
course and the syllabus is quite explicit in stating that spacing of lights apart from the essential
elements of approach systems are not examinable. Where included in the description of lighting
systems, dimensions are stated to assist the student to appreciate the appearance of the
systems.
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EMERGENCY LIGHTING
It is normal for an aerodrome to have a back up power supply in the event of main supply failure
(power outage). At an aerodrome without a secondary power supply, sufficient emergency lights
should be available.
AERONAUTICAL BEACONS
An aerodrome beacon or an identification beacon may be provided at an aerodrome intended for
night operations.
Aerodrome Beacon
An aerodrome beacon is usually situated on top of the control tower or at an elevated
position elsewhere on the aerodrome. It will be either a flashing green (yellow at a water
aerodrome) and white light, or flashing white only.
Identification Beacon
An identification beacon may be provided at an aerodrome that is intended for use at
night where the aerodrome cannot be easily identified from the air by other means. At a
land aerodrome the identification beacon shall show flashing green characters (red at a
military aerodrome), flashing published Morse code identification letters.
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BARRETTES
ICAO specifies standards for approach lighting based on the use of barrettes (or small bars). A
barrette consists of a line of 4 or 5 closely spaced lights forming a small bar.
SIMPLE APPROACH LIGHTING SYSTEM
The system consists of a single light source centre line extending from the threshold of the
runway along the approach path for 420 m. A single crossbar min 18 m wide and max 30 m wide
is placed at a point 300 m from the threshold. The lights are fixed (not flashing) variable intensity
white, showing towards an approaching aircraft. The centreline may be made up of barrettes not
more than 3 m wide. Where physically practicable, a simple approach lighting system as shown
below should be provided. The system may be used for a non precision instrument runway.
Runway Edge
Lights
Runway End
Lights
APAPI
Threshold
Lights
Centreline
Simple Approach
Lighting System
Crossbar
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CAT I Calvert
Approach
Lighting System
Stopway
Caution Zone
PAPI
Aiming Point
Displaced
Threshold
Starter
Extension
Crossbars
Centreline
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Aerodromes
300 m
Crossbar
Centreline
Barrettes
900 m
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Aerodromes
COLOUR CODED
CENTRELINE
TOUCHDOWN ZONE
FLOODLIGHTING
PAPI
THRESHOLD
WING BARS
SUPPLEMENTARY
APPROACH LIGHTING
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Wing Strobes
300 m
Crossbar
Centreline
Barrettes
Rippling
Strobe Lights
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Chapter 23
APAPI
The APAPI uses only two light sources and gives indication:
Lowest On GP
indication
Minimum Eye
Height (MEHT)
Gear to ground
height less than
MEHT
Fig: Minimum Eye Height
MEHT SPECIFICATION
The normal MEHT is 50 ft. On a 300 ft/nm glide path this equates to 300 m distance, therefore
the aiming point and the origin of the PAPI beams must be not less than 300 m from the
threshold. Where large aeroplanes (B777; B747 and A380 etc.) use the aerodrome the MEHT is
increased because of the greater distance between the pilots eye and the bottom of the main
gear. At Heathrow, the MEHT is 70 ft. This requires the aiming point to be 400 m from the
threshold. An alternative to moving the aiming point along the runway is to increase the glide path
angle. The maximum permitted GP angle is 3.5.
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RUNWAY LIGHTS
RUNWAY EDGE LIGHTS
Edge lights are used on runways used at night or in low visibility operations (RVR less than
800 m). They are fixed (not flashing), white, variable in intensity and unidirectional (facing the
approach direction) except where the runway is used for circling approaches in which case, they
are omni-directional. For a CAT I runway, the last 600 m or 1/3 of the runway length, the edge
lights are possibly yellow, indicating the proximity of the end of the runway. This is called a
caution zone.
RUNWAY THRESHOLD AND WING BARS
Threshold lights are provided for runways with edge lights and additional wing bars where there is
a displaced threshold. They are fixed, green, variable intensity, and unidirectional facing up the
approach.
