Definition and Scope of Agronomy

18.1 INTRODUCTION
The term agriculture is derived from the Latin words ager or 'agri' meaning 'soil'
and culturameaning 'cultivation'. Agriculture is a very broad term encompassing
all aspects of crop production, livestock farming, fisheries, forestry, etc.
Agriculture is the science and art.
Agriculture is a productive unit where the natural inputs i.e. light, air, water;
nutrient, etc. are converted into usable product by the green plants. The
livestock, birds and insects feed on the green plants and provide concentrated
products such as milk, meat, eggs, wool, honey, silk and lac. Agriculture
provides us with the materials needed for our feeding housing and clothing.
Agriculture consists of growing plants and rearing animals which help to
maintain a biological equilibrium in nature, cultivation of land with a view to
produce crop.
18.2 AGRONOMY
Agronomy is a branch of agricultural science which deals with principles and
practices of soil, water, and crop management. This term is derived from Greek
words agros meaning 'field' andnomos meaning 'to manage'. In recent times,
agronomy has assumed newer dimensions and can be defined as a branch of
agriculture dealing with field crop production and soil management on
sustainable basis.
18.3 Important events in the history of agriculture
Period

Event

Earlier than 10,000 B.C.

Hunting and gathering

8700 B.C.

Domestication of sheep

7700 B.C.

Domestication of goat

7500 B.C.

Cultivation of wheat and barley

6000 B.C.

Domestication of cattle and pigs

4000 B.C.

Cultivation of maize

3500 B.C.

Cultivation of potato

3400 B.C.

Wheel was invented

3000 B.C.

Bronze was used to make tools

2900 B.C.

Invented Plough, Irrigated farming started

2300 B.C.

Chickpea, pear, sarson and cotton

2200 B.C.

Cultivation of rice

1800 B.C.

Cultivation of finger millet (Ragi)

1725 B.C.

Cultivation of sorghum

1500 B.C.

Cultivation of sugarcane

1400 B.C.

Use of iron

15 Century A.D.

Cultivation of sweet orange, wild

brinjal, pomegranate

16 Century A.D

Introduction of several crops into India by

Portuguese. They are potato, sweet potato,
cassava, tomato chillies, papaya, guava,
groundnut, cashew nut, tobacco etc.

18.4 SCOPE OF AGRONOMY

Agronomy is a dynamic discipline. With the advancement of knowledge and
better understanding of plant and environment, agricultural practices are
modified or new practices developed for high productivity. For example
availability of herbicides for the control of weeds led to development of a vast
knowledge about selectivity, time and method of application of herbicides.
Gigantic irrigation projects are constructed to provide irrigation facilities.
However, these projects created side effects like water logging, and salinity. To
overcome this problem, appropriate water management practices are developed.
Population pressure is increasing but area under cultivation is static. More
number of crops have, therefore, to be grown on the same piece of land in an
year. As a result, intensive cropping has come into vogue. Similarly, no tillage
practices have come in place of clean cultivation as a result of increase in cost

of energy. Likewise new technology has to be developed to exploit their full

potential.
The factors restricting increased agricultural production are low soil fertility,
crop varieties of low genetic yield potential, poor agronomic practices,
inadequate control of disease and insects, non-availability of production inputs,
government economy policies affecting agriculture and weak research and
extension programmes. Restoration of soil fertility, preparation of good
seedbed, use of proper seed rates, correct dates of sowing for each improved
variety, proper conservation and management of soil moisture and proper
control of weeds are agronomic practices to make our finite land water
resources more productive.

FIELD CROPS
Field crops may be classified in more than one way. It may be on the basis of:
a) climate
b) season in which grown
c) life of crop plant
d) source of water
e) root system
f) economic importance
g) use
h) botanical or morphological similarity.
The important classification of group of field crop is as below: Classification on the basis
of climate:- Tropical climate crop rice, sugarcane Temperate climate crop wheat,
gram Classification on the basis of season Kharif Crops Crop grown in monsoon
season from June to October e.g. Rice, Jowar, Bajra, Groundnut. Rabi Crops Crop
grown in winter season from October to March e.g. Wheat, gram, safflower etc. Summer
Crops Crop grown in summer season from March to June e.g. summer groundnut,
water melon, cucumber etc.
Botanical classification of field crop Field crop belongs to the big division of plant
kingdom spermatophyte. In which reproduction is carried out by the seeds. Within this
division the common crop plants belong to the sub-division Angiosperms (ovules are

enclosed in an ovary wall.) The Angiosperms are further divided into two classes, the
monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous. All grasses, cereals like rice, wheat, jowar,
sugarcane are monocotyledonous plants. The legumes or pulses viz. Red gram, green
gram, beans are dicotyledonous. (Seeds have two cotyledons) These are further subdivided into orders, families, genera, species and varieties.

Factors Governing Crop Production or Affecting Crop

Growth
Crop production is concerned with the exploitation of plant morphological (or
structural) and plant physiological (or functional) responses with a soil &
atmospheric environment to produce a high yield per unit area of land.
Growth is irreversible increase in size or weight.
Crop production provides the food for human beings, fodder for animals and
fiber for cloths. Land is the natural resource which is unchanged & the
burden of the population is tremendously increasing, thereby decrease the
area per capita. Therefore it is necessary to increase the production per unit
area on available land. This necessitates the close study of all the factors of
crop production viz.
1. The soil in which crops are grown
2. The water which is the life of plant
3. The Plant which gives food to man & fodder to his animals
4. The skillful management by the farmer himself
5. The climate which is out of control of man & but decided the growth,
development & production.
6. The genetic characters of crop plant which is the genetic makeup & can be
exploited for crop production.
Broadly, the factors that influence the growth of crop or crop production can
be classified as:
A. Internal or Genetic Factors

Internal or Genetic Factors

Genetic makeup decided the crop growth & its production. Crops vary in the
genetic makeup which included desirable & undesirable characters as well.
Breeders try to incorporate maximum desirable characters in one strain of
crop & also try to exploit the hybrid vigour.

Desirable characters include:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

High yielding ability under given environment condition.

Early maturity
Better resistance to lodging
Drought, flood & salinity tolerance
Greater tolerance to insect & diseases
Chemical composition of grains (Oil & Proteins)
Quality of grains (Fineness coarseness etc)
Quality of straw (Sweetness juiciness)

These characters are inherent in each individual and are transmitted from
one generation to another by genes.

B. External or Environmental Factors

1. Edaphic or Soil Factors
2. Water
3. Plant Biotic Factor
4. Anthropic or Management
5. Climatic

1) Edaphic or Soil factors: Soil can be defined as: Soil is a thin layer of
the earths crust which serves as a natural medium for the growth of plants.
Soils are formed by the disintegrations & decomposition of parent rocks due
to weathering and the action of soil organisms & also the interaction of
various chemical substances present in the soil. Soil is formed from parent
rock by the process of weathering over a long period by the action of rain
water, temperature and plant & animal residues.
A vertical cut of 1.5 to 2 m deep soil indicates a layer varying from a few cm
to about 30 cm of soil, called surface soil, elbow that a layer of sub soil & at
the bottom, the unrecompensed material which is the parent rock.

Role of soil:
1. Soil is the natural media to grow the crop.
2. Soil gives the mechanical support & act as an anchor,
3. Soil supplies the nutrients to the crop plants,
4. Soil conserves the moisture which is supplies to the crop plants
5. Soil is an abode (house) of millions of living organisms which act on plant
residues & release food material to plants
6. Soil provides aeration for growth of crop and decomposition of organic
matter.

