You are on page 1of 22

Halil Halid: Anti-Imperialist Muslim Intellectual

Author(s): S. Tanvir Wasti


Source: Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 29, No. 3 (Jul., 1993), pp. 559-579
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4283583
Accessed: 18-09-2015 22:46 UTC

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/
info/about/policies/terms.jsp
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content
in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship.
For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Taylor & Francis, Ltd. is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Middle Eastern Studies.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 165.123.34.86 on Fri, 18 Sep 2015 22:46:18 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Halil Halid:
Anti-imperialistMuslimIntellectual
S. TANVIR WASTI

It is unfortunatethat the name of Halil Halid today meanslittle to most


well-read persons in the Islamic world, including his home country,
Turkey. In additionto being a political activist, scholar and diplomat,
Halil Halid was the authorof some notable and controversialbooks in
Englishpublishedin Europein the earlyyearsof the twentiethcentury.It
might be expected that Halil Halid would be accordedsuitablerecognition in availablescholarlyaccountsof late Ottomanpoliticalthought,but
referencesto him are extremelyrare. Ramsaur'does allot an articleby
Halil Halid some lines in a footnote, and Ahmad2also refersto the same
article.In the extensivestudyby Mardin3,thereis no textualreferenceto
Halil Halid, and the bibliographysimply lists Halid's autobiographical
work of his early years entitled The Diary of a Turk.4
In commonwith most Young Turks, Halil Halid was an opponent of
the autocraticpolicies of the sultan Abdul Hamid and lived for many
years outside the Ottoman territories. As a result of the aggressive
policies of the Europeanpowers, the OttomanEmpire felt threatened
militarily, economicallyas well as culturally.Halil Halid, partly as a
response to these onslaughts,employed his excellent facilityof expression in several languages and his grasp of history to produce cogent
denunciationsof imperialisticaims and ambitions, especially in the
MiddleEast. Some of HalilHalid'sideasmaybe consideredPan-Islamic;
however, in his writings,he makes it clear that he is not workingfor or
from such a politicalplatform.It would be nearerthe markto state that
(althoughhe is not referredto by Said5)Halil Halid was one of the first
writersagainst 'Orientalism'.
For a generalnarrativeof Halil Halid'searlylife untilhis departurefor
England, referencemay be made to the above mentionedDiary, some
details from which are discussedseparatelybelow. Accounts of Halil
Halid's life in Turkishsources are meagre, with different dates being
given for the years of Halid's birth as well as death. Based on the
informationpresentedby Tevetoglu6and Toros7,and materialobtained
Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 29, No. 3, July 1993, pp. 559-579
PUBLISHED BY FRANK CASS, LONDON

This content downloaded from 165.123.34.86 on Fri, 18 Sep 2015 22:46:18 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

560

MIDDLE EASTERN STUDIES

from private sources, as well as a study of the files of the Cumhuriyet


[Republic]and Vakit[Time]newspapersfor the year 1931,the following
biographicalsketch can be assembled:
Mehmet Halil Halid was born in 1869 in Ankara. He was the son of
(erkeeyhizadeAhmed Refi and Hacce Refika Sidlka. After graduation from the Ankaralycee, Halil Halid left for Istanbuland conducted
studies in the medreseattachedto the Beyazit mosque before attending
the University of Istanbul from where he graduatedin Law in 1893.
Feeling unhappywith the politicalclimateof the period, Halil Halid left
for Englandin 1894. In his firstfew years, he eked out a livingby writing
articlesrelatingto the social and politicalsituationin Turkeyfor newspapers and journals. He was appointeda Vice-Consulat the Ottoman
Embassyin Londonin 1897.Halil Halidwas next appointedas a teacher
of Turkish by the Special Board of Indian Civil Service Studies at
Cambridge University as recorded in the Cambridge University
Reportersin January 1902, and started his lectures for student interpreters in the Lent Term, 1902. The degree of Masterof Arts, honoris
causa, was conferredon Halil Halid on Thursday,12 June, 1902, under
StatuteA, ChapterII, Section 18, Paragraph2 afterthe relevant'grace'
passed the Senate.9 Halil Halid continued to teach Turkish at the
Universityof Cambridgefor the SpecialBoardand laterfor the Foreign
ServiceStudentsCommitteeand the Board of OrientalStudies.He also
became a member of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and
Ireland.The AnnualReportof the ForeignServiceStudentsCommittee1
for the period December 1910-April 1912containsthe followinginformation:
Halil HalidBey resignedhis post of Teacherof Turkishto returnto
Turkeyon 30 September1911and was succeededby Ali Riza Bey
who had already taken his work for several months during his
absence in the East.
While in England, Halid became friendlywith the OrientalistsElias
JohnWilkinsonGibb"andEdwardGranvilleBrowne,'2andthereis little
doubt that Browne was instrumentalin the appointmentof Halid at
Cambridgecoming, as it did, shortlyafterBrowne'sown elevationto the
post of Sir Thomas Adams' Professor of Arabic. The Mukaddeme13
[Introduction] for Gibb's six volume History of Ottoman Poetry14was

written by Halil Halid. A cursory reading of the Mukaddemeitself


indicatesthat Halil Halid was very well acquaintedwith the poet Abdulhak Hamid,15who served in Londonin a diplomaticcapacityfor over 20
years, as well as other Ottoman literaryfigures such as Abdiil Halim
Memduh.]6

This content downloaded from 165.123.34.86 on Fri, 18 Sep 2015 22:46:18 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

HALIL HALID: ANTI-IMPERIALISTMUSLIMINTELLECTUAL

561

An examinationof some of his shortTurkishworksindicatesthatHalid


was in Istanbulfor extensive visits after the revolution of 1908. After
relinquishinghis teachingpost at Cambridgein 1911, Halid returnedto
Istanbulfor whatappearedto be a promisingcareerin politics.Elected to
the OttomanAssemblyas a deputyfrom Ankara, Halil Halid served in
the Assembly from April 1912 till January 1913, when he resigned.
However, the Assembly EducationalCommittee under Halil Halid's
chairmanshipwas instrumentalin passingthe PrimaryEducationBill.'7
Halid was subsequentlyappointedas OttomanConsul Generalin Bombay in June 1913and, in the absenceof officialdocumentation,it may be
conjecturedthat he held this office possibly until the start of the First
World War. His teachingcareer at the Universityof Istanbulbegan in
1922 and continued for the next eight years, initiallyin the Faculty of
Literatureand subsequentlyin the Facultyof Theology. Subjectstaught
by Halil Halid included Ethnographyof the Muslim nations, Islamic
Philosophy and IntroductoryAnthropology. Halil Halid was highly
competentin Turkish,Arabic, Englishand French,and well acquainted
with German, Persianand Urdu.
The deathof HalilHalidis reportedon the firstpage of the Cumhuriyet
and Vakitnewspaperson 30 March1931together with an obituaryand
photographof the deceased. This would tend to give the date of Halil
Halid'sdeath as 29 March1931;however, the accountin Vakitmentions
that Halid expiredthe previousnight. As such, the date of Halil Halid's
death (in the absenceof the exacttime of his passingaway)is either28 or
29 March 1931. Additionalinformationis given to the effect that Halil
Halid was in Germanyand Switzerlandfor indeterminateperiodsduring
and afterthe yearsof the FirstWorldWar,andthatuntilhis illnesstook a
turn for the worse in 1930, he also taughtEnglish at the Harbiye [War
Academy]in Istanbul.Both obituariesclose with condolencesoffered to
Halid's family and to his brothers, Osman Vehbi (an engineer) and
Muhittin.An item in Vakiton 31 March1931refersto the burialof Halil
Halid in the Merkezefendigraveyardin Istanbuland the loweringof the
flag to half-mastat the Universityfor the day.
The issue of the Cumhuriyetfor 31 March1931 containsan obituary
notice by Abdiilhak Hamid; a letter of condolence from the British
Consul-Generalin Istanbulappearson 1 April. A commemorativearticle
was publishedby Ahmet Ihsan"'in the 2 April 1931issue of the journal
Servetifunun[Riches of the Sciences] of which he was Editor-in-Chief.
hsan points out that when Halid moved to Istanbulfrom England he
joined the staff of Servetifunun;in his fieryarticleson the annexationof
Bosnia and Herzegovinahe was responsiblefor the introductionof the
word'boycott'into Turkishpoliticallife. I hsanalso writesthatHalidhad
This content downloaded from 165.123.34.86 on Fri, 18 Sep 2015 22:46:18 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