RUNWAY END LIGHTS
End lights are fitted to runways with edge lights. They are fixed, red, variable intensity, and are
unidirectional facing along the runway. Where a stopway is created at the end of the runway all
four sides of the stopway are outlined in red lights.
RUNWAY CENTRELINE LIGHTS
Centreline lights are required on CAT II/III runways. They are fixed, white, and variable in
intensity, and are unidirectional showing towards the approach end of the runway. The last 300 m
of the centreline may be red, and preceding 600 m alternating red/white. This acts as a caution
zone indicating the proximity of the end of the runway.
CIRCLING GUIDANCE LIGHTS
These are for use where the existing runway or approach lights are inadequate and the runway is
to be used for circling approaches. They consist of lights indicating the approach direction, the
threshold and the orientation of the landing runway. They are fixed or flashing, with the only
proviso that if they are flashing, they are to be white.
RUNWAY LEAD IN LIGHTS
Where it is felt necessary to give visual track guidance to a position where the pilot should be
able to see the approach lighting, lead in lights are used. They consist of groups of not less than
three flashing white lights (which may be augmented by fixed white lights). Automatically, the
groups are illuminated sequentially; giving the impression of the lights running towards the
runway. This effect is known as a running rabbit.
TAXIWAY LIGHTING
Taxiway lights are provided to give pilots guidance and information during taxiing to and from the
runways at night or during low visibility operations (RVR less than 800 m). They consist of
centreline lights, edge lights, guard lights, and stop lights at holding points.
EDGE LIGHTS
Taxiway edge lights are provided at the edges of holding bays, de/anti-icing facilities, aprons, and
on taxiways without centreline lighting. In areas where additional lighting (stadium lighting on
aprons) is adequate, edge lights may be dispensed with. Edge lights are fixed, variable intensity,
blue, and omnidirectional.
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CENTRELINE LIGHTS
These are provided on taxiways for use in RVR conditions less than 350 m. They are fixed,
variable intensity, green, and are designed to be visible only from aeroplanes in the vicinity of the
light. On exit taxiways from instrument runways, the lights may be alternating green/yellow from
the centreline of the runway to a point where interference with radio navigation aids (ILS) is no
longer a hazard. This point may be marked with a runway vacated sign and is usually coincident
with the runway holding point for aircraft taxiing in the opposite direction.
STOP BARS
Stop bars should be provided at taxiway intersections and holding points when it is necessary to
supplement the markings and signs. They are to be provided where operations in RVR less than
350 m are conducted. They consist of a row of lights spaced at 3 m across the taxiway, fixed,
variable intensity, and showing red in the direction of approaching traffic. The bar may be
augmented by two additional elevated lights at each end of the bar (off of the taxiway) where
snow may be a hazard.
D 27 CAT II
27 CAT II D
Stop Bar with elevated
extensions
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Aerodromes
Guard Lights
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Aerodromes
Chapter 23
Guard Lights
Taxiway
intersection with
centreline showing
SMG direction to
runway
Stop Bars
ILS/MLS
Sensitive
Area
Rapid Exit
Taxiway
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Aerodromes
OBSTACLES
Clearly anything that is constructed on or near an aerodrome is a potential hazard to aeroplanes.
For that reason, SIDs and STARs route aircraft away from high ground and large man made
obstacles. Closer to the aerodrome normal buildings, power lines, chimneys, and radio antennas
become obstacles to aircraft as they descend for landing. Where these cannot be removed, they
must be marked and lit to make their presence obvious to pilots.
CLEARED STRIP
As previously discussed, the cleared strip is created either side of the runway extending at least
the width of the runway on either side. In this area no obstacles are permitted. The ILS glide path
aerial and the localiser aerial are the only exceptions. Aeroplanes and vehicles are required to
enter the cleared strip and these are also treated as obstacles, and are lit (or marked in the case
of vehicles) to show that they are there.