Soil profile: A vertical section of soil in the field extending up to the depth
of the parent material shows the presence of more or less distinct horizontal
layers such a section is called a profile & individual layers are regarded as
horizon.
The depth of soil varies as shallow, medium & deep. The soil which remains
where it is formed, known as soil in situ, the soil on the banks of river which
is formed from the soil particles washed away by rains from hill slopes &
deposited at lower levels is known as alluvial soil which is much deeper &
more fertile.

Soil varies in their composition and the arrangement of soil particles

depending upon the parent rocks from which they are formed. They also vary
in physical properties such as texture & structure. Textural class decided its
fitness, fertility & plant growth, infertile soil need to add the org. Matter &
fertilizers. Problematic soils need addition of soil amendments (Lime-acid &
Gypsum-alkali) and other management practices to correct them. The
chemical properties of soil are decided by the parent rocks.
Soil is not an inert mass but an abode of millions of living organisms which
act on plant residues & release food material to plants. The decayed OM also
loosens the soil to allow circulation & retention of moisture, which are
necessary for the life & growth of the plant, soil is not an ordinary mass of
dead particles of rock but a medium humming with activity, responsive to the
water, plant & management by the farmer.

Agro-Climatic Zones
The Planning Commission has categorised 15 agro-climatic zones in India, taking into
account the physical attributes and socio-economic conditions prevailing in the regions.

I. Western Himalayan Region:

The Western Himalayan Region covers Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and the hill
region of Uttarakhand.

Topography and temperatures show great variation. Average temperature in July ranges
between 5C and 30 C, while in January it ranges between 5 C and -5 C. Mean annual
rainfall varies between 75 cm to 150 cm; in Ladakh, however, it is less than 30 cm. There is
alluvial soil in the valleys of Kashmir, Kullu and Dun, and brown soil in the hills.

The valley floors grow rice, while the hilly tracts grow maize in the kharif season. Winter
crops are barley, oats, and wheat. The region supports horticulture, especially apple

orchards and other temperate fruits such as peaches, apricot, pears, cherry, almond, litchis,
walnut, etc. Saffron is grown in this region.

The high altitude alpine pastures, locally known as dhoks or margs, are used by the
Gujjars, Bakarwals and Gaddis to rear their sheep, goats, cattle and horses. The economy is
largely agrarian.

The main problems of this region are poor accessibility, soil erosion, landslides, inclement
weather, inadequacy of marketing and storage facilities. The population is generally ruralbased and poor.

Research in better seeds and extension service for agricultural development are required.

II. Eastern Himalayan Region:

The Eastern Himalayan Region includes Arunachal Pradesh, the hills of Assam, Sikkim,
Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, and the Darjeeling district of West
Bengal. The topography is rugged. Temperature variation is between 25 C and 30 C in July
and between 10 C and 20 C in January. Average rainfall is between 200-400 cm. The redbrown soil is not highly productive Jhuming (shifting cultivation) prevails in the hilly areas.

The main crops are rice, maize, potato, tea. There are orchards of pineapple, litchi, oranges
and lime.

Infrastructural facilities in the region need to be improved and shifting cultivation controlled
by developing terrace farming.

III. Lower Gangetic Plain Region:

West Bengal (except the hilly areas), eastern Bihar and the Brahmaputra valley lie in this
region. Average annual rainfall lies between 100 cm-200 cm. Temperature in July varies from
26 C to 41 C and for January from 9 C to 24 C. The region has adequate storage of
ground water with high water table.

Rice is the main crop which at times yields three successive crops (Aman, Aus and Boro) in
a year. Jute, maize, potato, and pulses are other important crops. Planning strategies
include improvement in rice farming, horticulture (banana, mango and citrus fruits),
pisciculture, poultry, livestock, forage production and seed supply.

IV. Middle Gangetic Plain Region:

The Middle Gangetic Plain region includes large parts of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The
average temperature in July varies from 26 C to 41 C and that of January 9 C to 24 C
average annual rainfall is between 100 cm and 200 cm. It is a fertile alluvial plain drained by
the Ganga and its tributaries. Rice, maize, millets in kharif, wheat, gram, barley, peas,
mustard and potato in rabi are important crops.

Alternative farming systems, and utilising chaur lands for pisciculture are some measures to
boost agricultural production.

Reclamation of user lands, wastelands, and fallow lands for agriculture and allied activities
(agro-forestry, silviculture, floriculture etc.) should be done.

V. Upper Gangetic Plains Region:

In the Upper Gangetic Plains region come the central and western parts of Uttar Pradesh
and the Hardwar and Udham Nagar districts of Uttarakhand.

The climate is sub-humid continental with temperature in July between 26 C to 41 C and

temperature in January between 7 C to 23 C. Average annual rainfall is between 75 cm150 cm. The soil is sandy loam. Canal, tube-well and wells are the main source of irrigation.
This is an intensive agricultural region wherein wheat, rice, sugarcane, millets, maize, gram,
barley, oilseeds, pulses and cotton are the main crops.

Besides modernising traditional agriculture the region needs special focus on dairy
development and horticulture. Strategies should include developing multiple mixed cropping
patterns.

VI. Trans-Ganga Plains Region:

This region (also called the Satluj-Yamuna Plains) extends over Punjab, Haryana,
Chandigarh, Delhi and the Ganganagar district of Rajasthan. Semi- arid characteristics
prevail over the region, with Julys mean monthly temperature between 25 C and 40 C and
that of January between 10 C and 20 C.

The average annual rainfall varies between 65 cm and 125 cm. The soil is alluvial which is
highly productive. Canals and tube-wells and pumping sets have been installed by the
cultivators and the governments. The intensity of agriculture is the highest in the country.

Important crops include wheat, sugarcane, cotton, rice, gram, maize, millets, pulses and
oilseeds etc. The region has the credit of introducing Green Revolution in the country and
has adopted modern methods of farming with greater degree of mechanisation. The region
is also facing the menace of waterlogging, salinity, alkalinity, soil erosion and falling water
table.

Some steps that may be required to make agriculture in the region more sustainable
and productive are:
(i) diversion of some rice-wheat area to other crops like maize, pulses, oilseeds and fodder;
(ii) development of genotypes of rice, maize and wheat with inbuilt resistance to pests and
diseases; (iii) promotion of horticulture besides pulses like tur and peas in upland conditions;
(iv) cultivation of vegetables in the vicinity of industrial clusters; (v) supply of quality seeds of
vegetables and planting material for horticulture crops; (vi) development of infrastructure of
transit godowns and processing to handle additional fruit and vegetable production; (vii)
implementation of policy and programmes to increase productivity of milk and wool; and (viii)
development of high quality fodder crops and animal feed by stepping up area under fodder
production.

VII. Eastern Plateau and Hills:

This region includes the Chhotanagpur Plateau, extending over Jharkhand, Orissa,
Chhattisgarh and Dandakaranya. The region enjoys 26 C to 34 C of temperature in July,
10 C to 27 C in January and 80 cm-150 cm of annual rainfall. Soils are red and yellow with
occasional patches of laterites and alluviums. The region is deficient in water resources due
to plateau structure and non-perennial streams. Rainfed agriculture is practised growing
crops like rice, millets, maize, oilseeds, ragi, gram and potato.

Steps to improve agricultural productivity and income include cultivation of high value crops
of pulses like tur, groundnut and soyabean etc. on upland rain-fed areas, growing crops like
urad, castor, and groundnut in kharif and mustard and vegetables in irrigated areas,
improvement of indigenous breeds of cattle and buffaloes, extension of fruit plantations,
renovation including desilting of existing tanks and excavation of new tanks, 95.32 lakh ha of

acidic lands through lime treatment, development of inland fisheries in permanent water
bodies, and adopting integrated watershed development approach to conserve soil and rain
water.