562

MIDDLE EASTERN STUDIES

gone to Egyptfor his healthandreturnedto Istanbulonly two daysbefore


his death.

PUBLISHED WORKS

As mentioned above, Halil Halid was the authorof several books and
learned articlesin Turkishand English. He was also responsiblefor the
translationof some books from English into Turkish. Apart from the
Diarycited earlier,the mainoriginalworksof HalilHalidaregivenin the
list below:
A Study in English Turcophobia19
Cezayir Hatiratlndan [Reminiscences of Algeria]20
The Crescent versus the Cross21
The British Labour and the Orient22
La Turcophobie des Imperialistes Anglais23
Turk Hakimiyeti ve Ingiliz Cihangirligi [Turkish

Sovereigntyand English Imperialism]24


In addition, Halil Halid mentions the unpublishedwork entitled A
Study of the Printed Muslim Books in the Cambridge University25which is

untraceable.Halil Halid was also a frequent contributorto the newspapers and journals of Istanbul; these writings of Halil Halid await
classificationandstudy.As HalilHalidis a forgottenscholar,copiesof his
publishedwritingsare hardto obtain. However, most of Halid'swriting,
whether in English or French or Turkish, is powerful, committed,
relevant and lucid, and, especially in hindsight, full of interest. An
examination of Halil Halid's major works should therefore be of value.
The Diary of a Turk

This book, with its dedicationto the memoryof E. F. W. Gibb,26oriental


scholar, is Halil Halid's first work publishedin England. It is a candid
story of his childhood and youth in Ankara and Istanbul, with long

digressions on Turkish life and customs, as well as much information on


the political restrictions prevailing in the Ottoman Empire in the reign of
Sultan Abdul Hamid.

I was born in the ancient town of Angora, Asia Minor, famous not
alone for its silky-haired cats and goats, but also for its historical and

This content downloaded from 165.123.34.86 on Fri, 18 Sep 2015 22:46:18 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

HALIL HALID: ANTI-IMPERIALIST MUSLIM INTELLECTUAL

563

archaeologicalimportance,and with it my memoryof early days,


and therefore the pages of my desultoryjournal, naturallybegin.
was a sheikhof the Halveti27
orderwho
Halil Halid'sgreat-grandfather
passed most of his life in (erke, then, as today, a small town between
Ankara and the Black Sea coast; however, his grandfathermoved to
Ankara and became the sheikh of a medrese.The ancestrallands endowed to the familyby the sultanMahmudII that providedconsiderable
income to the familypassedon to Halil Halid'sfatherafter the death of
his grandfather,but were subsequentlyconfiscatedby the government
under SultanAbdul Hamid. The familysuffereda reversalof fortunes,
and when his fatherdied ratherunexpectedly,Halil Halid was only nine
years old. He later came under the care of his uncle, then joined a
medresein Istanbulfor three yearsbefore switchingover to the studyof
Law at the Universityof Istanbul.
After graduation,Halil Halid began to work in a publishinghouse in
Istanbulmanagedby EbiizziyaTevfik,28where he began to meet many
Europeans, includingan old English gentleman who was a local correspondentof The Timesof London.Halil Halidcontinuedto file suit for
the restorationof the family lands and their revenues, without much
tangible effect. He was also bothered for a while by the difficultyof
obtainingexemptionfrommilitaryconscription,whichwas his legal right
by virtue of his years in the medrese.Most of all, as an opponent of the
despotic rule of Abdul Hamid, he felt houndedby the paid spies of the
Sultanand his coterie. He becameconvincedthat it was only a matterof
time before he would be thrustinto prisonon some trumped-upcharge,
and thereforedecided to flee to England.With the assistanceof the old
English gentleman, Halil Halid, with no passport, with only limited
finances and no knowledge of English, adventurouslyescaped from
Istanbulon a Britishsteamer.On 8 May 1894he arrivedat Hull andmade
his way to London. Breathingthe heady air of freedom, Halil Halid, on
the very next day, composedan officialletterto the Sultanaskingfor the
long overdue redressas regardsthe lands endowed to his family by the
edict of Sultan MahmudII. He met the then TurkishAmbassadorin
London, a Christiancalled RustemPasha, who persuadedhim to return
to Istanbul and establish his bona fides, i.e. prove that he was not
involved in any plot against the Sultan, whereupon he would be
rewarded. Short of funds and maroonedin a foreign land, Halil Halid
took a gamble.At the beginningof August 1894,he crossedover to Paris,
and after spending a fortnightthere, moved on to Istanbulby way of
Budapest. Unfortunately,he obtainedno redress,and there was no way
left for him but to make a secondflight,underdangerousconditions,this
This content downloaded from 165.123.34.86 on Fri, 18 Sep 2015 22:46:18 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

564

MIDDLE EASTERN STUDIES

time on an oil-steamerboundfor Liverpool,wherehe arrivedtowardsthe


end of November 1894.
The men on board the ship were rough sailors, and the captain
himself was an extremely stingy person. He supplied us with
abominablybad food. However, I arrivedin Englandsafely, and
ever since that time have made this countrymy home, and during
my periodicaltripsabroadI haveneverenteredthe territoriesof my
own country,overwhichthe tyrannyof Abd-ulHamidstillprevails.
With these remarkablyfluent words, demonstratinga distinct command of the Englishlanguageacquiredin about nine years, Halil Halid
ends a chapterin his life. TheDiaryof a Turkwas favourablyreviewedin
The Times, TheDaily Telegraphand a dozen magazinesand journalsof
the year 1903. It was describedas informative,interesting,life-like and
genuine.