OBSTACLE IDENTIFICATION SURFACE (OIS)
Extending from the extremity of the cleared strip at ground level, out to a radius of 15 km from the
aerodrome reference point and up to a height of 150 m, is a complex surface known as the OIS.
Any obstacle that penetrates the OIS is considered to be an aerodrome obstacle and is required
to be lit and where necessary, marked. The OIS is referenced vertically to the aerodrome
elevation, therefore on rising ground obstacles with less vertical extent may require marking when
compared with obstacles on ground which is falling away from the datum height. Within the OIS,
approach lanes and climb out lanes are defined by the aerodrome designer and the instrument
procedure designer, where additional information about obstacles is required, for the
determination of OCA/H and MOC. The OIS consists of four planes: the inner transition surface,
the inner horizontal surface, the outer transition surface, and the outer horizontal surface. The
inner horizontal surface extends to a radius of 3000 m from the thresholds of the runway which is
less than 1800 m long, and 4000 m if the runway is 1800 m or more long.
15 Km
Datum
Elevation
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150m
135m
90m
45m
Datum
High
Intensity
Medium
Intensity
Low
Intensity
Obstacle lights
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Aerodromes
MARKING OF VEHICLES
Vehicles that are permitted on the movement area of an aerodrome are to be in two-way RTF
communication with the aerodrome controller. They are also required to be either lit or marked.
Normally, maintenance vehicles are painted a distinctive colour (yellow) and carry flashing yellow
lights. Where a trailer is towed, the trailer has a low intensity obstacle light fitted. Vehicles that
use the aerodrome infrequently may carry a red/white chequered flag.
EMERGENCY VEHICLES
Paint of a distinctive colour is required for crash/rescue vehicles. It is recommended that they are
painted day-glo yellowish green, or red. They carry flashing blue lights for use in an emergency
and also the normal yellow lights for non emergency movement on the aerodrome. When
responding to an emergency, emergency vehicles from outside civilian agencies show blue
flashing lights.
EMERGENCY SERVICES
More than 80% of aircraft accidents occur on or within close proximity to an aerodrome.
Aerodromes serving international commercial aviation are required to maintain facilities for the
provision of a crash/rescue service. The inherent nature of aircraft operations makes fire the
greatest hazard to loss of life and crash/rescue teams are trained to fight fires. The objective of
the provision of a crash/rescue service is to save life. Once all the passengers of a crashed
aircraft have been rescued, the fire will be allowed to burn itself out unless other aircraft and
facilities are threatened.
LEVEL OF PROTECTION
The number of fire vehicles and crews are determined from a table of categories, based on the
size of the biggest aircraft normally using the aerodrome. The categories are based on a. the
length of the aircraft and b. the width of the fuselage. If the fuselage width is greater than the
maximum for a category, the category is increased by 1.
RESPONSE TIME
It is imperative that the crash/rescue service responds promptly to incidents on the aerodrome.
The required standard aims to achieve 2 minutes but not more than 3 minutes is required to the
extremities of the aerodrome. The response time is decided when the first fire vehicle arrives at
the scene and is capable of delivering fire retardant foam at half the rate required for the fire. In
order to enhance response time, special routes may be provided on aerodromes to and from the
fire stations.
BIRD HAZARD
Birds and aeroplanes share the air but birds are a constant hazard to aeroplanes at low level
especially where aircraft are at the most vulnerable, take-off, and landing. Aerodromes are
attractive to birds, especially migratory species. The short grass gives the birds excellent visibility
and the maximum warning of the approach of predators. Birds which have flocked together
present special hazards to aircraft as multiple bird strikes can obscure windows and block air
intakes. Aerodromes are required to maintain a bird control unit and also to publish information on
known migratory patterns of birds that frequent the aerodrome and surrounding areas. ICAO
operates the ICAO Bird Strike Information System (IBIS) designed to collect and disseminate
information concerning bird strikes.