VIII. Central Plateau and Hills:

The region is spread over Bundelkhand, Baghelkhand, Bhander Plateau, Malwa Plateau,
and Vindhyachal Hills. Semi-arid climatic conditions prevail over the region with temperature
in July 26 C to 40 C, in January 7 C to 24 C and average annual rainfall from 50 cm-100
cm. Soils are mixed red, yellow and black.

There is scarcity of water. Crops grown are millets, wheat, gram, oilseeds, cotton and
sunflower. In order to improve agricultural returns, measures to be adopted are water
conservation through water saving devices like sprinklers and drip system; dairy
development, crop diversification, ground water development, reclamation of ravine lands.

IX. Western Plateau and Hills:

Comprising southern part of Malwa plateau and Deccan plateau (Maharashtra), this is a
region of the regur (black) soil with July temperature between 24 C and 41 C, January
temperature between 6 C and 23 C and average annual rainfall of 25 cm-75 cm. Wheat,
gram, millets, cotton, pulses, groundnut, and oilseeds are the main crops in the rain-fed
areas, while in the irrigated areas, sugarcane, rice, and wheat, are cultivated. Also grown are
oranges, grapes and bananas.

Attention should be paid to increasing water efficiency by popularizing water saving devices
like sprinklers and drip system. The lower value crops of jowar, bajra and rainfed wheat
should give way to high value oilseeds. Five per cent area under rain-fed cotton and jowar
could be substituted with fruits like ber, pomegranate, mango and guava. Improvement of

milk production of cattle and buffalo through cross-breeding along with poultry development
should be encouraged.

X. Southern Plateau and Hills:

This region falls in interior Deccan and includes parts of southern Maharashtra, the greater
parts of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu uplands from Adilabad District in the
north to Madurai District in the south. The mean monthly temperature of July varies between
25 C and 40 C, and the mean January temperature is between 10 C and 20 C. Annual
rainfall is between 50 cm and 100 cm.

It is an area of dry-zone agriculture where millets, oilseeds, and pulses are grown. Coffee,
tea, cardamom and spices are grown along the hilly slopes of Karnataka plateau.

Some of the area under coarse cereals may be diverted to pulses and oilseeds. Horticulture,
dairy development and poultry farming should be encouraged.

XI. Eastern Coastal Plains and Hills:

In this region are the Coromandal and northern Circar coasts of Andhra Pradesh and Orissa.
The mean July temperature ranges between 25 C and 35 C and the mean January
temperature varies between 20 C and 30 C. The mean annual rainfall ~ varies between 75
cm and 150 cm.

The soils are alluvial, loam and clay and are troubled by the problem of alkalinity. Main crops
include rice, jute, tobacco, sugarcane, maize, millets, groundnut and oilseeds. Main
agricultural strategies include improvement in the cultivation of spices (pepper and
cardamom) and development of fisheries.

These involve increasing cropping intensity using water-efficient crops on residual moisture,
discouraging growing of rice on marginal lands and bringing such lands under alternate
crops like oilseeds and pulses; diversifying cropping and avoiding mono-cropping;
developing horticulture in upland areas, social forestry and dairy-farming.

XII. Western Coastal Plains and Ghats:

Extending over the Malabar and Konkan coastal plains and the Sahyadris, the region is
humid with the mean July temperature varying between 25 C and 30 C and mean January
temperatures between 18 C and 30 C. The mean annual rainfall is more than 200 cm.

The soils are laterite and coastal alluvial. Rice, coconut, oilseeds, sugarcane, millets, pulses
and cotton are the main crops. The region is also famous for plantation crops and spices
which are raised along the hill slopes of the Western Ghats.

The agricultural development must focus attention on raising of high value crops (pulses,
spices, and coconut). Development of infra- structural facilities and promotion to prawn
culture in brackish water should be encouraged.

XIII. Gujarat Plains and Hills:

This region includes the hills and plains of Kathiawar, and the fertile valleys of Mahi and
Sabarmati rivers. It is an arid and semi-arid region with the mean July temperature reading
30 C and that of January about 25 C. The mean annual rainfall varies between 50 cm and
100 cm.

Soils are regur in the plateau region, alluvium in the coastal plains, and red and yellow soils
in Jamnagar area. Groundnut, cotton, rice, millets, oilseeds, wheat and tobacco are the main
crops. It is an important oilseed producing region.

The main strategy of development in this region should be canal and groundwater
management, rain water harvesting and management, dry land farming, agro-forestry
development, wasteland development and developing marine fishing and brackish/backwater aquaculture development in coastal zones and river deltas.

XIV. Western Dry Region:

Extending over Rajasthan, West of the Aravallis, this region has an erratic rainfall of an
annual average of less than 25 cm. The desert climate further causes high evaporation and
contrasting temperatures28 C to 45 C in June and 5 C to 22 C in January. Bajra, jowar,
and moth are main crops of kharif and wheat and gram in rabi. Livestock contributes greatly
in desert ecology.

The main areas needing a thrust for development are rainwater harvesting, increasing yield
level of horticultural crops like water melon, guava and date palm, adopting high quality
germ- plasm in cattle to improve their breed; and adopting silvi-pastoral system over
wastelands.

XV. Island Region:

The island region includes Andaman-Nicobar and Lakshadweep which have typically
equatorial climate (annual rainfall less than 300 cm; the mean July and January temperature
of Port Blair being 30 C and 25 C respectively). The soils vary from sandy along the coast
to clayey loam in valleys and lower slopes.

The main crops are rice, maize, millets, pulses, arecanut, turmeric and cassava. Nearly half
of the cropped area is under coconut. The area is covered with thick forests and agriculture
is in backward stage.The main thrust in development should be on crop improvement, water
management and fisheries. Improved variety of rice seeds should be popularised so as to

enable farmers to take two crops of rice in place of one. For fisheries development multipurpose fishing vessels for deep sea fishing should be introduced, suitable infrastructure for
storage and processing of fish should be built up, and brackish water prawn culture should
be promoted in the coastal areas.

Classifications of Cropping System

Classifications of Cropping System:
Depending on the resources and technology available, different types of
cropping systems are adopted on farms, which are as below.

Mono-cropping or Single Cropping: Mono-cropping refers to growing

only one crop on a particular land year after year. Or Practice of growing only
one crop in a piece of land year after year e.g. growing only rabbi crops in
dry lands or only said crops in diary lands (Lands situated in river basins
which often remain flooded during rainy season). This is due to
climatologically and socio economic conditions or due to specialization of a
farmer in growing a particular crop.
Groundnut or cotton or sorghum is grown year due to limitation of rainfall.
Flue-cured tobacco is grown in Gnter (A.P.) due to specialization of a farmer
in growing a particular crop. Rice crop is grown, as it is not possible to grow
any other crops, in canal irrigated areas, and under water logged conditions.

Monoculture: Practice of repetitive growing only crop irrespective of its

intensity as rice-rice-rice in Kerala, West Bengal and Orissa.

Sole Cropping: One crop variety grown alone in pure stand at normal
density.

Multiple Cropping or Polycropping: It is a cropping system where two

or three crops are gown annually on the same piece of land using high input
without affecting basic fertility of the soil.
Growing two or more crops on the same piece of land in one calendar year
known as multiple cropping. It is the intensification of cropping in time and
space dimensions i.e. more number of crops within a year and more number
of crops on the same piece of land at any given period. It includes intercropping, mixed cropping and sequence cropping.
Molested (1954) has mentioned that multiples cropping is a philosophy of
maximum crop production per acre of land with minimum of soil
deterioration.
1) Rice-potato-green gram.
2) Rice-mustard-maize.
3) Rice-potato-sesame.
4) Jut-rice-potato.

Cropping intensity is more that 200 per cent when the farm as a whole is
considered; the Multiple Cropping Index (MCI) is determined by the number
of crops and total area planted divided by the total arable area. When the
value is three or more, it is said to be most promising farm. This is also
called as intensive cropping.