A Studyin English Turcophobia


In this booklet, translatedfromthe Turkishand publishedin 1904, Halil
Halid sets out to analysegroupsof people in Englandwho are systematically engagedin anti-Turkishpropagandaand the deprecationof Turkey
and Islam. Although he reiterateshis 'firmbelief that there are a very
great number of fair-mindedand just persons among the British', he
concludesthatjournalists,politicians,membersof the Christianministry
and certain anglicisedJews are in the forefrontof these attacks.
Halid points out that when it comes to Turkey, journalistsof both
radical and jingoistic persuasionsseem to make common cause. They
only repeat'suggestionswhichchieflyconsistin wrestingthe affairsof our
own countryfromus and appointingChristiangovernorswho, no doubt,
would be endowed by Providencewith peculiaradministrativegenius'.
Halidalso questionsthe sincerityof visitingpoliticianswho enjoyTurkish
hospitalitybut mix themselvesup withpoliticalagitationon behalfof the
'oppressed Christian minorities'. Neither the visitors, nor even the
correspondentsof newspapersknow more than a smatteringof Turkish,
and are dependent on the opinions fed to them by local Armeniansor
Bulgarians.Criminallawlessnessand terrorwhen perpetratedby Christian banditsis sympatheticallyinterpretedas desperation;when it is put
down by the soldiers of the Sultan, they are accused of brutalityand
'Muhammedanfanaticism'.Halid goes on to say:
Is not the existenceof sucha largenumberof Christiansin Turkeya
This content downloaded from 165.123.34.86 on Fri, 18 Sep 2015 22:46:18 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

HALIL HALID: ANTI-IMPERIALISTMUSLIMINTELLECTUAL

565

living proof of the tolerance granted them by the 'persecuting'


Turks? If our ancestors had exterminated them by the same
methods which are now practised by some Christian States in
Mussulmancountriesseized by them, there would not now remain
such a large number of Christianswho are becoming dangerous
plague-spotsto the body politic of our country.
Halidalso arguesthatplansfor a greaterBulgariaat the expenseof the
Ottomanswill not resultin a bufferstate friendlyto Britain,but that the
Slavonic peoples will continue to heed the directives emanatingfrom
Moscow. In the Balkan states carved out of the Ottoman Empire, the
MuslimTurksare madeto sufferindignities,as a resultof whichthey feel
wretchedand have no option but to migrateto other partsof the empire
leavingtheirpropertybehind.'Thispattern',writesHalid, 'hasbeen seen
all too frequentlyin Greece, Servia, Roumaniaand Bulgaria.'
Noting the active Turcophobiaof many members of the Christian
ministry,Halil Halid is thankfulthat Islam does not have a priesthood.
The Muslimsin Spainwere completelyextirpatedat the instigationof the
priests.The Frenchmaybe laic at home, butprotectthe Frenchpriestsas
agentsof imperialismin theiroverseasterritories.Halidpin-pointswhyit
is that the Ottomansare chosen as a target by the Christianclergy:
Taking advantageof the encroachmentof EuropeanPowers who
make the Christiansin Turkeytheirpoint d'appuiin carryingout
their politicaldesigns the Christianpropagandiststurn their main
forces against the empire of the Caliph, consideringit to be the
strongholdof Islamism. It is really because they look upon the
Turks as the staunchdefendersof Islam, and therefore the most
serious obstacleto the spreadof their religionthat they shew such
bitter animosityto our nation.
In conclusion,Halid mentionsthat the Jews who fled from the persecution of the SpanishInquisitionwere grantedsanctuaryin the Ottoman
dominions, and that English Jews should be aware of the friendly
dispositionthat Turkeyhas alwaysshown towardstheir race. While he
himself would like to see the Sultan'sgovernmentreformed, the Turcophobeswould not rest even if Turkeyhad the best sovereignpossible.
Halid strikes a pessimisticnote when he says:
Withall these facts and possibilitiesfacingus it seems to us folly to
expect to succeed in our attempt to correct the wrong ideas and
prejudices prevailing against us in Western Europe ... We can only

find our salvationin defendingour countrywith the usualTurkish


fortitudeand determination.A nation whichhas been fightingfor
This content downloaded from 165.123.34.86 on Fri, 18 Sep 2015 22:46:18 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

566

MIDDLE EASTERN STUDIES

centuriesthe combinedforcesof severalEuropeanStatescannotbe


lackingin vitality.
CezayirHatiratindan[Reminiscencesof Algeria]
This work was originallypublishedin abbreviatedform as a series of
articlesin Egypt. Halil Halid'sextensivereminiscencescover not only a
trip to Algeria, but also long speculations about the strengths and
weaknessesof the beleagueredOttomanstate at the turnof the century
and sundrydigressionson the role of the Caliphate,Turco-Arabrelations, etc.
On 9 January1904 Halil Halid left behind the dampnessand fogs of
England for a visit to Egypt and the Sudan, returningto his duties in
Cambridgeon 16 February1905. Soon after he had the chanceto go to
Algeria to attenda Congressof Orientalistsbecausehe was chosen (not
without objections and difficulties)to be a member of the delegation
from CambridgeUniversity.A 28 hourlong sea journeyfromMarseilles
broughthimto the new porttownof Philippeville.Forthe firsttime, Halil
Halid was in a real colony:the local Muslimswere subjugated;all power
and wealth was in the handsof the Frenchand servingFrenchinterests
only. The partymoved on to Constantineby trainaftera couple of days,
andpassingthroughluxuriantvegetationandgardens,Halidlamentsthat
this beautifulland, better even than the south of France,was lost to the
Ottomans because of their own carelessness. However, he finds that
although France has been able to uproot the Muslimsfrom their own
land, it hasbeen unableto populateit withFrenchmen.It strikeshimthat
the names of the railway stations en route, though mainly of Arab origin,

are not writtenin Arabicbut only in French.Halidis not impressedwith


the city of Constantine situated amid steep hills, and passes three
uncomfortabledays there.
Halil Halid is distressed to find that part of the grand mosque in
Constantinewas demolishedby the Frenchin order to widen a neighbouringstreet, andon visitingthe Catholiccathedraldiscoversthatit was
originallya mosque and that some of the Quranicverses still remainon
one wall. He visitsa Muslimmedresein Constantineonly to findthat the
Director is a Frenchman.On the other hand, even at the Congressof
Orientalists,Halid findsthat there are plenty of AlgerianMuslimswho
not only have betterqualificationsin ArabicandMuslimstudies,but also
in the Frenchlanguage.Why should not one of them be chosen for the
post of Directorof a Muslimreligiousschool?However,Halidreceivesa
warm welcome from the Arab students of the school and finds their
curriculumto be a balance of ancient and modern studies. He then
proceeds to examine a libraryof Islamicbooks and manuscripts,but is
This content downloaded from 165.123.34.86 on Fri, 18 Sep 2015 22:46:18 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

HALIL HALID: ANTI-IMPERIALISTMUSLIMINTELLECTUAL

567

disappointedwith the small collection. He recalls the excellent collections of Islamicworksin Europeandrealizesthatmuchvaluablematerial
has been spiritedawayfrom Islamiclandsto the West. The night before
his departurefromConstantine,HalilHalidis accostedby a vagrantArab
who, thinkinghe is fromEurope, offersto conducthim to a local 'nautch
girl' entertainment. Depressed as he is by what he has seen, Halid bursts