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GENERAL
It is an unfortunate fact that international commercial aviation is now a target for terrorism and
other political malcontents. In order to try and prevent, or at least make it too difficult, for terrorists
to plant explosive devices on aircraft, or to smuggle on board weapons with which to take
hostages or overpower the crew, aviation security measures have been developed and enforced.
You have been subjected to security measures involving search, scanning, and inspection all of
which are effective methods of ensuring that unwanted objects or explosives are not permitted
anywhere near the aircraft. Each ICAO state is required to develop, implement, and maintain a
national civil aviation security program.
NATIONAL ORGANISATION
ICAO contracting states are required to establish a national civil aviation security programme to
keep under constant review the level of threat within its territory taking into account the
international situation, and adjust relevant elements of its national civil aviation security
programme accordingly. It is also to ensure the establishment of an airport security programme,
adequate to the needs of international traffic, for each airport serving international civil aviation,
and require operators providing service from that state to implement a security programme
appropriate to meet the requirements of the national civil aviation security programme of that
state.
INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION
Each state is required to co-operate with other states in order to adapt their respective national
civil aviation security programmes as necessary. The states should make available to other
states, on request, a written version of the appropriate parts of its national civil aviation security
programme; include in its bilateral agreements on air transport a clause related to aviation
security; and ensure that requests from other states for special security measures in respect of a
specific flight or specified flights by operators, as far as practicable, are met.
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Aviation Security
PRE-FLIGHT CHECKS
States must ensure that pre-flight checks of aircraft assigned to international flights include
measures to discover suspicious objects or anomalies that could conceal weapons, explosives, or
any other dangerous devices.
MISSING PASSENGERS
The state must establish measures to ensure that operators, when providing service from that
state, do not transport the baggage of passengers who are not on board the aircraft.
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TRAINING PROGRAMMES
Operators are to establish and maintain a training programme that enables crewmembers to act
in the most appropriate manner to minimize the consequences of acts of unlawful interference.
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Air Law
INTRODUCTION
Annex 13 to the Chicago Convention covers accident and incident investigation. The onus for
beginning an investigation rests with the authority of the state in which the accident or incident
occurred, the State of Occurrence. Unless otherwise stated, the specifications of Annex 13 apply
to activities following accidents and incidents wherever they occurred. Where required, reference
to the State of the Operator applies only in the case of leased aircraft where the State of Registry
is not the state in which the operator has the primary place of business. The applicability of the
State of the Operator only applies if that State discharges any of the duties of the State of
Registry with respect to accident or incident investigation.
DEFINITIONS
Accident An occurrence associated with the operation of an aircraft which takes place
between the time any person boards the aircraft with the intention of flight and the time
when all such persons have disembarked, resulting in any of the following situations:
1. A person is fatally or seriously injured as a result of being in the aircraft; or in
direct contact with any part of the aircraft, including parts which have become
detached from the aircraft; or direct exposure to jet blast.
Except when the injuries are from natural causes; self-inflicted or inflicted
by other persons, or are to stowaways hiding outside the areas normally
available to the passengers and crew.
2. The aircraft sustains damage or structural failure which adversely affects the
structural strength, performance or flight characteristics of the aircraft and would
normally require major repair or replacement of the affected component.
Except for engine failure or damage, when the damage is limited to the
engine, cowlings, or accessories; or for damage limited to propellers,
wing tips, antennas, tyres, brakes, fairings, small dents, or puncture
holes in the aircraft skin.
3. The aircraft is missing or is completely inaccessible. (An aircraft is considered to
be missing when the official search has been terminated and the wreckage has
not been located).
Note: ICAO classes an injury resulting in death within 30 days of the date of the
accident as a fatal injury.
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Requires hospitalization for more than 48 hours, commencing within 7 days from
the date the injury was received, or
Results in a fracture of any bone (Not simple fractures of fingers, toes, or nose),
or
Involves lacerations which cause severe haemorrhage, nerve, muscle, or tendon
damage, or
Involves injury to any internal organ, or
Involves second or third degree burns, or any burns affecting more than 5% of
the body surface, or
Involves verified exposure to infectious substances or injurious radiation.