1. Polyculture: Cultivation of more than two types of crops grown together

on a piece of land in a crop season.
e.g. 1) Subabul + Papaya + Pigeon pea + Dinanath grass.
2) Mango + Pine apple + Turmeric
3) Banana + Marigold + berseem.

Relay Cropping: Growing the succeeding crop when previous crop attend
its maturity stage-or-sowing of the next crop immediately after the harvest
of the standing crops. Or it is a system of cropping where one crop hands
over land to the crop in quick succession.
E.g. 1) Paddy-lathers
2) Paddy-Lucerne.
3) Cotton-Berseem.
4) Rice-Cauliflower-Onion-summer gourds.

Overlapping Cropping: In this system, the succeeding crop is sown in

the standing crop before harvesting. Thus, in this system, one crop is sown
before the harvesting of preceding crops. Here the lucre and berseem are
broadcasted in standing paddy crop just before they are ready for
harvesting.

Advantages:
1. Minimum tillage is needed for relay cropping and primary cost of
cultivation is less.
2. Weed infestation is less, as land is engaged with crops year round.
3. Crop residues are added in the soil and thus more organic matter.
4. Residual fertilizer of previous crops benefits succeeding crops.

Dryland Agriculture in India

Dryland agriculture refers to cultivation of crops entirely under natural rainfall. It is a
form of subsistence farming in the regions where deficit of the soil moisture retards
the growth of water consuming crops like paddy (Oryza sativa), sugarcane
(Saccharum officinarum) etc. Dryland areas are characterized by low and erratic
rainfall and no assured irrigation facilities. Dryland agriculture is important for the
economy as most of the coarse grain crops, pulses, oilseeds, and raw cotton are
grown on these lands. Dryland areas receive rainfall between 50 and 120 cm.

Types of Dryland Agriculture:

Depending on the amount of rainfall received, dryland agriculture has been grouped
into three categories:
(i) Dry farming: it is production of crops without irrigation in areas where annual
rainfall is less than 75 cm. Crop failures are more frequent under dry farming
condition owing to prolonged dry spells during crop period. The growing season is
less than 200 days. It is generally practiced in arid regions of the country.

(ii) Dryland farming: cultivation of crops in areas receiving rainfall above 75 cm is

known as dryland farming. Dry spell during crop duration occurs, but crop failures
are less frequent. Semi-arid regions are included under this category.

(iii) Rainfed farming: It is practice of crop cultivation without irrigation in areas

receiving 115 cm rainfall, mostly in sub-humid and humid areas. Here chances of
crop failure and water stress are very less.

Distribution of Drylands:
Our country has fertile cultivable land and receives the highest rainfall on per unit
area basis anywhere in the world due to short duration of rainfall in a year. One
hundred and twenty eight Districts in India have been recognized as dryland farming
areas. Of these, 91 Districts are spread in the states of Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, representing typical dry farming tracts.
Rest of the Districts belongs to Central Rajasthan, Saurashtra region of Gujarat and
rain shadow region of the Western Ghats.

The total land area of India is 329 million hectares of which 144 million hectares is
arable land, of this 94 million hectares fall under dry lands constituting 65% of
dryland and rainfed area produce 40% of the total food grains that feeds 40% of the
total population. The remaining of 50 million hectares constituting 35% of irrigated
areas account for 60% of the crop production. Major dry farming crops are millets
such as jowar (Sorghum vulgare), bajra (Pennisetum typhoides), ragi (Eleusine
coracana), oilseeds like mustard (Brassica campestris), rapeseed (Brassica napus),
and pulse crops like pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), gram (Cicer arientinum) and lentil
(Lens esculentum). Almost 80% of maize (Zea mays) and Jowar, 90% of Bajra and
approximately 95% of pulses and 75% of oilseeds are obtained from dryland
agriculture. In addition to these, 70% of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) is produced
through dryland agriculture. Dryland areas also contribute significantly to wheat
(Triticum aestivum) and paddy (Oryza sativa) production. Thirty three per cent of
wheat and 66% of rice are still rainfed.

Prospects of Dryland Areas:

More than 75% of the farmers engaged in dry farming are small and marginal.
Therefore, improvement in dry farming would raise the economic status of farmers
thus helping in poverty alleviation. Dryland farming holds immense significance

especially in the context of fluctuating food grain production and expanding

population in our country. The biggest employer in our country, the cotton mills are
fed by raw cotton grown mostly in dryland areas. Increasing production of cotton
subsequently leads to increase in exports of cotton good. The expanding import of
oilseeds is a cause of concern to Indian nation. The improvement of production of
oilseeds in these regions will save valuable foreign exchange reserves. By enhancing
the productivity of crops like jowar, bajra and ragi which are mainly grown in dryland
farming would increase the nutrient consumption levels of our nation.

Marginal lands in the semi-arid regions offer potential for fodder production to feed
the cattle population which is an integral component of farming practice of this
region. Providing importance to these areas can solve the problems of pulses,
oilseeds and cotton. The dryland areas have also tremendous potentiality of
increased food grain production. Thus enhanced agricultural production in these
areas would boost the agriculture based economy of India. Moreover, it would also
be helpful in eliminating the problem of hunger and malnutrition prevailed in below
poverty line society of the country.

Constraints of Drylands:
Drylands are characterized by low and uncertain rainfall therefore, crop failure is
common feature. The various constraints of drylands are as follows:

1. In dryland areas in general, the rainfall is low and highly variable which results in
uncertain crop yields. The distribution of rainfall during the crop period is uneven,
receiving high amount of rain when it is not required and lack of it when crop need
it.

2. Generally in dryland areas when the monsoon sets in late, the sowing of crops are
delayed resulting in poor yields. At times, the rains may cease very early in season
exposing the crop to drought and during flowering and maturity stages which
reduces the crop yields considerably.

3. Soils of the drylands are not only dry but also deficient in macronutrients like
nitrogen and phosphorous. Thus in other words drylands are not only thirsty but
they are hungry too.

4. The temperature in dryland varies greatly. During the period of moisture stress
and drought, the temperatures accelerate the crop development resulting into forced
maturity. Chilling or frost injury at flowering results in poor grain setting and
deteriorates the grain quality.

5. Dryland areas suffer from various process of soil degradation especially soil
erosion.

6. Small size of land holdings (less than 2 hectares) usually fragmented and
scattered, lack of market facilities, frequent crop failure, poor economic condition
and other socio-economic problem related to drylands.

7. Extremely poor condition of farmers, lack of infrastructure to boost production.

Major Areas of Concern in Dryland Agriculture:

Major areas of concern in dryland agriculture are:

(i) Proper marketing and price policy to cover crops and animal products.

(ii) Conservation of soil and water resources.

(iii) Need to evolve high yielding and drought resistant crop varieties.

(iv) Low cost and locally suited agricultural implements.

(v) Judicious and balance use of costly chemicals.

(vi) Proper financial availability to purchase inputs; and

(vii) Extension education. Dryland Farming Technology:

The following farming technology is needed to enhance agricultural production in

dryland areas.

1. Timely preparatory and seeding operations including conservation of stored soil

moistures.

2. The use of improved crop varieties should be done which can withstand stress.
For moisture conservation in the soil, deep tillage, surface cultivation and stubble
mulching need to be practiced. Deep tillage is required to break plough soles and
layers because repeated ploughing over centuries has resulted in the growth of hard
compacted layers which restrict infiltration and movement of water and penetration
of water.

3. Conjunctive use of rainfall, surface and ground water.

4. Harvesting of water for use in dry periods. Watershed a natural hydrological unit
is a good device for water harvesting. Proper watershed management can stop not
only further degradation of ecosystem, but degraded lands can also be restored.