out in rage: 'I am a Turk, and will not encourage immoralityamong


Muslims.'
HalilHalidreachesAlgierstwo dayslater.But for the fez of the porters
and other servants, everythingwas so Frenchifiedthat he thought he
mighthave been in France.The next day, Halidwent out to visit Muslim
monumentsin Algiers, but foundthatmost of them had been destroyed.
In the museum,Halid discoversseverallargestones on whichare carved
Ottoman inscriptions dealing with construction and repair projects
carriedout underthe ordersof HiiseyinPasha, the last TurkishBeylerbeyi [governor]of Algeria. Halid also takes the tram to visit the fort,
another relic of Ottoman times. On the marble above the gate of the
ammunitiondepot he discovers verses in Turkishcommemoratingits
restorationby Haci Ali Pashaof Amasya. The next day takes Halid on
anothertour of the city wherehe wandersthroughthe red light area and
the otherbazaars.He findslistlessArabsplayingcardsor chattingin caf6s
in the Arab quarter,and contraststhis with the dynamicatmospherein
the Europeanpart of Algiers.
The last thirdof the book is devoted by Halid to the ceremoniesof the
Congress, a descriptionof the academicas well as social activities, and
observationson the manyparticipantsfromdifferentcountriesof Europe
and North Africa who took part in the Congress. On the whole, he is
unhappyto discoverthat manyWesternorientalistsare a prejudicedand
hostile lot. This is not to mean that Halid did not find anythingof value
amongthe presentations.He wasparticularlyimpressedby the paperof a
Dutch scholarin which the learnedauthorshowed how the simple and
dignifiedIslamic approachto death and burial in the earlier centuries
becamecorruptedby externalculturalaccretionsinto the ostentationand
wasteful practicesthat can characterizecurrentpractice. Similarly,he
also referswith praiseto the paperon Sufismby MirzaKashaniof Iran.
Halid is unhappythat the taskof representingthe Ottomansis left to him
as a memberof the delegationfromCambridge.The congressendswitha
splendid ball given by the French governorof Algiers, where there is
muchdrinkingandflirtation.Onlythe tribalchiefs, in theirred andwhite
robes, with their caps and grey beards, perforcepresent because of the
invitationof the rulers,lend a dignifiedand sorrycontrastto the revelry.
Halil Halid gives himselfup to gloomy thoughts;he worrieswhetherthe
This content downloaded from 165.123.34.86 on Fri, 18 Sep 2015 22:46:18 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

568

MIDDLE EASTERN STUDIES

increasingWesternizationof his own homelandwill rob it of its traditionalvalues;whether,in accordancewiththe Turkishproverb,the quest
for rice will leave the searcherwithouteven the crackedwheat he had at
home.
The Crescent versus the Cross

This book is the matureexpressionof Halil Halid'spoliticalviews. In the


Preface,Halid sayssuccinctly:'Myobject in writingthese pagesis, in the
firstplace, to defend the cause of the IslamicEast, and, in the second, to
point out some Muslimviews on Westerncivilization.'In the event, the
book producedby Halil Halid is, firstand foremost, an anti-imperialist
document which criticises the Western European powers who used
means of violence, exploitationand plunderto subjugatelarge areasof
the world in the nineteenthcenturyin the name of 'civilization'.Halid
analysesthe situationin the Britishand Frenchcolonies, and also in the
Dutch andRussianempires.In wordswhichthe subsequenthistoryof the
struggles for freedom over the last 80 years all over the world has
authenticatedagain and again, Halil Halid writes:
It may be assumed that 'natives' are inferior people who resign
themselvesto all the verdictsof the superiorpeople who grantthem
a civilizedrule. This is not the case with most of the Muslimraces
subjectto the rule of a foreignPower.A Muslimnationmighthave
been livingunderits own rulersin a state of whatis describedin the
Europeanpressas completeanarchy.But it is a boldmisrepresentation of the truthto say thattheywouldwelcomethe authorityof any
Europeannation in preferenceto the administrationof their own
misrulers. The civilized rule of foreign invaders is hardly ever
wanted;it is alwaysimposeduponthemby force only andits muchvauntedadvantageswillsooneror laterturnout to be, on the whole,
detrimentalratherthan beneficialto the subjugated'natives'.
No wonder that Halil Halid's books were translatedinto Urdu and
publishedin Calcuttawithina shorttime of theirpublication.Theystruck
deep and sympatheticchordsin the minds of the educated Muslimsof
India who, as the descendantsof the formerrulersof India, acutelyfelt
the ignominyof colonialoppression.HalilHalidgoes on to makea cogent
observationon colonialism:
If a conquered nation has a native culture and civilizationtheir
absorptionby settlers who may come from the Europeancountry

which has conquered them, is a hard matter ... Unlike the


This content downloaded from 165.123.34.86 on Fri, 18 Sep 2015 22:46:18 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

HALIL HALID: ANTI-IMPERIALISTMUSLIMINTELLECTUAL

569

aborigines,they do not afford the civilized country the welcome


relief by dying out fast. It is for these reasonsthat Francehas not
been able to turn Algeria into somethinglike Australia.
The seamy side of Europe's civilizing mission, the carving up of the

globe into spheres of economic influenceand the brutalassumptionof


superior knowledge does not escape Halil Halid, who writes thus of
North Africa:
Railways,good roads, comfortablehotels, etc. whichhave sprung
up there since the Frenchoccupation,maygratifythe desiresof the
French capitalists;they may, moreover, be of great use to idle
travellerswithplentyof moneywho hailfromEuropeandAmerica.
But the whole world is not prepared,like these persons, to look
upon suchinnovationsas the only blessingswhichcivilizationmight
produce abroad.
In bold type, andas the verylastsentenceof his book, Halidproclaimsas
the future watchword of the Asian nations: 'There is room for all
desirable strangersin this hospitable continent of Asia, but empiremakingby outsidersis henceforthforbidden !
Secondly,andfromthe contemporarypointof view moresignificantly,
The Crescentversusthe Crossis a passionateattemptby one of the last of
the Ottomans,heirto a long andproudtraditionof justiceandtolerance,
to explain the delicate intricaciesof Islamic belief and culture to the
unheeding, egocentric, materialistic,sabre-rattlingnations of Western
Europe. Writingseven years before the cataclysmof the First World
War, Halil Halid accusesthe WesternPowersof greed, hypocrisy,selfdeception and an inabilityto live up to their own proclaimedreligious,
political and social values. Halil Halid strives to deflate the pompous,
self-righteousand superiorattitudesof those who use politicalpower to
justifytheirspiritualbeliefs. One by one, the prejudicedimagesof Islam
that Europeanzealots have seen fit to erect in their books, their politics
and their religiousoutlook are swept away.
The Koranjustifiesthe superiorityof but one classof personsover
the rest of humanity,andthese are the people who adornthe gift of
intelligencewith cultureand learning.
Halil Halid, like many Muslimsbefore and after him, is distressedto
discover that for all its civilization and progress, Europe remains a
seething cauldronof racialprejudices,and goes on to say:
In the world of Islam the differencebetween the colour of men's
skinsis not thoughtto be a deliberatedesignon the partof natureto
This content downloaded from 165.123.34.86 on Fri, 18 Sep 2015 22:46:18 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