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REPORTS
When the aircraft involved has a maximum take off mass greater than 2250 kg the state
conducting the investigation is to send a copy of the preliminary and final reports to:
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Air Law
INTRODUCTION
Facilitation is the word used by ICAO to describe the rules and regulations designed to make
international commercial aviation work. The intention is to get all contracting states to apply
uniform rules and regulations concerning the handling of international traffic, application of
Customs and Excise rules, taxation, passenger documentation, and immigration controls. As
each state is a sovereign power the necessities of each state to safeguard borders, control entry,
and prevent abuse by way of smuggling, illegal immigration, and trafficking in banned goods, the
rules of the state are often more restrictive than the recommendations of ICAO. The SARPs on
Facilitation are the outcome of Article 37 of the Convention and embodied in Annex 9
(Facilitation) to the Convention.
AIM
The aim of the SARPs relating to Facilitation is to try and ensure that travel and cargo handling by
international commercial aviation is not disadvantaged with respect to other methods of travel.
For instance, it is probably quicker now to travel from the centre of London to the centre of Paris
by train than by air. This is due to technological advances rather than bureaucracy. If, however, a
state arbitrarily applied pedantic rules and regulations that only applied to travel by air which
created delays, thus encouraging people to travel by train, this would be contrary to article 37.
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Facilitation
Cargo Manifest
This is similar to the Passenger Manifest but relates to cargo carried. The details include
the details of the shipper, the recipient, description of the cargo, and a declaration that
the cargo does not contravene any international agreements to proscribe or restrict
trading in such goods (i.e. the trade in ivory). This also includes unaccompanied
baggage.
Stores List
Ships are required to declare all goods remaining on board the ship at the destination
that were intended for sale to passengers enroute, consumption by the crew, and
passengers enroute, or for use in the running and maintenance of the ship while enroute.
These are typically alcohol and tobacco products and dutiable fuel products. Aircraft are
required to have a simple stores list mainly concerning alcohol and tobacco products sold
to the passengers enroute.
Description, Purpose and Use of Aircraft Documents
Contracting States do not require the presentation of the General Declaration when the
information can be readily obtained in an alternative and acceptable manner. An
attestation (statement by the commander) is acceptable. A Contracting State, which
continues to require the presentation of the General Declaration, is required to accept it
when signed by either the authorised agent or the commander. When necessary, a
crewmember can sign the health section. Where Contracting States require the
presentation of information relating to crewmembers on entry and departure of aircraft,
such information shall be limited to the number of crew on board. Where the General
Declaration is still required, this information shall be provided in the column headed Total
number of crew. Contracting States shall not normally require the presentation of a
Passenger Manifest, but when this type of information is required, it is possible to provide
this in an alternative and acceptable manner, such as a computer printout. Contracting
States shall not require the presentation of a written declaration of stores remaining on
board aircraft. In respect of stores loaded on to, or unloaded from an aircraft, Contracting
States, which continue to require the presentation of a written declaration, shall limit the
information required to an absolute minimum.
Outbound Procedures
The following procedures relate to situations where the above forms are still required.
Contracting States can require the authorised agent or the commander to deliver to the
public authorities concerned, before departure of the aircraft, not more than:
Inbound Procedures
Contracting States can require the authorised agent or the commander to deliver to the
public authorities concerned, on arrival of the aircraft, not more than:
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Completion of Documents
Documents may be typewritten, produced by electronic media, or handwritten providing
they are legible.
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Facilitation
Relief Crew
When it is necessary for airline crewmembers, in the exercise of their duties, to travel to
another state as a passenger by any means of transportation in order to join an aircraft,
each Contracting State shall accept from that crewmember, in lieu of passport and visa
for temporary admission either a licence or crewmembers certificate. A document from
the crewmembers employer certifying the purpose of the journey may be required.