5. Soil conservation by contour bunding, terracing, land sloping and land levelling
and also by practicing conservational tillage (zero tillage and minimum tillage).

6. Practice of drip irrigation to save water.

7. Lining of canals to minimize water loss.

8. Agronomic practices like mixed cropping and crop rotation which increase the
yield of crops need to be practiced.

9. Integrated nutrient management need to be practiced with special emphasis on

use of bio-fertilizers to maintain the soil fertility.

10. Integrated weed management and integrated pest management need to be

adopted to control weeds and pests, respectively.

11. For the non-farm operation dryland areas have to be supplemented with nonform occupation like animal husbandry, fisheries, poultry, social forestry and cottage
for the development of these areas.

12. Alley cropping, pasture management, tree farming, silvi-pastoral management

systems and agro-horticultural system which are more relevant to dryland situations
have to be adopted for successful dryland farming system.

Conclusion:
Conclusively it can be said that dryland areas are the chief contributors of pulses,
oilseeds, coarse grain crops and cotton. Moreover, drylands also contribute
significantly to wheat and rice production. Therefore, it is the need of the hour to
adopt and practice the available dryland technologies for increased agricultural
production in these areas, which would boost the food grain production of the
country and would also improve the economic status of farmers in these areas.

What is seed village?

A village, wherein trained group of fanners are involved in production 'of seeds of various crops and cate
themselves, fellow fanners of the village and fanners of neighboring villages in appropriate time and at a
"a seed village".
Concept

Organizing seed production in cluster (or) compact area

Replacing existing local varieties with new high yielding varieties.

Increasing the seed production

To meet the local demand, timely supply and reasonable cost

Self sufficiency and self reliance of the village

Increasing the seed replacement rate

Features

Seed is available at the door steps of farms at an appropriate time

Seed availability at affordable cost even lesser than market price

Increased confidence among the farmers about the quality because of known source of productio

Producer and consumer are mutually benefited

Facilitates fast spread of new cultivars of different kinds

Advantages of Seed Village Concept or Compact Area Approach

1. Solve the problem of isolation. Mainly in cross pollinated crops like maize, sunflower

where it required more Isolation distance the problem will be solved by raising a single
variety in a large area.
2. Mechanization is possible from sowing to harvesting
3. Post harvest handling of seed is easy
.
4. Because of a single variety, the problem of varietal admixture during processing,
drying will be avoided
5. Seed certification official will cover large area per unit time
6. Totally it reduces the cost of cultivation
7. Seed will be with high genetic, physical purity

General principles of Seed Production

Production of genetically pure and otherwise good quality pedigree seed is an exacting
task requiring high technical skills and comparatively heavy financial investment.
During seed production strict attention must be given to the maintenance of genetic
purity and other qualities of seeds in order to exploit the full dividends sought to be
obtained by introduction of new superior crop plant varieties. In other words, seed
production must be carried out under standardized and well-organized condition.
Genetic Principle

1. Deterioration of varieties: Genetic purity (Truness to type) of a variety can

deteriorate due to several factor during production cycles. The important factors
of apparent and real deterioration of varieties) are as follows:

a. Developmental variation: When the seed crops are grown in difficult

environment, under different soil and fertility conditions, or different climate
conditions, or under different photoperiods, or at different elevation for several
consecutive generations, the developmental variation may arise some times as
differential growth response. To minimize the opportunity for such shifts to
occur in varieties it is advisable to grow them in their areas of adaptation and
growing seasons.

b. Mechanical mixtures: This is the most important source of variety deterioration

during seed production. Mechanical mixtures may often take place at the time
of sowing, if more than one variety is sown with same seed drill; through
volunteer plants of the same crop in the seed field; or through different
varieties grown in adjacent fields. Often the seed produce of all the varieties are
kept on same threshing floor, resulting in considerable varietal mixture. To avoid
this sort mechanical contamination it would be necessary to rogue the seed
fields, and practice the utmost care during the seed production, harvesting,
threshing and further handling

c. Mutations: This is not a serious factor of varietal deterioration. In the majority

of the cases it is difficult to identify or detect minor mutation.

d. Natural crossing: In sexually propagated crops, natural crossing is another most

important source of varietal deterioration due to introgression to genes from
unrelated stocks which can only be solved by prevention
Agronomic principles

1.

Selection of a Agro-climatic Region

A crop variety to be grown for seed production in an area must be adapted to the
photoperiod and temperature conditions prevailing in that area.

2.

Selection of seed plot

The plot selected for seed crop must be free from volunteer plants, weed plants
and have good soil texture and fertility The soil of the seed plot should be
comparatively free from soil borne diseases and insects pests.

3.

Isolation of Seed crops

The seed crop must be isolated from other nearby fields of the same crops and
the other contaminating crops as per requirement of the certification standards.

4.

Preparation of Land
Good land preparation helps in improved germination, good stand establishment
and destruction of potential weeds. It also aids in water management and good
uniform irrigation.

5.

Selection of variety
The variety of seed production must be carefully selected, should possess disease
resistance, earliness, grain quality, a higher yielder, and adapted to the
agroclimatic conditions of the region.

6.

Seed treatment:
Depending upon the requirement the following seed treatment may be given

a.

Chemical seed treatment.

b.

Bacterial inoculation for the legumes.

c.

Seed treatment for breaking dormancy.

7.

Time of planting
The seed crops should invariably be sown at their normal planting time.
Depending upon the incidence of diseases and pests, some adjustments, could be
made, if necessary.

8.

Seed Rate
Lower seed rates than usual for raising commercial crop are desirable because
they facilitate rouging operations and inspection of seed crops.

9.

Method of sowing

The most efficient and ideal method of sowing is by mechanical drilling.

10.

Depth of sowing

Depth of sowing is extremely important in ensuring good plant stand. Small seeds
should usually be planted shallow, but large seeds could be planted a little deeper.

11.

Rouging: Adequate and timely rouging is extremely important in seed

production. Rouging in most of the field crops may be done at many of the
following stages as per needs of the seed crop.

a.

Vegetative / preflowering stage

b.

Flowering stage

c.

Maturity stage

12.

Supplementary pollination

Provision of honey bees in hives in close proximity to the seed fields of crops largely
cross pollinated by the insects, ensure good seed set thereby greatly increase seed
yields.
13 .Weed control: Good weed control is the basic requirement in producing good
quality seed. Weeds may cause contamination of the seed crop , in addition to
reduction in yield:
14. Disease and insect control: Successful disease and insect control is another
important factor in raising healthy seed crops. Apart from reduction of yield,
the quality of seeds from diseased and insect damaged plants is invariably
poor.

15.

Nutrition:

In the nutrition of seed crops, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and several other
elements play an important role for proper development of plants and seed. It is,
therefore, advisable to know and identify the nutritional requirements of seed
crops and apply adequate fertilizers.

16.

Irrigation

Irrigation can be important at planting for seed crops on dry soils to ensure good
uniform germination and adequate crop stands. Excess moisture or prolonged
drought adversely affects germination and frequently results in poor crop stands.

17.

Harvesting of Seed crops:

It is of great importance to harvest a seed crop at the time that will allow both
the maximum yield and the best quality seed.

18.

Drying of seeds:

In order to preserve seed viability and vigour it is necessary to dry seeds to safe
moisture content levels.
19. Storage of raw seeds: The best method of sowing seed for short periods is in
sacks or bags in ordinary buildings or godowns.

Meteorology is

the

study

of

the

atmosphere,

atmospheric

phenomena, and atmospheric effects on our weather. The atmosphere is

the gaseous layer of the physical environment that surrounds a planet. Earths
atmosphere is roughly 100 to 125 kilometers (65-75 miles) thick. Gravity keeps
the atmosphere from expanding much farther.