570

MIDDLE EASTERN STUDIES

mark out the superiority or inferiority of their kind ... When

Mussulmanpropagandistsgo out to invite a people to embrace


Islamit neveroccursto themto askwhetherthese people are black,
or tawny, or yellow, and so they cast in their lot with them, often
permanently,and intermarrywith them.
Halil Halidis at painsto point out thatIslamhas the highestregardfor
Christ,Moses, Abrahamandthe prophetsof the Old Testament.'EssentiallyIslamis not antagonisticto Christianity.'However,in Halil Halid's
cold and realisticappraisal,this in itself is hardlyenough. 'The fact that
Judaismsuppliedthe essence of the Christianfaith did not save the Jew
from Christian oppression ... The people of Islam would perhaps find

means of self-defencequite differentfrom those adoptedby the Jewish


people.'
The BritishLabourand the Orient
Thisbookletis dividedinto threeparts,entitled,respectively:'Pleafor an
Understanding';'Officialdom in the Orient'; 'The Press' and 'The
Labourand The East'.
In the aftermathof the First World War, Halil Halid was quick to
perceive that the traditionalclass structureof Great Britainwould be
swept away. He saw in the rise of the LabourParty a struggleby the
'common people' of Britain to rid themselves of their undeservedly
servilestatusin theirown country.Suchbeingthe situationin the mother
countryitself, Halil Halid could not but come to the conclusionthat the
privilegedclassesof England' ... canentertainno humanitariancompassion for the alien racesof the Orientwhomthey insistto ruleas masters'.
As such, the oppressednationsunderthe heel of Britishimperialismin
the far flungcornersof the globe were boundto turnto the LabourParty
for the fulfilment of their aspirationsfor emancipation,fairness and
freedom. Halid, drawingdoubtlesslyon his own experiences,finds the
British'workingclasses'to be on the whole egalitarian,quickwittedand
kindly, but lackingexposureto and experiencein internationalpolitics.
He is not happy with the show of superiorityaffected by many 'upper
class' membersof society, who are a minorityin the country.He hopes
thatwhenthe majorityachievepoliticalpower,relationsbetweenBritain
and the rest of the world will tend towardsreciprocalequality. Halid
mentions that British politicianshave never been slow to criticizeOttoman maladministration,but what has Britishrule accomplishedin the
vast overseas territoriesunder the Crown?Halid continues:
Go a few miles beyondthe big centresof businessin those landsof
Africa and Asia occupiedby her, andthen you will see instancesof
This content downloaded from 165.123.34.86 on Fri, 18 Sep 2015 22:46:18 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

HALIL HALID: ANTI-IMPERIALISTMUSLIMINTELLECTUAL

571

abject destitution, dilapidated dwellings and edifices, filthy


localities and signs of ignoranceon all sides.
Halid suggests that the wave of revolts and disturbancesin British
coloniescanonly becomegreater.Althoughhe saysthatit is dangerousto
prophesy, he does not think that once in power, Labourcan itself turn
imperialistic.It is unlikelythat BritishLabourwill continue to increase
taxationand send its sons to force allegianceon sullenalien people in the
Middle East, Asia and Africa.
In the second part, Halid points out how an official ruling caste is
recruitedfrom Englandfor servicein the 'colonies'with the intentionof
teachingthe nativeshow 'to governthemselvesin future, an eventuality
whichthey desire, in reality,to frustrate'.Startingfromhome often with
the best of intentions, these candidatesfor the service often undergoa
rapidmetamorphosiswhen they see the Union Jack, theirown warships
and troops in a position of hegemony over a subject population. They
reside in well constructedcantonmentbungalows, have servants and
enjoy a luxuriouslifestylewhichis, of course, paid for by taxes and other
cesses from the 'natives'. Similarly,notes Halid, the intellectualattainmentsof manymembersof the rulingclassesfall lowerthanthose of their
subordinatelocal officials; the ironyis thatit is theiropinionsthat decide
what laws and regulationsshall govern the 'natives'. In spite of these
glaring inequalities, it is expected that large numbersof downtrodden
populations will proffer gratitudeto the British for their 'benevolent
rule'. Accordingto Halid, the whole fabricof colonialismtends to turn
Britishrule in Orientallands autocratic,repressiveand arrogant,unlike
the earlier decades when British merchantsand officialswere upright,
businesslikeand dignified.
In the last partof his booklet, Halil Halid analysesthe politicalrole of
the Britishpress duringand shortlyafter the First WorldWar. He says
thatnewspapersseem moreintenton supportingthe jingoisticinterestsof
certaingroupsthan on doing theirjob of objective internationalreporting. They seem to decryleadersof the LabourPartywiththe same labels:
'demagogues,self-seekers, half-educatedsedition-mongers'which they
normallyreserve for nationalistelements in the colonies. The situation
often becomesworsewhenthe nationalistscriticizedareMuslim,because
in thatcase centuriesof prejudicesinheritedfromthe Crusadesare also at
work. The latestlabelwhichis attachedby the BritishPressandits agents
to refugeesfrom Orientalcountrieswho come to Europeto seek a more
politicallystable atmosphereis that of 'pro-German'.Halil Halid is, as
usual, mercilessin his assessment:
Or one must be quite mad to wish to exchange, especially after
This content downloaded from 165.123.34.86 on Fri, 18 Sep 2015 22:46:18 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

572

MIDDLE EASTERN STUDIES

bitter experiences, one alien dominationwith another; that is to


say, to see the heavy yoke of Britishimperialismreplacedby, what
might possibly be, the heavier yoke of Germanimperialism.
La Turcophobiedes ImperialistesAnglais
This pamphlet,producedboth in Englishand French,was presentedby
Halil Halid to the members of the British delegation to the Socialist
Internationalin Bern in February 1919. It develops the ideas first
propounded in A Study in English Turcophobiabut is primarilyan
evaluationof the Turkishpoliticalmood and aspirationsafter the First
World War. It is a brave, even defiant, statementwhich castigatesthe
imperialistaims of the Britishas well as other Europeanpowers in the
territoriesof the 'sick man of Europe'. The pamphletconsistentlypropounds the theme expressedby Halil Halid in his writingsfor all downtrodden nations: Liberty with justice and dignity. Halid plunges, as
always, directlyinto the fray:
Les nations europeennes n6gligent souvent de prendre en considerationle fait que le monde appartienta l'humanitedans son
ensemble et que les terres de Dieu habiteespar les peuples orientaux ne sont pas uniquementun bon terrain de chasse pour les
Europeens du modele imperialiste.Ils doivent considererque les
races orientales, comme eux-memes, aiment la liberte et l'independance et detestent du fond du coeur la maitrise que leur
imposent des races 6trangeres,sous pretexte d'introduire'le bon
ordre' ou de faire oeuvre civilisatricedans leurs terres natales.
Halidnext moves on to the case of his own country,Turkey.He quotes
from the virulent anti-Turkishstatementsin the British press. He discussesthe situationof the Armeniansandtheirrole in the Warat length.
He emphasizesthat the quarrelbetween the Turksand the Armeniansis
of recentorigin, whichbeganonly afterthe Tsartook it upon himselfto
'defend'the cause of the 'oppressedChristians'.Halidgoes on - and it is
worth rememberingthat the date is 1919:
Si les Irlandaisou les Ecossais,puissamentsoutenus,attaquaientles
Anglais par derriere quand ceux-ci seraient eux-memes engages
dansune lutted6sespereecontredeuxou troispuissances,comment
les Anglais qualifieraient-ilscette revolte? Les Armeniens ont
incontestablementbeaucoupsouffertde ce qui on pourraitproprement appelerun fratricide.Les souffrancesendur6espar les Turcs
ne sont cependantpas moins terribles.
This content downloaded from 165.123.34.86 on Fri, 18 Sep 2015 22:46:18 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

HALIL HALID: ANTI-IMPERIALISTMUSLIMINTELLECTUAL

573

In his finalpages Halil Halidreturnsonce more to the broaderpicture.