Crewmember Certificate
To comply with rules for the admission of crewmembers and to stop the flight crew
licence being used for purposes for which it was not intended, ICAO recommends the
adoption of an operator issued crewmember certificate. The certificates generally used
are credit card sized and state the name of the operator, the name and a photograph of
the crewmember, and a statement that the holder is bona fide crew engaged in
international commercial aviation. The card serves as acceptable means of identity where
required. The card usually has a magnetic strip or bar code that can be automatically
read by machines where access control is applied or entry authorisation to restricted
areas is applied.
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Air Law
INTRODUCTION
The Learning Objectives (LOs) for 010 Air Law include reference to National Law. It was the
intention that the differences from ICAO SARPs and PANS permitted by Article 38 of the Chicago
convention would be examinable in examinations conducted in the state that had notified the
differences. However, JAR FCL committee decided that implementation of the requirement for
national law examined was suspended and that is still the case. Clearly, it is not fair for Dutch
students taking a course in the UK to be examined on UK law. The LO remains and this chapter
meets the requirement for the inclusion of the differences of UK law from the ICAO SARPs and
PANS.
MAJOR UK DIFFERENCES
VMC Criteria
In the UK, there is no VMC criteria defined for class A airspace. Also, the VMC criteria for
class B airspace is 8 km flight visibility at or above FL100 (10 000 ft) and 5 km below and
clear of cloud. ICAO defines flight visibility and vertical and horizontal distance from
cloud, for both classes A and B.
Quadrantal Rule
For IFR flight outside of CAS and above the transition level up to FL245, pilots are
required to fly at a FL dependent upon the magnetic track of the aircraft with respect to
the quadrant of the compass which contains the magnetic track. Above FL245 all flights
comply with the semi-circular rule for IFR flights in accordance with the table in Annex 2
for IFR flight in other airspace. The quadrants and applicable FLs are:
000 089
090 179
180 269
270 359
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National Law
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Chapter 27
Low Flying
In the UK the following restrictions to low flying are enforced:
a. No aircraft is permitted to fly over towns or built-up areas (habitation) below 1
500 ft above the highest obstacle within 600 m of the aircraft track. (ICAO
permits as low as 1000 ft).
b. Aircraft are not to fly closer than 500 ft to any person, vehicle, vessel, or
structure. Over clear areas or over the sea, flight below 500 ft is permitted.
(Annex 2 prohibits flight below 500 ft except for take off and landing).
c. Aircraft are not to fly closer than 1000 m (3280 ft) to gatherings of 1000
persons or more (ICAO does not specify the number of persons).
ROYAL FLIGHTS
A Royal Flight is a flight made by Her Majesty the Queen or certain other members of the Royal
Family. Royal Flight procedures are often implemented for flights made within UK airspace by
other Monarchs, Heads of State, or foreign dignitaries. Special ATC procedures are implemented
to provide additional separation between Royal Flight aircraft and other aircraft.
RNOTAM
The occurrence of a Royal Flight is notified in a Royal Flight NOTAM (RNOTAM).
Purple Airspace
Within and outside of CAS, the enhanced separation standards are applied in Purple
Airspace which is defined between reporting points and exists as detailed in the
RNOTAM. Purple Airspace is class A. For Royal Flights operating into or out of
aerodromes not within a CTR, a temporary CTR and temporary airways to link the CTR
to the airways structure will be established as published in the RNOTAM. Temporary
Purple Airspace will exist from 15 minutes prior to and 30 minutes after the ETA Royal
Flight at the aerodrome. Established CTRs may be upgraded to class A airspace during
Royal flight operations in the CTR. Purple Airspace is not normally established for Royal
Flight helicopters.
Restrictions
During the notified period of a Royal Flight in the UK FIRs, practice PAN procedures on
121.500 MHz are suspended. Clearances to climb or descend whilst maintaining own
separation in VMC will not be granted in the vicinity of a Royal Flight. Gliders are not to
be flown in Purple Airspace.
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National Law
MATZ
With 2
panhandles
MATZ
COMBINED
MATZ
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Air Law