Precision farming
A small fraction of Indias current expenditure on precision farming can
purchase the real thing
Precision Farming is a term that appears to be misunderstood by agriculture
scientists in India. This name is indiscriminately used by agricultural institutions
to seek funding for their project activities. There is a need to create awareness and
present information on precision farming as it is understood in developed
countries.
Several steps in scientific farming have been used for more than half a century in
western agriculture. They include laser planning of land; chiselling; minimum
tillage; complete analysis of soil samples for 12 or more essential plant nutrients;
fertilizer placement in the root zone; mechanical and chemical control of weeds;
integrated pest management; siphon irrigation; drip and micro-sprinkler
irrigation; and ploughing back crop residues in the soil. Indian farmers with their
limited knowledge and scanty practical experience on scientific methods of
farming are still to adopt most of these steps in their farming operations.
However, the concept of precision farming is outside the domain of these
techniques. It is strictly based on the Global Positioning System (GPS), which was
initially developed by U.S. defence scientists for the exclusive use of the U.S.
Defence Department. The unique character of GPS is precision in time and space.
In 1983, President Ronald Reagan released it to various civilian uses such as
navigation, earthquake monitoring, and synchronisation of telecom networks.
The initiation of GPS into farm operations is less than a decade old. Its use is fast
spreading to all aspects of farm operations and beyond. Some of the areas in
agriculture where precision farming is taking hold with implications for the
economics of farming are listed below. Since the subject is vast and fast growing,
it is difficult to compile a complete list of applications in this limited presentation.
1. Soil Fertility

Management
a) This involves dividing a field into several small and equal divisions using the
sub-inch accuracy of GPS. To do this, the tractor is fitted with a dish antenna to
receive signals from satellites, which are recorded on a tractor-mounted
computer. Soil samples are mechanically taken from each sub-division and this
process is technically known as Grid Sampling.
b) Samples are tested in a modern soil testing laboratory for about 17 parameters
including physical and chemical characteristics of the soil and recorded.
c) Using the test results of this grid samples, composite colourgrams are created
through computer simulation on each of the17 parameters for the entire field (see
Figure 1).
d) The colour-grams are stored as stencils in the computer for various functions.
One of the chief among the functions is balancing soil fertility of the field with
respect to all major, secondary, and micro- nutrients. This is achieved through
tractor-mounted computer guided spreader equipment capable of reading the
variability of fertility from colour-grams. Fertilizers are then automatically
applied at variable rates only to where they are needed as indicated by the colourgrams.
In practical experience, the savings in fertilizer cost from this variable rate
application alone will more than offset the cost involved in the programme.
Besides, use of this method brings about greater uniformity of soil fertility in the
field, leading to maximum economic yields of crops, which could not be achieved
through other methods.
2. Other applications of the GPS-generated grid method
The grid generated by GPS is stored in the computer and used for site-specific
evaluation and monitoring of numerous functions involved in crop production to
achieve peak efficiency in farm management. Some of these areas are listed
below:
a) Planting variable rates of seed to maximise crop yields from the specific
fertility of each grid section.
b) The GPS-guided grid system helps to apply variable rates of herbicides and
pesticides to achieve maximum control of weeds and pests. This not only reduces
the cost of chemicals used, but also improves efficiency of pest control and
protects environment.

c) This enables the farmer to side dress application of fertilizers at variable rates
to meet the specific requirement of each grid section, thus improving fertilizer use
efficiency.
d) Irrigation rates are tailored to the requirement of each grid area improving
water use efficiency.
f) Scouting for pest information and pest control are achieved on a site-specific
basis.
g) At harvest, crop yield information is recorded on a grid section basis. Solutions
for differences of yield between grid sections are sought through computer
analysis of all variables controlling yield of crops that are stored in the computer.
Based on this, the farmer fine-tunes his or her variable rates of application of
fertilizers and other impacting parameters for use in future cropping
programmes.
h) One other great advantage of the GPS system of farming involves the ability of
the farmer to achieve greater efficiency in time control of his farm operations.
This is because the GPS system enables him to operate his equipment round the
clock irrespective of factors restricting visibility such as fog, darkness, or even
showers. The sub-inch accuracy of GPS-based operations provides the farmer
maximum efficiency with equipment operations.
India is reported to spend hundreds of crores of rupees in projects called
Precision Farming. A small fraction of the current expenditure on so-called
precision farming can purchase the real thing, including all hardware and
software involved. The question is: when will it ever happen in India?

System of Crop Intensification

The system of crop intensification method of growing food crops provides high
yields, on limited land, despite a much smaller amount of seed for planting. The
seeding rate is the amount of seed needed to plant a particular area of land. For
example, rice is planted with a seeding rate of anywhere from 50 to 100 lbs./acre,
and wheat has a seeding rate typically in the range of 25 to 75 lbs./acre. Amaranth
has very small seeds, and so the seeding rate by weight is much lower, as low as
one pound or less per acre. [To convert lbs./acre to kg./hectare, multiply by 1.12.]

The system of grain intensification allows a much lower seeding rate,

approximately one tenth the usual rate for a crop, with the same or higher yields.
It all began in Madagascar in the early 1980s, with a Jesuit priest who was
helping rural rice farmers. These were subsistence farmers whose

food

and survival depends on the success of their

crops. (Preppers sometimes envision a similar situation, in which they grow their
own food for survival.) At a certain point in time, they lacked sufficient rice seed
for planting. The solution was to plant individual rice seeds in a nursery of sorts,
carefully grow each plant, and then transplant the seedlings after a week or two of
growth, into the fields with a much wider spacing than usual. The surprising
result of this methodology is a much higher yield (especially after the method was
improved over time).System of Rice Intensification (SRI) yields can be 30% to
80% higher than commercial yields.
A similar approach has been tried with other crops, including wheat, teff,
millet, sugarcane, and legumes (e.g. chickpea). This has been termed the System
of Crop Intensification (SCI). It works well with grains because most grains tiller
they produce stems, in addition to the first main stem of the plant. And each
tiller can produce its own head of grain. The wider the spacing of the plant, the
more tillers that are produced (up to a point). And so each seedling produces
more grain. And this is how a smaller amount of planting seed can produce a
higher yield.
Take a look at this photo to the left. It is a comparison of finger millet (a grain)
grown with the system of crop intensification (left plant) to two more ordinary
methods of growing the grain (center and right plants). The plant on the left

resulted from a single seed. The seedling produced many tillers, resulting in much
more grain per plant, and per unit area of land.
How does this apply to survival gardening? It is almost certain that if and when
there is a disruption to the food supply, the demand for gardening seed will
quickly outstrip demand. You will not be able to buy all the gardening seeds that
you want (as is now the case). Many persons will have land for planting, but few
seeds to plant. How can you obtain the most food from the least amount of seed?
SCI offers the answer. What if you have less land than would be ideal for growing
your own food? How can you get more food from less land? Again, SCI offers the
answer.
The basic method of SCI (system of crop intensification) is based on the first crop
to which this method was applied: rice. So the System of Rice Intensification is
your guide to the basic methodology. Here is an overview of SRI from Cornell
University, along with their summary of this system applied to other
crops: System of Crop Intensification. Generally speaking, the method has the
same basic principles, with some variation for individual crops:
1. plant seeds close together in a nursery, a bed of loose composted soil.
2. transplant the seedlings into the field after 8 to 15 days of growth.
3. make certain that the field soil is loose, drains well and is thoroughly amended
with compost
4. use a wide spacing of plants (typically 7.5 to 15 plants per square meter)
5. weed the field carefully
6. keep the soil moist, but not over watered; some methods let the field dry
periodically between waterings
7. chemical fertilizer can be used in addition to compost to increase yields further.