He gives, as an example, the undertakingof loyalty to the Crownthat
Indianteachersand professorshave to sign, but mentionsthat this only
encouragesthem to visualizethe dawnof nationalfreedom in their own
country. 'La soi-disant bonne administrationdes imperialistes ... est
soutenue, en realite, par le feu et l'epee.'
TurkHakimiyetive Ingiliz Cihangirligi
This is Halil Halid's last major work of political import, published in
1925, two yearsafterthe proclamationof the TurkishRepublic.Divided
into ten chapters, each an essay in itself, Halid tackles not only the
spectrumof relationsbetweenBritainandTurkeyover the centuries,but
also discussespossibilitiesfor the future in the wake of the First World
War. Important chapters treat relations between the Turks and the
IndianMuslims,between the Turksand the Egyptians,and the conflict
between the Turks and the Arabs.
Halil Halid starts by quoting Kipling's:'O East is East and West is
West, and never the twain shall meet ... ' According to Halid, the

relationsbetweenBritainand Turkeyover the centuriesdo containa few


friendlyinterludesbut have otherwisetendedto be hostile. Startingfrom
the battle of Nicopolis (Nigbolu) in 1396, English volunteers fought
againstthe Turksin very manybattles. ShakespearemakesBolingbroke
say after assumingthe crown that he will liberate Jerusalemfrom the
pagans.29Shakespeare also has other unfavourablereferences to the
Turks,andconsideringthathis workshave been readby as manyEnglish
people over generationsas have readthe Bible, it is only naturalthat this
shouldnot lead to warmfeelingsof friendshipfor the Turks.The Turkish
conquestsin Europewerecloselymonitoredby the Christianpowers,and
Pope Adrian VI wrote to CardinalWolsey that the Turkscould pose a
threat even to England. Queen ElizabethI felt the need for the establishmentof formalrelationsbetween Englandand Turkeyin view of the
danger from Spain. The flag followed trade, and certainly English
politicalintriguesdid muchto foster conflictbetween the Ottomansand
the Safavids.Later,as Ottomanmilitarypowerweakenedandthe Russia
of the Tsars grew stronger, the desire to expel the Turk from Europe
began to gain politicalcurrencyin Britain. With the nineteenthcentury
the British expanded their influence in the territoriesof the Ottoman
Empire and chose Egypt for their target. Halid also cites the names of
British naval officerscommandingvessels duringthe battles for Greek
independence.
No doubt duringthe CrimeanWar, Englandhad no territorialambiThis content downloaded from 165.123.34.86 on Fri, 18 Sep 2015 22:46:18 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

574

MIDDLE EASTERN STUDIES

tions in Turkeyitself, but was Russia'srival for the stewardshipof the


Christiansin the MiddleEast andAsia. LordPalmerstonwason recordas
saying that in any future divisionof the Ottomanspoils, Britainshould
have Egypt. Halil Halidmentionsthatit is noteworthythat KarlMarx,in
a few publishedessayson the EasternQuestion,criticizedthe duplicityof
the Britishpoliticalapproachto Turkey.Halil Halidconcludesby stating
that the friendshipengenderedduringthe CrimeanWardid not prevent
the Britishfrom bombardingthe port of Jeddahin 1858because of the
murderthereof some Christiansby the Arabs, nor fromaskingthe Porte
for indemnity.
Halid mentions that in dealings with England, Turkish statesmen
appearto have ignoredthe Englishproverbto the effect thathe who sups
with the Devil musthave a long spoon. Britishimperialmightsupported
every country in the Balkans that clashed with the Ottomans. British
diplomatsand the press alwaysadopted an anti-Turkishstance in such
conflicts. Egypt was declared neutral by the British at the time of the
invasionof Tripoli in 1911, thus helpingthe Italianinvaders.After the
Turkishdefeatin the FirstWorldWar,Britain'sapproachto the Ottoman
Empirewas maliciousand vengeful. In the desperateconditionsof those
days, the Turkishnationrealizedthat only furthersacrificewouldsave it
from extinction.
The next two essays in Halid's book deal with English intriguesin
NorthernIraq, where he says that the Britishrecognizedthe value, not
only of the petroleumproducedin the region, but also of the fertilebasin
of the Tigris. Halid refers with suspicionto British Indian Army lieutenants engaged in researchon Assyriologyin the ruinsof Nineveh and
captainsdabblingin the intellectualstudyof religioussects in the Kerbela
area.The nameof the imperialistgame, accordingto Halid, is to keep the
vilayetof Mosul away from the Turksin spite of the constitutionof its
population.
In his next essay, Halil Halid turns his attention to future relations
betweenEnglandandTurkey.He strikesa note of cautionby sayingthat
Britishimperialismcontinuesto hold sway in the EasternIslamiclands.
However, the War has also left Englandsaddledwith economic, industrial, political and social problems. He suggests that the approachof
members of the Labour Party to political problems might be one of
radical change. They might not be keen on using military power to
enforce a worn-out imperialismon peoples in lands far away. Halid
recalls attendinga speech by Keir Hardie on Socialismto a University
audiencewhichHardiewas forcedto abandonbecauseof the hostilityof

the 'enlightened and tolerant' crowd. Halid says that the task of changing
Britain which is a country 'with a handful of millionaires and millions of
This content downloaded from 165.123.34.86 on Fri, 18 Sep 2015 22:46:18 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

HALIL HALID: ANTI-IMPERIALISTMUSLIMINTELLECTUAL

575

emptyhands'willcontinue.Meanwhile,Turkeymustremainvigilantand
strong,andpreserveits genuinelycordialrelationswiththe nationsof the
East.
In his essay on the friendship between the Turks and the Muslims of

India, Halil Halid mentionsthat he was not surprisedthat even though


soldiers from India had participatedin the war against Turkey, the
Muslimsof India in particularcontinuedto show concern for Turkey's
futureafterthe declarationof peace. Haliddisplaysa deep understanding
of the manydifferentcommunitiesthatcomprisedthe conflictingpolitical
mosaicof the Indiaof his time. Halid also had the advantageof beingon
friendlytermswith MaulanaMohammadAli,30the leaderof the Khilafat
Movement,whomhe met in Parisandalso in Switzerland.He recallshow
the Maulanaand his brotherwere internedby the Britishpartlybecause
of their pro-Turkishsympathies.Halid points out that the very variety,
scale and differentconstitutionsof the manyIndiancommunitiesmakeit
possible for this large subcontinent to be kept under foreign rule.
Muslimsmakeup a quarterof this largepopulationof over 300 million.If
all Indianshad been againstthe Turks,thiswouldhave renderedlife very
difficultindeed for the Turks.Furthermore,says Halid, a large percentage of the British Indianforces sent abroadcomprisedGurkhasfrom
Nepal. As Muslimswere to be foundscatteredin all areasof India,it was
only natural that some of the Indian troops sent abroad should be
Muslim.Even amongthemtherewasno shortageof Muslimslayingdown
arms or fleeing to the Turkishside. Halil Halid correctlyinterpretsthe
supportgiven by the IndianMuslimsto the Turkishcause as being linked
with their strugglefor their own freedom and refers to the numerous
occasions on which Indian Muslims made large contributions to Ottoman

causes.
In his essayon Turco-Egyptianrelations,Halil Halidmentionsthatthe
establishmentof the semi-independentstatusof the Khedivatein Egypt
by MehmedAli Pashaand his descendantscontributedindirectlyto the
growth of British power in Egypt. There was no question that on the
matterof basic interests,there was no conflictor even coldness between
the peoples of Egypt and Turkey. In fact, over the centuries, tens of
thousandsof Turkssettledpermanentlyin the Egyptianterritories.Many
familiesretainedtheirTurkishnamesand traditions;the famousSheikh
MuhammadAbduh3'mentionedto HalilHalidthathe tracedhis ancestry
to a Turcomanwho came over with the conqueringarmyof SultanSelim
the Grim. However, it is difficultto say that there is any seriousTurkish
influencein Egypt today; the descendantsof many Turkishfamilies are
unableto speakTurkish.Halidalso mentionsthatsome ownersof cotton
fields possess dual Turkish and Egyptian nationality and, quoting a
This content downloaded from 165.123.34.86 on Fri, 18 Sep 2015 22:46:18 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

576

MIDDLE EASTERN STUDIES

Turkishproverb,suggeststhat theirTurkishlinksare only as strongas a


cotton thread. As opposed to this, the Fellahin, who comprisethe nonTurkishmajorityin Egypt, are and have alwaysbeen friendlyto Turkey.
Over the last 50 years the large increase in the number of English
administratorsand numerousother measureshave changedthe face of
Egypt. He suggestsan exchangeof universitystudentsand ends with a
plea for high-leveldiplomaticlinks between Egypt and Turkey.
In his concludingessay, Halil Halid points out that chargesthat the
ArabssufferedunderTurkishrule, or thatArabculturewasstifledby the
Turksare often falsely put out by politicalcharlatans.The truth, writes
Halid, is that there is a vast civilizationwhichtowersover and above any
local Turkishor Arabcivilization,whichis knownto hundredsof millions
of humanbeings underthe name of 'Islamiccivilization'.The Ottoman
Empire,like otherempiresin the East, wasfoundedby Turks,butwasan
Islamic empire. Arabs and Turks, while living in separate linguistic
domains, worked over the centuries for the same political aims. The
Turksvigorouslyaddedto the knowledgeaccumulatedby the Arabs;the
Arabiclanguageservedas an importantinstrumentin the developmentof
the spiritualcharacterof the Turks.Accordingto Halid, it is only in very
recent generationsthat excessive nationalisticzeal has resultedin conflictingapproaches.Foreign powers, of course, have sought to exploit
these differences,not withoutsuccess.At the end of the FirstWorldWar,
the Arab soldiers of Sherif Hussein, armed with English weapons,
brutallyattackedthe Turksreturningfrom the Arab lands to Anatolia.
The Arabs had been won over by propaganda,money and promisesof
independence,andforgotwho theirrealenemieswere. All they obtained
was a makeshiftthrone in Damascus, from where the French did not
hesitate to topple them. Today the Turks and the Arabs lie within
differentfrontiers.However,the reasonsfor theirgettingalongbetteras
neighboursare more powerfulthan ever before.
In concluding,HalilHalidmentionsthatforover 30 yearsin Europe,in
Egyptand in Turkey,by his writingshe has been wavingthe Turkishflag
anddefendingthe Turkishcausein responseto hisown conscience,andin
no official capacity. His essays have been written to criticize British
imperialistaimsand actions,andnot the Britishnationor anyindividual.
In fact, he has lived long years among the Britishand is awareof their
level of knowledge, their disciplineand their social graces. He cautions
the Turksto be vigilantabouttheirnew foundfreedomobtainedby blood
and fire on the battlefield.It is not unlikely,he says, that there still exist
personswho grudgeTurkeythe small land salvagedby her from a huge
empire. Furthermore,Turkey'sreputationin the New World is lower
than that of unimportantEuropean states. In America, accordingto
This content downloaded from 165.123.34.86 on Fri, 18 Sep 2015 22:46:18 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

HALiL HALID: ANTI-IMPERIALISTMUSLIMINTELLECTUAL

577

Halid, any mudslinger can write whatever he wishes about Turkey


without fear of action or even contradiction.As it is inevitable that
Americaninterestin other countrieswill increasewith time, Halidinsists
that it is necessaryto be able to change the Americanimage of Turkey
and the Turks, which is but a hangoverfrom the British imperialistic
view.
From the above appraisalof his life and works, it may be observedthat
Halil Halid certainlydeservesnot only to be better knownbut also to be
givena placeof honourin the intellectualhistoryof the MiddleEast in the
firstquarterof the twentiethcentury.Severalof the anti-imperialistand
anti-colonialistideas that became familiarin later politicalstrugglesfor
the independenceof vastsubjugatedareasin Asia andAfricawere clearly
enunciatedby him. HalilHalidcomes acrossas a stout-heartedMuslim,a
patrioticTurk,a shrewdpoliticalobserver,anda culturedwriterof power
and integritywith an excellent facilityof expressionin English, Turkish
andFrench.He is well travelledandwell read,proudof his heritage,has a
profound grasp of history, and is impatientwith the imperialism(primarilyof Britainand France)that he knowsand feels mustperish. In all
his writings,Halid's tone is serious, scholarlyand didactic. He is never
virulentor unfair,andneverabandonshis hope for the independenceand
progressof the nationsof Islam.Whatis interestingis thatalthoughmore
than half a century has passed since Halil Halid's death, many of his
observationsretaintheir sharpnessand pertinence:new actorsand new
scenarioshave indeedappearedon the imperialiststage, but the worldof
Islamis still weak and disunited,andfar fromthe level of awarenessand
developmentfor the realizationof which he waged his lone and weary
struggle.The map of the worldmay continuallysee new boundariesand
borders, but age-old prejudicesencounteredby the Turksat the European interfaceare perhapsas potent as in Halil Halid's time.
A significantpart of Halil Halid's life was spent outside Turkey in
common with many Young Turkswho fell foul of the rule of the sultan
Abdul Hamid. Halil Halid considered the leader of the intellectual
opposition to the sultan, Ahmed Riza Bey, as a friend and mentor.
However, his wide circle of acquaintancesextended from North Africa
and Europe in the west to the Indian subcontinentin the east; from
E.J.W. Gibb and SirThomasArnold32
to the Aga Khan33
and to Maulana
MohammadAli. Halid also exchangedletters (not alwayscordial)with
well known Muslimssuch as Syed Ameer Ali.34
Halil Halid'sextensivetravelsboth in Islamiclands and in the centres
of European power made it possible for him to predict even at the turn of
This content downloaded from 165.123.34.86 on Fri, 18 Sep 2015 22:46:18 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

578

MIDDLE EASTERN STUDIES

the century that sooner or later the Ottomanswould face a grim and
bloody strugglewith imperialisticforces bent on a 'finalsolution'of the
Eastern question.
NOTES
It wouldbe cumbersometo namethe verymanypersonsuponwhomI haveimposedin my
quest for informationon Halil Halid. However,I wouldlike to recordmy indebtednessto
my late father, ProfessorS.M. JamilWastiand to the late SenatorDr Fethi Tevetoglu.
1. E. E. Ramsaur, Jr., The Young Turks [Prelude to the Revolution of 1908] (Princeton

UniversityPress, 1962), p. 93.