What is organic farming?

Organic farming system in India is not new and is being followed from ancient time. It is
a method of farming system which primarily aimed at cultivating the land and raising
crops in such a way, as to keep the soil alive and in good health by use of organic
wastes (crop, animal and farm wastes, aquatic wastes) and other biological materials
along with beneficial microbes (biofertilizers) to release nutrients to crops for increased
sustainable production in an eco friendly pollution free environment.
As per the definition of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) study team
on organic farming organic farming is a system which avoids or largely excludes the use
of synthetic inputs (such as fertilizers, pesticides, hormones, feed additives etc) and to
the maximum extent feasible rely upon crop rotations, crop residues, animal manures,
off-farm organic waste, mineral grade rock additives and biological system of nutrient
mobilization and plant protection.
FAO suggested that Organic agriculture is a unique production management system
which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological
cycles and soil biological activity, and this is accomplished by using on-farm agronomic,
biological and mechanical methods in exclusion of all synthetic off-farm inputs.
Need of organic farming
With the increase in population our compulsion would be not only to stabilize agricultural
production but to increase it further in sustainable manner. The scientists have realized
that the Green Revolution with high input use has reached a plateau and is now
sustained with diminishing return of falling dividends. Thus, a natural balance needs to
be maintained at all cost for existence of life and property. The obvious choice for that
would be more relevant in the present era, when these agrochemicals which are
produced from fossil fuel and are not renewable and are diminishing in availability. It may
also cost heavily on our foreign exchange in future.
The key characteristics of organic farming include

Protecting the long term fertility of soils by maintaining organic matter levels,
encouraging soil biological activity, and careful mechanical intervention

Providing crop nutrients indirectly using relatively insoluble nutrient sources which
are made available to the plant by the action of soil micro-organisms

Nitrogen self-sufficiency through the use of legumes and biological nitrogen

fixation, as well as effective recycling of organic materials including crop residues
and livestock manures

Weed, disease and pest control relying primarily on crop rotations, natural
predators, diversity, organic manuring, resistant varieties and limited (preferably
minimal) thermal, biological and chemical intervention

The extensive management of livestock, paying full regard to their evolutionary

adaptations, behavioural needs and animal welfare issues with respect to
nutrition, housing, health, breeding and rearing

Careful attention to the impact of the farming system on the wider environment
and the conservation of wildlife and natural habitats

Soils
We can define the soil as the topmost layer of surface of the earth in which the
crops grow.
The upper layer of the earth crust on which crops are dependent for support and
nutrition is called soil.

Functions of soil
Here we will discuss about the functions of soil:1) Provision of support- Soil helps the crop to stand erect by providing support to the
roots.
2) Supply of water- Roots take the water from soil which is utilized in photosynthetic
activities.
3) Supply of Nutrients- All the important nutrients (13) are taken from the soil.
4) Function of soil organisms- Micro organisms in soil performs different functions like
Nitrogen fixation, phosphate and sulphur solubilisation, decomposition of organic matter
etc.
Characteristics of an ideal soil for crop production
We have read the functions of soil but it is essential to know the characteristics of an
ideal soil. These characterstics are as follows:
1) The soil should be well aerated.
2) pH of soil should be 6 to 8.
3) Good water holding capacity.
4) Well drainage of excess water.
5) Good amount of organic matter.
6) Good amount of available nutrients.
7) Free from soil borne diseases and pests.
8) Deep, friable and well textured.

Formation of soil
Lets us see how the soils form Soil is formed from the rocks by the process called
weathering of rocks and by different pedogenic processes. The properties of a soil are
dependent on the rock from which it is formed, climatic conditions, organisms and time.
The study of soil profile gives us knowledge about its formation and quality.

Types of Soils
Soil types are classified according to many more factors. They are classified on the
basis of colour, depth, pH, productivity, texture and process of formation.

Soil types according to depth are as follows:

1) Shallow Soil - Soil depth less than 22.5cm. Only shallow rooted crops are grown in
such soil, e.g. Paddy, Nagli.
2) Medium deep soil - Soil depth is 22.5 to 45cm. Crops with medium deep roots are
grown in this type of soil e.g. Sugar cane, Banana, Gram.
3) Deep soil - Soil depth is more than 45cm. Crops with long and deep roots are grown
in this type a soil e.g. Mango, coconut

Major soil types in India

The main types of soil in India are as follows:
1) Red soils
2) Laterites and lateritic soil
3) Black soil
4) Alluvial soils
5) Forest & hill soils
6) Peaty and marshy soils

Red soils
Red soils have two broad classes:

a) Red loam with cloddy structure and allow content of concretionary materials; and
b) Red earths with loose, Permeable top soil and a high content of secondary
concretions. Generally these soils are light textured with porous and friable structure
and there is absence of lime Kankar and free carbonates. They have neutral to
acidic reaction and are deficient in nitrogen humus, phosphoric acid and lime.

2) Laterites and Lateritic soils

These soils are red to reddish yellow in colour and low in N, P, K, lime and
magnesia. These soils are formed in-situ under conditions of high rainfall with
alternation dry and wet periods. On account of heavy rainfall there is an excessive
leaching of soil colloids and silica hence the soils are porous.

3) Black soils
These are mostly clay soils and form deep cracks during dry season. An
accumulation of lime is generally noticed of varying depths. They are popularly
known as Black cotton soils because of their dark brown colour and suitability for
growing cotton. These are also known as Indian regurs.These soils are deficient in
nitrogen, phosphoric acid and organic matter but rich in calcium, potash and
magnesium.

4) Alluvial soils
These soils occur along rivers and represent the soil materials that have been
deposited by the rivers duing flood. Usually they are very productive soils but many
are deficient in nitrogen, humus and phosphorus.

5) Forest and hill soils

These soils occur at high elevations as well as at low elevations, where the rainfall is
sufficient to support trees. These soils are very shallow, steep, stony, and infertile for
the production of field crops. However, they serve a very useful purpose by supplying
forest product such as timber and fuel.

6) Desert soils
These are mostly sandy soils that occur in the low rainfall track. They are well
supplied with soluble salts but are low in nitrogen and organic matter and have a
high pH value. These are quite productive. These are often subjected to wind
erosion.

7) Saline & Alkaline soils

These soils occur in areas having a little more rainfall than the areas of desert soils.
They show white incrustation of salts of calcium & Magne sium and sodium on the
surface. These are poor in drainage and are infertile.

8) Peaty and Marshy soils

These types of soils are found in Kerala, coastal track of Orissa, Sunderban area of
W.B. When the vegetation growing in such wet places dies, it decomposes very
slowly dues to excessive wetness of soils and after several hundreds of year a layer
of partly decayed organic matter accumulates on the surface, giving rise to such
peaty and marshy soils. These are black coloured, heavy and highly acidic soils.
When properly drained and fertilized, these soils produce good crops of rice.

WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
Watershed is defined as a geohydrological unit draining to a common point by a system
of drains. All lands on earth are part of one watershed or other. Watershed is thus the
land and water area, which contributes runoff to a common point.

A watershed is an area of land and water bounded by a drainage divide within which the
surface runoff collects and flows out of the watershed through a single outlet into a lager
river ( or ) lake.
TYPES OF WATERSHED
Watersheds is classified depending upon the size, drainage, shape and land use
pattern.