2. Feroz Ahmad, The Young Turks(OxfordUniversityPress, 1968), p. 190.

3. Serif Mardin, The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought (Princeton University Press

1962), p. 416.
4. Halil Halid, The Diary of a Turk,(London:Adam and CharlesBlack, 1903).
5. EdwardW. Said, Orientalism,VintageBooks (New York, 1979).
6. Fethi Tevetoglu (1916-89), Item in TurkAnsiklopedisi,Vol.18, 'Milli Egitim Basimevi', (Ankara, 1970), pp. 382-3.
7. Taha Toros, Gecmisten Gunimuze Turk-Ingiliz Iliskileri [Turkish-English Relations

from the Past to our Day], Part4, Milliyet,Istanbul,6 April 1988.TahaToros, Tirk
Dostu Iki Ingiliz Oryantalist ve Cambridge Universitesi'nde Bir Turk Profesor [Two

8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

13.
14.

15.

16.

EnglishOrientalistFriendsof Turkeyand a TurkishProfessorat CambridgeUniversity](Istanbul:Tarihve Toplum, 1984), pp.30811.


CambridgeUniversityReporter,No. 1386, Vol.XXXII, 28 Jan. 1902, p.475.
CambridgeUniversityReporter,No. 1408, Vol.XXXII, 10 June 1902, p.1030. Ibid.
No.1409, Vol.XXXII, 13 June 1902, p. 1048.
Ibid., No. 1902, Vol.XLII, 7 May 1912, p. 958.
EliasJohnWilkinsonGibb (1857-1901),famousorientalist,bornin Glasgow,scholar
of Turkishandauthorof the six-volumeHistoryof OttomanPoetry;mostvolumeswere
edited by E. G. Browne (q.v.) and publishedafter Gibb'sdeath.
EdwardGranvilleBrowne (1862-1926), Orientalistand writer who qualifiedas a
medicaldoctor at St. Bartholomew'sHospital, Londonin 1887but never practised;
Fellowof PembrokeCollege, CambridgeandSirThomasAdams'Professorof Arabic
in the Universityof Cambridge.Author of several books on Persia and Persian
Literature.
(erke Seyhizade Halil Halid, Mukaddeme[Introduction],A Historyof Ottoman
Poetry,Vol. VI, (London:Luzacand Co., 1909).
Elias John Wilkinson Gibb, A History Of Ottoman Poetry, Vols. I-VI. In the
Introductionto Volume I, Gibb names two friends for special thanks:CherkeshSheykhi-zadeKhalil Khalid Efendi, and Professor MuhammedBarakatullah(an
IndianMuslimscholar,now forgotten).It is to be noted that whereasthe Ottoman
scriptusedthe letterkh, HalilHalidusedthe letterh insteadof khwhenwritingin Latin
characters,thus renderinghis name as it is pronouncedin Turkish.
AbdiilhakHamid(1851-1937),a greatnamein Turkishliterature;poet, playwrightand
essayist;spentmanyyearsin the Ottomandiplomaticservice,andlateras a Memberof
Parliamentin the TurkishRepublic.He took the surnameTarhanwhenthe lawrelating
to surnameswas passedin 1934.
AbdiilhalimMemduh(1866-1905),a poet andwriterof the late nineteenthcentury,a
friendof the famouswriterHalid Ziya Usakligilwho refers to him in his memoirs.
Memduhwas exiled to Tripoli,KonyaandIzmirbecauseof the politicalcontentof his
writings.He escapedfromIzmirand spenta total of five yearsin Tunisia,Franceand
then England,where he died at an early age in Folkestone.His body was taken for

This content downloaded from 165.123.34.86 on Fri, 18 Sep 2015 22:46:18 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

HALIL HALID: ANTI-IMPERIALISTMUSLIMINTELLECTUAL

17.
18.

19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.

29.
30.
31.
32.

33.
34.

579

burialin Tunisiaat a locationthathe hadchosenearlier.Thereis a streetnamedafter


him in Istanbul.
Osman Nuri Ergin, TurkiyeMaarif Tarihi[Historyof Educationin Turkey], Eser
Matbaasi,(Istanbul,1977), Vol. 3-4, p. 1306.
Ahmed Ihsan (1868-1942)was the founderof the famousjournalcalled Servetifiinun
A close friendof Halil Halid and manyother writers,he
(later Uyanis-Servetifiinun).
was also a prolificwriterand translator,who also served as a deputyin the Turkish
parliament.He took the surnameTokgoz in 1934.The articlereferredto is Rahmetli
Halil HalitBey ve MisterGibbile MisterBrowne,Uyanl-ServetifiinunNo. 1807-122,
(Istanbul,1931).
HalilHalid,A Studyin EnglishTurcophobia(London:The Pan-IslamicSociety,1904).
Halil Halid, CezayirHaturatindan
[Some Reminiscencesof Algeria], (Cairo:Ijtihad
Press, 1906).
Halil Halid, The Crescentversusthe Cross, (London:Luzacand Co., (1907).
Halil Halid, BritishLabourand the Orient,(Bern: StaempfliPrintingPress, 1919).
HalilHalid,La TurcophobiedesImperialistes
Anglais,(Bern:StaempfliPrintingPress,
1919).
HalilHalid, TurkHakimiyetive Ingiliz Cihangirligi[TurkishSovereigntyand English
Imperialism],(Istanbul:Yeni Matbaasi1925).
Halil Halid, A Catalogueof the PrintedMuslimBooks in the CambridgeUniversity
Library,mentionedas 'unpublished'in the fly-leavesof n.21 above.
By somemistake,it appearsthatthe dedicationis to E.F.W. Gibb,whereasit shouldbe
E.J.W. Gibb.
The Halveti order of dervishesis a Sunniorder with a ritualbased on the repeated
invocationof the nameof Allah. It wasfoundedin the middleof the fourteenthcentury
by eyh Ebu AbdullahSeraceddin,anddevelopedby his discipleeyh OmerHalveti.
EbuzziyaTevfik(1849-1913),a famousOttomanwriter,lexicographerand publisher
of many useful books. He was exiled to Rhodes and Konyabecauseof his vigorous
opposition to Abdul Hamid, but returnedto Istanbulas Deputy for Antalya after
Abdul Hamidwas dethronedin 1909.
See the last scene of RichardII and the firstscene of King HenryIV, Part I.
MaulanaMohammadAli (1878-1938),IndianMuslimwriter,scholarandpolitician.A
fighterfor independencefrom the Britishand a staunchfriendof Turkeywho was a
pioneerof the KhilafatMovementforthe supportof Turkeyafterthe FirstWorldWar.
Sheikh MuhammadAbduh (1845-1905), a Egyptian religious scholar who was a
studentand discipleof JamaluddinAfghaniand who becameMuftiof Egyptin 1899.
SirThomasWalkerArnold(1864-1930),Arabicscholar,Professorof Philosophyat the
Universityof Aligarh(India)and, later,at the Universityof London;authorof several
books includingThe Preachingof Islam, which is one of the books translatedinto
Turkishby Halil Halid.
SultanSir MohammedShah, Aga Khan III (1877-1957), leader of the Ismailicommunity;led a delegationto Lord Minto in 1906on behalf of the Muslimsof India;
President,Leagueof Nationsin 1937;famed racehorseowner.
Syed Ameer Ali (1849-1928),IndianMuslimleader,firstIndianMemberof the Privy
Council, authorof TheSpiritof Islam and A Historyof the Saracens.

This content downloaded from 165.123.34.86 on Fri, 18 Sep 2015 22:46:18 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

You might also like