Macro watershed (> 50,000 Hect)

Sub-watershed (10,000 to 50,000 Hect)

Milli-watershed (1000 to10000 Hect)

Micro watershed (100 to 1000 Hect)

Mini watershed (1-100 Hect)

Objectives of watershed management

The different objectives of watershed management programmes are:
1. To control damaging runoff and degradation and thereby conservation of soil and
water.
2. To manage and utilize the runoff water for useful purpose.
3. To protect, conserve and improve the land of watershed for more efficient and
sustained production.
4. To protect and enhance the water resource originating in the watershed.
5. To check soil erosion and to reduce the effect of sediment yield on the watershed.
6. To rehabilitate the deteriorating lands.
7. To moderate the floods peaks at down stream areas.
8. To increase infiltration of rainwater.
9. To improve and increase the production of timbers, fodder and wild life resource.
10. To enhance the ground water recharge, wherever applicable.
Factors affecting watershed management
a) Watershed characters
i) Size and shape
ii) Topography
iii) Soils
iv) Relief
b) Climatic characteristic
i. Precipitation
ii. Amount and intensity of rainfall
c) Watershed operation

d) Land use pattern

i. Vegetative cover
ii. Density
e) Social status of inhability
f) Water resource and their capabilities.
Watershed management practices
1. Interms of purpose
1. To increase infiltration
2. To increase water holding capacity
3. To prevent soil erosion
2. Method and accomplishment
In brief various control measures are:
1. Vegetative measures ( Agronomical measures)
1. Strip cropping
2. Pasture cropping
3. Grass land farming
4. Wood lands
2. Engineering measures ( Structural practices 0
1. Contour bunding
2. Terracing
3. Construction of earthern embankment
4. Construction of check dams
5. Construction of farm ponds
6. Construction of diversion
7. Gully controlling structure
1. Rock dam
2. Establishment of permanent grass and vegetation
8. Providing vegetative and stone barriers
9. Construction of silt tanks dentension
Influence of soil conservation measures and vegetation cover on erosion, Runoff and
Nutrient loss.
Rainwater harvesting is the main component of watershed management

Horticulture
Horticulture is a science of studying garden plants. The world Horticulture is derived from
two Latin words viz. Hortus means garden and Culture means knowledge of growing
these crops. Horticulture is an aesthetic science that deals with the important crops
which are grown in the gardens e.g. vegetable crops in vegetable garden, fruit crops in
fruit orchards.
Branches of Horticulture

There are four branches of Horticulture, which are as follows:1. Olericulture (Vegetable culture): This branch deals with the study of vegetable crops.
Vegetables are nutritive food of plant origin which are normally cooked before
consumption or eaten raw as salad. e.g. Cabbage, Tomato, Fenugreek.
2. Pomology (Fruit Culture): This branch of Horticulture deals with study of different fruit
crops. Cultivation, management and other aspects of fruit crops are covered under this
branch e.g. Mango, Banana, Grapes.
3. Floriculture and Ornamental Gardening: This branch of Horticulture covers flower
crops and ornamental plants. Study of different flower crops and ornamental plants with
reference to their production and uses. It also includes gardening, landscaping and
beautification of surroundings e.g. Roses, asters, lily, Cactus, Ferns, etc.
4. Post Harvest Technology and preservation: Study of post harvest handling, marketing,
and processing of Horticultural crops is covered under this branch. Post harvest
management of fruits, vegetables, flowers with their storage, marketing and preservation
is studied under this branch e.g. Preparation of jam, jelly, ketchup etc.
Importance and scope of Horticulture
Let us see the importance of Horticulture:
1. As compared to field crops Horticultural crops give more returns per unit area (More
yield in terms of weight and money).
2. Horticulture crops are important as their nutritional status is high. Particularly fruits
and vegetables provide high amount of vitamins and minerals to us.
3. Horticulture is important as it beautifies the surroundings.
4. Horticulture crops are suitable for small and marginal farmers.
5. The varieties of crops are available in the Horticulture section with wide range of uses.
6. Horticultural plants improve environment by reducing pollution, conserves soil and
water and improve socio-economic status of the farmer. Scope of Horticultural crops
Factors affecting the scope of Horticultural crops in India is as follows:
1. Varied agro climatic conditions in India, allows growing different Horticultural crops in
different regions.

2. Increasing irrigation facilities provide more scope for growing Horticultural crops.
3. Availability of technical information regarding production of Horticultural crops will
provide congenial condition for growing these crops.
4. Increasing communication and transport facilities provide greater markets to
Horticultural crops.
5. There is scope for export of fresh and processed products.
6. Greater demand for Horticultural commodities in local markets.
7. Facilities provided by the government helps farmer to replace their traditional crops
with Horticultural crops.
8. Development of financial institutions, co-operatives in rural areas. increasing returns
from these crops.

Study of Fruit Crops

More than 50 fruit crops are cultivated on commercial scale in India, starting from Apple
to Ziziphus. The tropical and sub-tropical fruit crops ( Mango and banana) temperate
crops ( Apple, Peach, Pear) and arid zone fruit crops (Fig, Ber, Phalsa) are grown in
India. India accounts for 10 % of total worlds fruit production. India ranks first in
production of Mango, Banana, Sapota and lime. India records highest productivity of
grapes. The leading fruit growing states are Maharashtra, Karnataka, AP., Bihar and U.P.
Cultivation of fruits contributes to health, happiness and prosperity of the people. It is
often said that the standard of living of people can be judged by the production and
consumption of fruit per capita. Fruits provide raw material for preservation industry, the
wine industry(Grapes), and oil industries( Coconut ) . Economical health of the grower is
improved by growing fruits crops alongwith the nutritional health of consumer as they are
high yielding and high paying as compared to agronomical crops.

Methods of layout of an orchard :The layout of an orchard is a very important operation. Laying out the orchard begins
with the making of a base line which is usually taken parallel to half the spacing to be
given between the trees. At both ends of the base line right angles are created by
following the simple carpenters meter system. After the formation of these three lines. It
is easy to fix the boundary of the orchard. Different methods of planting an orchard:-

1 Methods of layout of an orchard :o

1.1 Square system

1.2 Rectangular System:

1.3 Hexagonal system: -

1.4 Triangular System

1.5 Quincunx system:

1.6 Contour system:

Study of Vegetable Crops

More than 50 vegetable crops from different families are grown in India. India is the
second largest producer of vegetables. India ranks first in production of Cauliflower,
ranks second in Onion and third in Cabbage. West Bengal, Orissa, U.P., Bihar and
Maharashtra are the major vegetable growing states. Vegetables are important
protective food stuff. They provide vitamins and minerals to our body and are very cheap
source of digestive fibre. As the majority of Indian population is vegetarian, the demand
for vegetables in domestic markets is very high. As the per capita consumption of
vegetables is low in India, there is great scope for improving production and productivity
of vegetable crops. Information about some important vegetable crops is given below in
tabular form:

Study of Floriculutural and Ornamental Crops

Flowers have socio-cultural and religious importance. The cultivation or growing of
flowers is practiced in India since ancient time. But in recent years the view of flower
production is changed. The potential of this sector in generating income and
employment is very high. Further it enhances involvement of women and youth . This
sector also provides greater scope for export. Traditionally we are growing flowers such
as Jasmin, Marigold, Chrysanthemum, Tube rose, Aster, Crossansra. Now a days
commercial cultivation of flowers like Rose, Gladiolus, Carnation, Anthurium, Gerbera,
Orchids has become popular. The area under flower crops and the export of flowers has
increased significantly in recent years, especially under protected form of cultivation.
1. Ornamental plants : These are the showy plants grown for their attractive foliage and
flowers. They have important place in gardens and in pot culture e.g. Croton, Aglonema.
2. Cut flowers: The flowers with out long stalk used for keeping in vases, single offering
and for preparing bouquets. e.g. Rose.
3. Loose flowers: The flowers with stalk used for making garlands, festrons, hair
decoration. e.g. Jasmine, Crossandra.
4. Fragrant flowers: The flowers with scented essential oil and are used for extraction of
essential oil which used in perfumery industry. e.g. Jasmine. Information about some
important flower crops is given below in tabular form